GANDHIITES AND SOCIALISTS: THE STRUGGLE FOE CONTROL OF THE INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS, 1931-1939-
by
Jam es C a r r o l l W ilso n
T h e s i s p r e p a r e d a t th e S c h o o l o f O r i e n t a l an d A f r ic a n S t u d i e s , s u b m itte d t o th e U n i v e r s i t y o f London f o r th e d e g re e o f D o c to r o f P h ilo s o p h y , 1977-
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' ABSTRACT
Jam es C a r r o l l W ils o n J MG a n d h i i t e s and S o c i a l i s t s : The S tr u g g le f o r C o n tr o l o f th e I n d i a n N a ti o n a l C o n g re s s , 1 9 3 1 -1 9 3 9 -”
D u rin g th e 1930s d i v e r s e e le m e n ts w i t h i n th e I n d i a n N a ti o n a l C o n g re s s , e a c h p r o f e s s i n g a b e l i e f i n th e t e n e t s o f w e s te r n s o c i a l i s m , com bined i n a s e r i e s o f a t t e m p t s t o s u p p la n t th e e s t a b l i s h e d l e a d e r s o f th e C o n g re s s — th e G a n d h ii te s . The G a n d h ii te s re s p o n d e d w ith an e f f o r t t o accommodate th e s o c i a l i s t s w i t h i n th e C o n g re ss a n d , s im u l
t a n e o u s l y , t o l i m i t t h e i r a b i l i t y t o change C o n g re s s p o l i c y . By th e en d o f th e 1 9 3 0 s, i t became o b v io u s t h a t s o c i a l i s m w as a f a c t o r i n C o n g re ss p o l i t i c s , n o t b e c a u se o f th e s t r e n g t h o f s o c i a l i s t p a r t i e s i n th e C o n g re s s , b u t b e c a u se s o c i a l i s m o f f e r e d d i s p l a c e d e le m e n ts i n th e C o n g re ss an o p p o r t u n i t y t o j o i n a n t i - G a n d h i i t e c o a l i t i o n s . S uch c o a l i t i o n s f a i l e d b e c a u s e o f th e p o l i t i c a l g e n iu s and a g i l i t y o f t h e i r G a n d h iite o p p o n e n ts and b e c a u s e o f th e l a c k o f a com m unity o f i n t e r e s t (b ey o n d th e w is h t o d i s p l a c e th e G a n d h ii te s ) among th e e le m e n ts o f th e c o a l i t i o n s .
C h a p te r one i s a n e x a m in a tio n o f th e d ev elo p m en t o f th e C o n g re ss c o n s t i t u t i o n a s an e v o lv in g m odel o f th e m a c h in e ry o f th e C o n g re ss a s th e G a n d h ii te s w is h e d i t t o b e . C h a p te r two i s a d i s c u s s i o n o f th e em ergence o f s o c i a l i s m i n th e C o n g re s s and o f th e w ays i n w hich s o c i a l i s t s w is h e d t o change th e C o n g re s s . C h a p te r s t h r e e and f o u r a n a ly z e th e d i f f e r e n t w ays i n w hich G a n d h ii te s and s o c i a l i s t s r e a c t e d t o B r i t i s h a t te m p t s t o re fo rm th e G overnm ent o f I n d i a . C h a p te r f i v e i s an a n a l y s i s o f p o in t s , o f d i f f e r e n c e i n th e C o n g re ss w hich a r o s e o v e r p o l i c i e s i n s t i t u t e d by th e G a n d h ii te s th r o u g h p r o v i n c i a l g o v ern m e n ts u n d e r t h e i r c o n t r o l . C h a p te r s i x i s an a n a l y s i s o f th e G a n d h iite p o l i c y o f n o n - i n t e r f e r e n c e i n th e p o l i t i c a l a f f a i r s o f th e p r i n c e l y s t a t e s and o f s o c i a l i s t r e a c t i o n t o t h a t p o l i c y . The s e v e n th and f i n a l c h a p t e r d i s c u s s e s th e e v e n t s w h ich l e d S u b h as Bose t o form an a n t i - G a n d h i i t e c o a l i t i o n i n 1939- The f a i l u r e o f B o s e 's F o rw ard B lo c m arked th e end o f a p h a se i n th e s o c i a l i s t c h a l le n g e t o G a n d h iite c o n t r o l o f th e I n d i a n N a ti o n a l C o n g re s s .
CONTENTS
A b s t r a c t 2
C o n te n ts 3
T a b le s k
A b b r e v ia tio n s 3
P r e f a c e 7
I The Fram ew ork o f G andh ian P o l i t i c s : th e
C o n g re ss C o n s t i t u t i o n , 1 92 0-3 9- 9
I I The Em ergence o f C o n g re ss S o c ia lis m and th e G a n d h iite R e a c tio n t o i t , 1 9 2 6 -3 6 .
I I I The L u re o f O f f i c e : C o n g re ss R e a c tio n t o B r i t i s h
R eform , 1 9 ^ 9 —3^+ • 69
IV The I s s u e o f O f f ic e A c c e p ta n c e , 1935-37* 91
V A n ti- G a n d h ii te s and C o n g re ss G o v ern m en ts, 1 9 3 7 -3 8 . 125 VI S o c i a l i s t s an d C o n g re ss P o l i c y T ow ards th e
P r i n c e l y S t a t e s , 1 9 3 ^ -3 8 . 153
V II S u bhas Bose and th e F o rw ard B lo c , J a n u a r y t o
A ugust 1939- 173
C o n c lu s io n s 228
B ib lio g r a p h y 232
TABLES
1 -1 : P o p u l a t i o n s o f C o n g re s s P r o v in c e s (1931 C e n s u s ) . 38 1 -2 : C o n g re s s M em bership (Lucknow , A p r i l 1 9 3 6 ). 39 1 -3 : C o n g re s s M em bership ( F a i z p u r , Decem ber 1 9 3 6 ). 40 1-*f: C o n g re s s M em bership ( H a r ip u r a , M arch 1 9 3 8 ). **1 1 -5 : C o n g re ss M em bership ( T r i p u r i , M arch 1 9 3 9 )- ^2 3 - 1 : The R esponse t o th e L ah o re R e s o l u t i o n . 72 3 - 2 : The R e s u l t s o f th e 193^ E l e c t i o n t o th e C e n t r a l
L e g i s l a t i v e A ssem bly 89
A -1 : A C om p arison o f C .S .P . and C o n g re s s R e s o l u t i o n s ,
F a i z p u r , December 1936. ' 110
k -2 : The R e s u l t s o f th e 1937 E l e c t i o n t o th e
P r o v i n c i a l L e g i s l a t i v e A ssem bly. 112 -
7 - 1 : The C o n g re ss P r e s i d e n t i a l E l e c t i o n o f 1939* 195
ABBREVIATIONS AICG—A l l - I n d i a C o n g re s s C om m ittee AICSP- See CSP
AISA—A l l - I n d i a S p in n e r s A s s o c i a t i o n
AISPC—P a p e r s o f th e A l l - I n d i a S t a t e s P e o p le s C o n fe re n c e AITUC—A l l - I n d i a T rad e U n io n C o n g re s s
AIVIA—A l l - I n d i a V i l l a g e I n d u s t r i e s A s s o c i a t i o n AP—A s s o c i a te d P r e s s
CAB—C a b in e t O f f ic e P a p e r s , P u b l i c R eco rd O f f ic e CD— C i v i l D is o b e d ie n c e
CID—C r im in a l I n v e s t i g a t i o n D i v is io n ( o r B u re a u ) CP— C e n t r a l P r o v in c e s
CPB—C o n g re ss P a r li a m e n t a r y B o ard C P I— Communist P a r t y o f I n d i a CSP—C o n g re ss S o c i a l i s t P a r t y
CWMG—C o lie c t e d Works o f Mahatma G andhi FR—F o r t n i g h t l y R e p o rt
G o l—G overnm ent o f I n d i a Home—Home D ep artm en t
Home P o l —P r o c e e d in g s o f th e P o l i t i c a l B ran ch o f th e Home D ep artm en t o f th e G overnm ent o f I n d i a , i n th e I n d ia n N a ti o n a l A rc h iv e s IAR— I n d ia n A nnual R e g i s t e r ( I n d i a n Q u a r t e r l y R e g i s t e r )
ICG— I n d ia n C o n c i l i a t i o n Group IC S— I n d ia n C i v i l S e r v ic e INA— I n d ia n N a ti o n a l A rc h iv e s INC— I n d i a n N a ti o n a l C o n g re ss IOR— I n d i a O f f ic e R e c o rd s
L/P& J—P r o c e e d in g s o f th e S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e f o r I n d i a , P u b l i c and J u d i c i a l D e p a rtm e n t S e r i e s , I n d i a O f f ic e R e c o rd s
L/P&S—P r o c e e d in g s o f th e S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e f o r I n d i a , P o l i t i c a l an d S e c r e t D e p a rtm e n t S e r i e s , I n d i a O f f ic e R e c o rd s
LRC—L eague o f R a d ic a l C ongressm en ( " R o y i s t s " ) MLA--Member o f a L e g i s l a t i v e A ssem bly
MLC—Member o f a L e g i s l a t i v e C o u n c il
MPCC—Madhya P r a d e s h C o n g re s s C om m ittee P a p e r s ( c o n t a i n f i l e s o f th e M ahakoshal C o n g re s s C om m ittee)
NMML—N ehru M em orial Museum. an d L i b r a r y NWFP—N o rth W est F r o n t i e r P r o v in c e PCC—P r o v i n c i a l C o n g re s s C om m ittee PS—P r i v a t e S e c r e t a r y
PSC—P a r l i a m e n t a r y S ub-C om m ittee o f t h e W orking C om m ittee PSV—P r i v a t e S e c r e t a r y o f th e V ic e ro y
ETC—Round T a b le C o n fe re n c e
SoS—S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e f o r I n d i a TUC— See AITUC
UP—U n ite d P r o v in c e s
PREFACE
" G a n d h iite s " i n th e t i t l e i s m eant t o enco m pass C o n g re s s l e a d e r s who p r o f e s s e d a b e l i e f i n th e t e n e t s o f G an d h ian p h ilo s o p h y an d who w an ted ( o r - s a i d th e y w a n te d ) th e C o n g re s s t o a d o p t p o l i c i e s w h ich w ere c o n s i s t e n t w ith t h a t p o l i t i c a l p h il o s o p h y . " S o c i a l i s t s "
i n th e t i t l e i s m eant t o encom pass C o n g re s s l e a d e r s who p r o f e s s e d a b e l i e f i n th e t e n e t s o f we s t e r n s o c i a l i s m an d who w a n te d ( o r s a i d th e y w a n te d ) th e C o n g re ss t o a d o p t p o l i c i e s w h ic h w ere c o n s i s t e n t w ith s o c i a l i s m . I do n o t i n t e n d t h e te rm s t o be m u t u a ll y e x c l u s i v e n o r t o be i n c l u s i v e o f a l l C o n g re s s l e a d e r s . J a w a h a r l a l N eh ru , f o r i n s t a n c e , seem ed f i r s t t o be w o rk in g i n th e i n t e r e s t o f one g ro u p an d th e n i n t h e i n t e r e s t o f th e o t h e r . At tim e s he m ig h t h av e b e e n c a l l e d a
" G a n d h i i t e ," a t tim e s a " s o c i a l i s t , " and a t o t h e r tim e s n e i t h e r one a t a l l . C. R a j a g o p a la c h a r i m ig h t seem t o h av e b e e n th e m ost f a i t h f u l o f G a n d h i’ s p o l i t i c a l d i s c i p l e s , b u t he o p p o se d t h e p o l i c i e s e s p o u s e d by th e m a j o r i t y o f " G a n d h iit e s " when he f e l t i t i n th e i n t e r e s t o f h i s c o n s t i t u e n c y t o do s o . G andhi h im s e lf seem ed i n c o n s i s t e n t i n th e a p p l i c a t i o n o f h i s p h ilo s o p h y .
N o th in g h e r e i n i s m eant t o s u g g e s t t h a t t h e i d e o l o g i c a l b e l i e f s o f th e C o n g re ss l e a d e r s w ere l i g h t l y h e l d o r l i t t l e v a l u e d . B u t i t seem s i n d i s p u t a b l e t h a t c e r t a i n l o c a l l y - p o w e r f u l C o n g re s s l e a d e r s
s u p p o r te d G an d h ian p h ilo s o p h y when i t s u i t e d t h e i r p o l i t i c a l n e e d s , a n d , when t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e i r p o l i t i c a l n e e d s c h a n g e d , th e y s u p p o r te d s o c i a l i s t d o c t r i n e s w h ich seem ed i n d i r e c t c o n t r a d i c t i o n o f G an d h ian p h ilo s o p h y . I t i s e a s y an d e m o tio n a l ly s a t i s f y i n g t o s a y t h a t a l l p o l i t i c i a n s a r e v e n a l , i d e o l o g i c a l l y p r o m is c u o u s , an d s e l f - s e e k i n g . E a s y , p e r h a p s , b u t i t i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y h e l p f u l t o an a n a l y s i s o f th e c o n s t i t u e n t e le m e n ts o f a com m unity o f p o l i t i c i a n s t o assum e t h a t p o l i t i c i a n s a r e e t h i c a l l y a p a r t from th e s o c i e t i e s th e y r e p r e s e n t . I hope I have n o t done s o .
T h ere have b e e n a num ber o f s t u d i e s made i n t h e l a s t few y e a r s o f th e p o l i t i c s o f th e I n d ia n in d e p e n d e n c e movement i n th e d eca d e p r e c e d in g th e S econd W orld War. My u n d e r s ta n d i n g o f th e way i n w h ich
th e C o n g re ss f u n c t i o n e d , o f th e r o l e o f s o c i a l i s t p a r t i e s i n t h e C o n g re s s , an d o f I n d ia n p o l i t i c s i n g e n e r a l d u r in g th e p e r i o d w as much e n h a n c e d by a num ber o f t h e s e w o rk s. I w ould p a r t i c u l a r l y m e n tio n : B .R . T o m lin s o n ';
" N a tio n a lis m and I n d i a n P o l i t i c s : th e I n d i a n N a t i o n a l C o n g re s s ,
(PhD t h e s i s , C am b rid g e, 197*0? D.D. T a y l o r ’ s " I n d i a n P o l i t i c s a n d t h e E l e c t i o n s o f 1937" (PhD t h e s i s , L ondon, 1 9 7 2 ); Thomas A. B u s c h 's
"The B ole o f t h e C o n g re s s S o c i a l i s t P a r t y i n th e I n d i a n N a ti o n a l C o n g r e s s , 1 9 3 1 -^ 2 " (PhD t h e s i s , C h ic a g o , 1 9 3 3 ); an d Z a r e e r M a s a n i's
" B a d ic a l N a tio n a lis m i n I n d i a , 1 9 3 1 -^ 2 : th e B ole o f th e A l l I n d i a C o n g re s s S o c i a l i s t P a r t y " (PhD t h e s i s , O x fo rd , 1 9 7 6 ). I f I hav e b e e n a b l e t o c a r r y th e e n q u i r y any f u r t h e r , i t i s due t o t h e i r w ork a n d due t o th e w ork o f o t h e r s .
I c a n n o t a d e q u a te l y th a n k n o r i n d i v i d u a l l y m e n tio n th e many f r i e n d s a n d f e ll o w s t u d e n t s o f S o u th A sia n H i s t o r y who have g iv e n f r e e l y o f t h e i r ti m e , e x p e r t i s e , and e n c o u ra g e m e n t and have h e l p e d me more th a n th e y r e a l i z e . I am g r a t e f u l t o t h e l i b r a r i a n s , a r c h i v i s t s , and s t a f f o f t h e f o ll o w i n g r e s e a r c h i n s t i t u t i o n s : i n London: t h e l i b r a r y an d th e C e n tre o f S o u th A s ia n S t u d i e s o f th e S c h o o l o f O r i e n t a l and A f r ic a n S t u d i e s , th e I n d i a O f f ic e L i b r a r y an d B e c o rd s , th e B r i t i s h L i b r a r y , ‘th e l i b r a r y o f th e B e l i g i o u s S o c i e t y o f F r i e n d s , an d th e P u b l i c B eco rd O f f i c e ; i n E d in b u rg h : th e S c o t t i s h B eco rd O f f i c e ; i n C am b rid g e: th e C e n tre o f S o u th A s ia n S t u d i e s ; i n New .D e lh i: th e N ehru M em orial Museum an d L i b r a r y , an d th e I n d i a n N a ti o n a l A r c h iv e s .
I p r o b a b ly w o uld n o t have b e e n a b le t o v i s i t New D e lh i w ith o u t th e i n t e r c e s s i o n o f P .B . M e h e h d ir a tta , th e D i r e c t o r o f t h e A m erican I n s t i t u t e o f I n d i a n S t u d i e s i n t h a t c i t y . He i s a t r u e f r i e n d o f
s c h o l a r s h i p . I am g r a t e f u l t o t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f London C e n t r a l B e s e a rc h Fund f o r a g r a n t w h ic h h e lp e d t o d e f r a y th e c o s t o f num erous t r i p s t o C am b rid g e. F o r many h e l p f u l i n s i g h t s g a in e d i n d i s c u s s i o n s w ith th em , my th a n k s t o K e n n e th B a l l h a t c h e t and D avid T a y lo r o f th e S c h o o l o f O r i e n t a l and A f r i c a n S t u d i e s , B .B . T o m lin so n o f W o lfso n C o ll e g e ,
C am b rid g e, an d J . P . Sharm a o f th e U n i v e r s i t y o f H a w a ii. Of B .N . P a n d e y , my a d v i s o r , m e n to r a n d f r i e n d , I w o uld o n ly s a y he made me w ork h a r d e r th a n I th o u g h t I c o u ld and do more th a n I th o u g h t w as p o s s i b l e . He s h o u ld r e c e i v e much o f t h e c r e d i t f o r a n y th in g o f v a lu e h e r e i n . L a s t l y , I w ant t o th a n k my f a m i ly B o s e t t a , E a e , M ary, an d E r i k a , who a lw a y s a c t e d a s i f t h i s r e c l u s i v e s t u d e n t w ere u n f a i l i n g l y k i n d , t h o u g h t f u l , an d a t t e n t i v e . I know he w as n o t .
CHAPTER I
The Fram ew ork o f G an d h ian P o l i t i c s : The C o n g re ss C o n s t i t u t i o n , 1920-39*
Sam uel J o h n s o n i s su p p o se d t o have s a i d , w h ile w a lk in g w ith a f r i e n d i n t h e S t r a n d , " I d o n 't l i k e t o s p e a k i l l o f a man b e h in d h i s b a c k , b u t I t h i n k t h a t f e ll o w u p t h e r e i s a l a w y e r . " W ith due a p o l o g ie s t o D r. J o h n s o n , M ohandas G andhi w as a la w y e r , an d w h at i s p e r h a p s w o rs e , he was a p o l i t i c i a n . Some i n s i g h t i n t o G a n d h i's g e n iu s a s a la w y e r and p o l i t i c i a n c a n be g a in e d th r o u g h an e x a m in a tio n o f t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n o f t h e I n d ia n N a t i o n a l C o n g re s s a s i t d e v e lo p e d u n d e r th e i n f l u e n c e o f G andhi and h i s p o l i t i c a l d i s c i p l e s .
The G a n d h iite l e a d e r s o f t h e C o n g re s s —M ohandas G a n d h i, V a lla b h b h a i P a t e l , R a je n d r a P r a s a d , C. R a j a g o p a l a c h a r i , e t a l . — f a c e d c o n t i n u i n g c h a l l e n g e s from v a r i o u s g ro u p s an d i n d i v i d u a l s who w a n te d , th e m s e lv e s , t o c o n t r o l t h a t o r g a n i z a t i o n . The C o n g re s s w as, a s a r e s u l t o f i t s " a l l - I n d i a " a s p i r a t i o n s , n o t a b l e f o r th e d i v e r s i t y o f th e v ie w s o f i t s m em bers. By th e summer o f 193*N f a c t i o n s w i t h i n th e C o n g re s s i n c lu d e d a v a r i e t y o f p r e s s u r e g ro u p s r a n g in g from th o s e who m o r e - o r - l e s s a c c e p te d B r i t i s h p o l i c y t o th o s e who demanded i t s r e j e c t i o n , an im m ed iate an d o pen b r e a k w ith th e R a j, and a r a d i c a l r e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e I n d i a n economy a lo n g M a r x i s t - s o c i a l i s t l i n e s .
The G a n d h i i t e s h a d , s i n c e t h e i r r i s e t o p ro m in en ce i n th e e a r l y 1 9 2 0 s, a tte m p te d t o c r e a t e o f th e C o n g re s s a n o r g a n i z a t i o n t h a t w as b o th h i g h l y d i s c i p l i n e d an d accom m odating o f d iv e r g e n t i d e o l o g i e s . G andhi sp ok e o f a m illio n -m e m b e r C o n g re s s a t a tim e when i t was n o t o n e - t e n t h t h a t l a r g e , y e t he s im u l ta n e o u s l y a d v o c a te d d r a s t i c c u t s i n th e s i z e o f th e C o n g re s s e x e c u t i v e b o d i e s . The s a l t s a t y a g r a h a o f 1930 and.
th e c i v i l d is o b e d i e n c e movement o f 1 9 32 -33 h ad d e m o n s tr a te d th e o r g a n i z i n g c a p a c i t y o f t h e C o n g re s s u n d e r G a n d h iite l e a d e r s h i p . B u t th e w an in g o f e n th u s ia s m i n th e w i n t e r o f 1933- 3*+ e x a c e r b a te d th e l e f t - r i g h t d i v i s i o n s i n th e C o n g re s s . G an dh i h ad a p l a n f o r th e r e v i t a l i z a t i o n o f C o n g re ss d i s c i p l i n e , w h ich he an n o u n ced i n w h at w a s, f o r him , a t y p i c a l l y d r a m a tic m an n er.
On 18 S e p te m b e r 193*+ th e I n d i a n n e w s p a p e rs c a r r i e d a lo n g s t a t e m ent by th e M ahatm a. I t w as t r u e h e .w a s c o n te m p la tin g " s e v e r i n g a l l p h y s i c a l c o n n e c tio n w ith th e C o n g r e s s ." B ut some o f h i s f r i e n d s on th e
10
W orking C om m ittee h ad p e r s u a d e d him t o w a i t u n t i l a f t e r th e C o n g re ss s e s s i o n i n O c to b e r . He w ould t h e n d i s c o v e r w h e th e r he was r e a l l y w a n te d by s e e in g how C ongressm en w ould th e n v o te on a few p r o p o s a ls he in te n d e d t o p la c e b e f o r e th em . I n h i s s t a t e m e n t , G andhi d i s c u s s e d w h at he te rm e d h i s d i f f e r e n c e s w i t h ’’i n t e l l e c t u a l l y - m i n d e d C o n g re ssm e n .”
He d id n o t f a u l t t h e i r p e r s o n a l l o y a l t y , b u t he d i d n ' t w an t p e r s o n a l l o y a l t y t o b in d them t o a p ro g ram th e y d id n o t b e l i e v e i n . P e r h a p s h i s s u p p o r t o f th e c h a r k h a ( s p i n n i n g w h e e l) i n th e f a c e o f t h e i r r e s i s t a n c e t o i t was h y p o c r i t i c a l , he s a i d :
N e v e r th e le s s my c o n v i c t i o n i s g ro w in g t h a t i f I n d i a i s t o w in c o m p le te in d e p e n d e n c e i n te rm s o f th e t o i l i n g m i l l i o n s and th r o u g h u n a d u l t e r a t e d n o n - v i o l e n c e , th e s p in n in g w h eel and k h a d i have t o be a s n a t u r a l t o th e e d u c a te d few a s t o th e p a r t i a l l y unem ployed an d s e m i - s t a r v e d m i l l i o n s . . . The rem o v a l o f th e k h a d i c l a u s e i n th e c o n s t i t u t i o n w o u ld mean a rem o v al o f th e l i v i n g l i n k b e tw e e n th e C o n g re s s an d th e
m i l l i o n s whom i t h a s from i t s i n c e p t i o n s o u g h t t o r e p r e s e n t . . * G andhi s a i d he w elcom ed th e f o r m a tio n o f th e ’’S o c i a l i s t G roup"
b u t he c o u ld n o t s u p p o r t t h e i r p ro g ra m s a s " p u b lis h e d i n t h e i r
a u t h o r i z e d p a m p h le ts ." He v/ould n o t u s e h i s m o ra l p r e s s u r e t o s u p p r e s s t h e i r i d e a s , b u t he d id s a y he c o u ld n ’ t s t a y i n th e C o n g re s s i f th o s e i d e a s g a in e d a s c e n d a n c y t h e r e . N o n -v io le n c e m ig h t be th e p o l i c y o f th e m a j o r i t y o f C o n g ressm en , b u t , s a i d G a n d h i, i t was a fu n d a m e n ta l c r e e d w ith him : " A ll I w an t t o s a y i s t h a t o u r s h a s n o t b e e n u n a d u l t e r a t e d n o n - v io le n c e i n t h o u g h t , w ord and d e e d ." A f t e r im p ly in g t h a t h i s w o u ld -b e f o l l o w e r s d i d n o t u n d e r s ta n d th e Ichaddar p ro g ra m , th e n e e d s o f th e p e a s a n t , o r t h e m ean in g o f n o n - v i o l e n c e , G an dh i s a i d he d o u b te d th e y u n d e r s to o d th e C o n g re s s c r e e d :
F o r me p o o rn a s w a ra j h a s an i n f i n i t e l y l a r g e r m eaning th a n co m p lete in d e p e n d e n c e , b u t e v e n p o o rn a s w a ra j i s n o t s e l f e x p l a in e d . No one m e an in g o r compound e x p r e s s i o n w i l l g iv e u s a m eaning w h ich a l l can u n d e r s ta n d . Hence on s e v e r a l o c c a s io n s I have g iv e n s e v e r a l d e f i n i t i o n s o f s w a r a j. I h o ld t h a t th e y a r e a l l h o p e l e s s l e y in c o m p le te e v e n when p u t t o g e t h e r , b u t I do n o t w is h t o l a b o u r t h i s p o i n t f u r t h e r .
F o r h i m s e l f , G and hi s a i d he w as c o n t e n t t o go o f f i n t o th e v i l l a g e s t o s p r e a d th e "m essage o f th e s p in n in g w h e e l" among H in d u s an d M u slim s. " I n t h i s an d v a r i o u s su c h o t h e r w ays I w o u ld lo v e to s e r v e th e C o n g re ss i n my own hum ble m a n n er, w h e th e r I am i n i t o r o u t s i d e . " He w ould l e t h i s f o l l o w e r s t e s t th e v a l i d i t y o f h i s id e a s
w ith o u t h i s p r e s e n c e , b u t b e f o r e l e a v i n g , G andhi s u g g e s te d a few c h a n g e s i n th e C o n g re ss c o n s t i t u t i o n w h ic h , he s a i d , w ould a llo w h i s id e a s t o be so t e s t e d .
G an d h i a s k e d t h a t th e w ords " l e g i t i m a t e and p e a c e f u l " i n th e C o n g re s s c r e e d ( s w a r a j by a l l l e g i t i m a t e and p e a c e f u l m eans) be
r e p l a c e d b y " t r u t h f u l and n o n - v i o l e n t . " I f C ongressm en t r u l y b e l i e v e d i n n o n - v io l e n c e th e y w o uld n o t b a l k a t t h e s e " u n e q u iv o c a l a d j e c t i v e s . "
S e c o n d ly , G an d h i w a n te d t o r e p l a c e t h e f o u r - a n n a f r a n c h i s e w ith th e r e q u ir e m e n t t h a t e a c h C o n g re ss member p r o v id e t o th e C o n g re s s 8000 f e e t o f h i s o r h e r own h a n d -s p u n y a r n e v e r y m onth: " I s i t to o much t o e x p e c t th e i n t e l l i g e n t s i a an d p r o p e r t i e d c l a s s e s t o r e c o g n iz e th e d i g n i t y o f l a b o u r i r r e s p e c t i v e o f th e m a t e r i a l b e n e f i t i t b r i n g s ? "
T h i r d l y , h e a s k e d t h a t o n ly h a b i t u a l w e a r e r s o f k h a d d a r who h a d b e e n on th e C o n g re s s r o l l s f o r s i x m onths p r i o r t o e l e c t i o n day be a llo w e d t o v o te i n C o n g re s s e l e c t i o n s .
G an d h i a l s o p r o p o s e d a d r a s t i c r e d u c t i o n i n th e s i z e o f t h e C o n g re s s s e s s i o n . He w a n te d n o t more t h a n 1000 d e l e g a t e s , o r one d e l e g a t e p e r 1000 C o n g re s s m em bers. To g e t a f u l l 1000-member d e l e g a t i o n w o u ld r e q u i r e a m illio n -m e m b e r C o n g re s s . G andhi s a i d he h a d no i n t e n t i o n o f d e p r i v i n g th e p e o p le o f t h e i r a n n u a l show— t h e r e w ou ld be am ple p r o v i s i o n f o r v i s i t o r s —h u t he w a n te d t o make th e C o n g re s s m ore e f f e c t i v e . "T rue d em ocracy i s n o t i n c o n s i s t e n t w ith a few p e r s o n s r e p r e s e n t i n g th e s p i r i t , . t h e hope and th e a s p i r a t i o n s o f th o s e whom t h e y c la im t o r e p r e s e n t . "1
G an d h i h a d o r i g i n a l l y p la n n e d t o p r e s e n t h i s c o n s t i t u t i o n a l am endm ents a s a r e s o l u t i o n w h ich he w ou ld t r e a t a s a m o tio n o f c o n fid e n c e i n h i s l e a d e r s h i p . T h a t i s , he w ould r e s i g n from th e
C o n g re s s i f th e am endm ents w ere n o t a c c e p te d by t h e a s s e m b le d d e l e g a t e s . R a j a g o p a l a c h a r i ( R a j a j i ) s u g g e s te d t h a t G andhi " r e s i g n " b e f o r e p r e s e n t i n g h i s new c o n s t i t u t i o n and le a v e i t t o th e members t o d e m o n s tr a te , by t h e i r a c c e p ta n c e o f t h e r e s o l u t i o n , t h e i r d e s i r e f o r h i s r e t u r n . G andhi a c c e p te d t h i s a d v i c e , p r i v a t e l y a g r e e d n o t t o form any new p a r t y o u t s i d e t h e C o n g r e s s , and c l e a r e d h i s p r e s s s ta t e m e n t w ith h i s l i e u t e n a n t s . He s a i d t h a t i f th e C o n g re s s r e j e c t e d th e G a n d h iite
1The f o r e g o i n g q u o t a t i o n s w ere ta k e n from T h e ' C o l l e c t e d Works o f Mahatma G a n d h i, 65 v o l s . (Ahmedabad, 1 9 5 8 -7 ? ) ( h e r e i n a f t e r CWMgT, v o l . 59? PP« 5-"12. F o r a M a r x i s t - s o c i a l i s t c r i t i q u e o f th e p r e s s s ta t e m e n t , s e e E .M .S . N am boodripad, The Mahatma an d th e Ism (New D e lh i , 1 9 5 9)? p . 6 6 . N am boodripad, a lo n g - t im e l e f t i s t l e a d e r from K e r a l a , g i v e s h i s o p in io n t h a t G andhi an n o u n ce d h i s r e t i r e m e n t a s a p lo y t o s t r e n g t h e n th e r i g h t w ing o f th e C o n g re s s and t o c h a n n e l th e f o r c e s o f s o c i a l i s m o n to a c o n t r o l l a b l e t r a c k u n d e r th e l e a d e r s h i p o f J a w a h a r l a l N eh ru .
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p ro g ram o u t l i n e d f o r i t , he e x p e c te d th e o t h e r l e a d e r s ( R a j a j i , P a t e l , P r a s a d , e t a l . ) t o j o i n him i n r e t i r e m e n t . B ut th e Mahatma made i t
c l e a r t h a t he d i d n ’t t h i n k t h a t w ou ld be n e c e s s a r y .2
At f i r s t , P a t e l w as r e l u c t a n t t o go a lo n g w ith t h i s s t r a t e g y , b u t G andhi managed t o b r i n g him a ro u n d . The Mahatma s a i d he c o u ld s e e no o t h e r way t o f o r c e th e r a n k and f i l e t o exam ine t h e i r f a i t h i n th e G a n d h iite p ro g ram . G an dh i s a i d he w o u ld n o t le a v e th e C o n g re s s u n t i l P a t e l and ’’th e o t h e r s ” p e r m i t t e d him t o g o . P a t e l , he s a i d , had a r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o a llo w t h e i r p ro g ram t o be t e s t e d . He a l s o im p lie d t h a t h i s o ld f r i e n d m ig h t t h i n k a b o u t h i s own f a i t h i n th e p ro g ram :
”To c l i n g t o th e m eans / t o pow er7 w ith o u t f a i t h i n i t o r t o f a i l t o a c t a c c o r d in g t o o n e ' s f a i t h —w h at a p i t i a b l e and f r i g h t f u l c o n d i t i o n t o be i n ! ” G andhi s a i d t h a t th e y h a d t o a c t , s i n c e o r d i n a r y C o n g re ss members h ad no f e e l i n g f o r th e d i s t i n c t i o n b etw ee n ’’t r u t h an d f a l s e h o o d ,
■2
v io l e n c e and n o n - v io l e n c e , k h a d i / a n d / c a l i c o . "
G andhi and h i s l i e u t e n a n t s h a d , s in c e 1920, b u i l t i n t o th e C o n g re ss c o n s t i t u t i o n a p e c u l i a r id io m , a la n g u a g e o f G an d h ian p o l i t i c s . The c o n c e p ts o f t r u t h , n o n - v i o l e n c e , k h a d d a r , and s w a ra j h a d i n G a n d h i's w r i t i n g ta k e n on a s e r i e s o f m e an in g s w h ic h , i t was im p lie d , w ere f u l l y u n d e r s to o d o n ly by th e M ahatma. To make t h e s e c o n c e p ts a p a r t o f th e c o n s t i t u t i o n was t o d e c l a r e how much G andhi was a p a r t o f th e C o n g re s s . G andhi s a i d t h a t i f C ongressm en w is h e d t o have h i s g u id a n c e th e y h a d t o f o llo w h i s p r e c e p t s . B ut t h e c o n v e rs e o f th e p r o p o s i t i o n i s a l s o f o r c e f u l l y im p lie d : I f th e y w a n te d ( o r c la im e d th e y w a n te d ) t o be g u id e d by G a n d h i’ s h ig h m o ra l p r e c e p t s — t r u t h , non v i o l e n c e , k h a d d a r , e t c . — th e y h a d t o a c c e p t G an dh ian d i s c i p l i n e . V ery few C ongressm en w ere w i l l i n g t o t r y t o do w ith o u t G and hi a f t e r th e s u c c e s s e s o f th e c i v i l d is o b e d ie n c e m ovem ent. I f s u c c e e d in g m eant k e e p in g G andhi and h i s p r e c e p t s , th e n t h a t was th e p r i c e th e C o n g re s s h a d t o p a y .
T h a t some C o n g re ss l e a d e r s f e l t en cum bered by t h e p a r a p h e r n a l i a o f G and hian p h ilo s o p h y i s r e v e a l e d i n a rem a rk made by J a w a h a r la l N ehru: " O fte n we d is c u s s e d h i s f a d s and p e c u l i a r i t i e s among o u r s e l v e s an d s a i d , h a lf - h u m o u r o u s ly , t h a t when S w a ra j came t h e s e f a d s m ust n o t be e n c o u r a g e d ."L
pG andhi t o R a j a j i , 3 S e p t 193^» P r a s a d P a p e r s , f i l e V II o f 1935-
■^Gandhi t o P a t e l , 19 Aug 193^1 CWMG, v o l . 3 8 , p p . 3 2 9 -3 0 . S l e h r u , A u to b io g ra p h y (L ondon, 1 9 3 6 ), p . 73-
13 The c o n s t i t u t i o n t h a t G andhi w an ted t o change was l a r g e l y h i s own c r e a t i o n . When he f i r s t jo i n e d th e C o n g re s s , i t w as a f a r
d i f f e r e n t o r g a n i z a t i o n t h a n th e one he came t o l e a d i n th e 1920s and 1 9 3 0 s. The a n n u a l t h r e e o r f o u r - d a y s e s s i o n s h ad more i n common w ith t h e t r a d i t i o n a l I n d i a n m e la th a n w ith a s e r i o u s p o l i t i c a l m e e tin g . 1 ^ ,5 8 2 d e l e g a t e s a t t e n d e d th e C o n g re s s s e s s i o n o f D ecem ber 1920 — th e 5 l a r g e s t s e s s i o n i n p r e - in d e p e n d e n c e I n d i a . When C o n g re s s w as n o t i n s e s s i o n , m ost o f i t s d a y - to - d a y b u s i n e s s w as l e f t t o a p a r t - t i m e s e c r e t a r y . I m p o r ta n t b u s i n e s s w as h a n d le d by in f o r m a l g r o u p in g s o f C o n g re s s l e a d e r s , r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f a f a i r l y s m a ll segm ent o f I n d i a ’ s p o p u l a t i o n , E n g l i s h - e d u c a t e d , u r b a n la w y e r s an d m i d d l e - c l a s s m e rc h a n ts w i t h few p o l i t i c a l c o n n e c tio n s i n r u r a l I n d i a .
The t h r u s t o f G an d h ian p o l i c y from h i s r e t u r n t o I n d i a d u r in g W orld War I w as t o make th e C o n g re s s i n t o a dynam ic in s tr u m e n t o f p o l i t i c a l c h a n g e . G a n d h i’ s view o f th e f a u l t s o f th e C o n g re s s a s e x p r e s s e d i n h i s p r e s s s ta t e m e n t o f S e p te m b e r 193^ shows a num ber o f p a r a l l e l s w ith h i s view o f t h e s i t u a t i o n i n 1920. I n b o th i n s t a n c e s G andhi p r e s s e d f o r c h a n g e s w h ich he f e l t w ould make th e C o n g re s s more d i s c i p l i n e d an d e f f i c i e n t a n d , a t th e same ti m e , more p o w e rfu l an d more r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f I n d i a ’ s p e a s a n t m a ss e s .
A f t e r d e m o n s tr a tin g th e p o t e n t i a l s t r e n g t h o f h i s n e w ly - d e v is e d s c ie n c e o f n o n - v i o l e n t n o n - c o o p e r a t io n and a f t e r r i s i n g t o a p o s i t i o n o f some p ro m in en ce i n th e I n d i a n N a t i o n a l C o n g re s s , G andhi a s k e d f o r an d was g iv e n p e r m i s s i o n t o c h a i r a com m ittee w h ich w ou ld s u g g e s t c h a n g e s i n th e C o n g re s s c o n s t i t u t i o n . T h is h ap p en e d a t th e December- 1919 s e s s i o n o f t h e C o n g r e s s . W r it in g a b o u t th e e v e n t some y e a r s l a t e r , G andhi s a i d he h a d t r i e d t o g e t th e C o n g re s s l e a d e r s B .G . T i l a k an d C .E . Das t o h e l p him d r a f t a new c o n s t i t u t i o n b u t t h a t e a c h h ad
a p p o in te d a s u b o r d in a t e t o th e c o m m itte e . T i l a k an d Das d e p u te d N .C . K e lk a r and I . B . S en t o lo o k a f t e r t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e i n t e r e s t s .
By m id -Ju n e G andhi h a d s e n t a p ro p o s e d d r a f t o f a new c o n s t i t u t i o n t o th e two o t h e r members of- th e c o m m itte e . G andhi s a i d he h a d a tte m p te d t o r e d u c e th e u n v /ie ld in e s s o f th e C o n g re s s s e s s i o n s w ith o u t r u i n i n g t h e i r s p e c t a c u l a r e f f e c t . He w a n te d t o k e e p th e s e s s i o n s p u b l i c b u t t o l i m i t th e num ber o f d e l e g a t e s t o 1000. 7 K e lk a r o b j e c t e d t o su c h
5_CWMG, v o l . 1 9 , p . 198.
L e a d e r , 7 J a n 1929-
^G andhi t o K e l k a r , / a b o u t 15 J u n 19207, CWMG, v o l . 17? P- ^ 8 7 .
1*f
a d r a s t i c r e d u c t i o n an d s u g g e s te d t h a t th e d e l i b e r a t i v e p h a s e o f th e s e s s i o n be c o n d u c te d away from th e c la m o r o f th e p u b l i c c ro w d s. B ut G and hi s a i d t h a t b o th h i s p r o p o s a l s w ere v e r y im p o r ta n t . He a s k e d K e lk a r t o a c c e p t th e p r i n c i p l e o f l i m i t i n g th e s i z e o f th e d e l e g a t i o n
i f n o t th e s p e c i f i c f i g u r e 1 0 0 0 , an d he a l s o s t r e s s e d h i s b e l i e f t h a t t h e p u b l i c s h o u ld a c t u a l l y s e e th e C o n g re ss d e b a t e s :
8
The w h /o le 7 C o n /g r e s s 7 m ust be d e l i b e r a t i o n an d d e m o n s tr a tio n a t th e same tim e . I f you d iv i d e th e tw o , th e d e m o n s tr a tio n
w i l l f a l l f l a t . The s p e c t a t o r s p ay t o w a tc h o u r a c t u a l d e b a t e s . . . When we have l i m i t e d t h e num ber o f d e l e g a t e s we c a r e f u l l y ro p e them i n and i s o l a t e them from th e v i s i t o r s .
The c o n s t i t u t i o n co m m ittee n e v e r a c t u a l l y m et a s a body b u t c a r r i e d on i t s d e l i b e r a t i o n s th r o u g h th e m a i l s . G a n d h i, i n h i s r e p o r t t o th e A .I .C .C . on 25 S e p te m b e r 192 0, n o te d t h a t th e members c o u ld n o t a g r e e , e v e n i n p r i n c i p l e , t o l i m i t th e s i z e o f th e C o n g re s s s e s s i o n . The i d e a w as G a n d h i's a l o n e , and th e o t h e r s f e l t t h a t e v e n th o u g h th e C o n g re s s was u n w ie ld y , i t s d e m o c r a tic c h a r a c t e r w ould be damaged by l i m i t i n g th e s i z e o f th e d e l e g a t i o n . 9 B ut G andhi p e r s i s t e d an d a t th e N agpur s e s s i o n (D ecem ber 1920). th e C o n g re ss a d o p te d w hat was l a r g e l y G a n d h i's c o n s t i t u t i o n .
G andhi im p lie d t h a t i t was im p lem en ted o n ly b e c a u s e h e „ h a d enou gh s u p p o r t from t h e m em bership t o o v e r r i d e th e d o u b ts o f th e
C o n g re s s l e a d e r s : " I t was c l e a r t o e v e ry o n e on th e p la tf o r m t h a t th e - p e o p le h a d ta k e n th e r e i n s i n t h e i r own h a n d s . The p l a tf o r m w ould g l a d l y h av e moved a t a s lo w e r p a c e ." 10 I n M arch 1921, i n a n a r t i c l e i n Young I n d i a , th e Mahatma t o l d h i s r e a d e r s t h a t th e new c o n s t i t u t i o n w as " i n i t s e l f c a l c u l a t e d t o l e a d t o s w a r a j . " I t e s t a b l i s h e d a d u l t s u f f r a g e s u b j e c t t o e a c h member s i g n i n g th e new C o n g re ss c r e e d —
" s w a r a jy a by a l l l e g i t i m a t e an d p e a c e f u l m ean s"— an d p a y in g a f o u r - a n n a m em bership f e e . G andhi s a i d he h o p ed th e C o n g re s s w o u ld be a b le t o r e g i s t e r 10 m i l l i o n members ( i t d id r e a c h a b o u t o n e - h a l f t h a t s i z e i n 1939) an d w ould in t r o d u c e th e s p in n in g w h e e l i n t o 2 m i l l i o n I n d ia n hom es.
o
G andhi t o K e lk a r , 2 J u l 1920, CWMG, v o l . 1 8 , p p . 3 - ^ - The b r a c k e t e d m a t e r i a l i s th e e d i t o r ' s r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f an in s e c t- d a m a g e d p a r t o f t h e m a n u s c r ip t.
I b i d . , p p . 2 8 8 -9 0 . G andhi was n o t th e f i r s t t o w ant t o l i m i t th e s i z e o f th e C o n g re ss d e l e g a t i o n s . As e a r l y a s 1 8 8 9 , t h e r e was a n a tte m p t t o l i m i t f u t u r e d e l e g a t i o n s t o 1000. A nnie B e s a n t, How I n d i a W rought f o r Freedom ( F a r id a b a d , 197^)* P«9^»
10 1 1 '
CWMG, v o l . 1 9 , p . 198. I b i d . , p . ^ 9 1 -2 .
The N agpur c o n s t i t u t i o n , a l th o u g h i t w as n o t e v e r y t h i n g G andhi w a n te d i t t o b e , i n s t i t u t e d a c o n s i d e r a b l e change i n th e s t r u c t u r e o f th e C o n g re s s . The s i z e o f th e a n n u a l s e s s i o n s was s e t a t 6000 i n s t e a d o f 1000. The A .I .C .C . was ex p an d ed t o 3 5 0 , b u t a f i f t e e n - m a n e x e c u t i v e , t h e W orking C o m m ittee, w as form ed t o c a r r y o u t th e d a y - to - d a y w ork o f th e C o n g re s s . T h e .C o n g re s s w as d iv i d e d i n t o tw e n ty -o n e p r o v i n c i a l c o m m itte e s , one f o r e a c h o f a new f o r m u l a t i o n o f l i n g u i s t i c a r e a s , w h ich w o u ld , f o r th e p u r p o s e s o f C o n g re s s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , r e p l a c e th e
o ld B r i t i s h a d m i n i s t r a t i v e d i v i s i o n s o f I n d i a . T h is and new m a c h in e ry t o c o o r d in a te C o n g re ss a c t i v i t i e s a t a l l l e v e l s h e lp e d t o make th e
C o n g re ss a body w h ich c o u ld in f l u e n c e a w ide s p e c tru m o f I n d i a n o p in i o n . I t w as no l o n g e r c o n f in e d t o d is c o u r s e w ith E n g l is h - s p e a k in g I n d i a n s . 12
D u rin g th e y e a r s a f t e r th e N agpur C o n g re ss G andhi e x p r e s s e d d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w ith c e r t a i n a s p e c t s o f th e c o n s t i t u t i o n . I n f a c t , m ost o f th e p r o p o s a l s he made i n S e p te m b e r 193^ h ad a l r e a d y b e e n p u t f o r t h by him a t some tim e o r o t h e r d u r in g th e p r e v io u s f o u r t e e n y e a r s . The s p in n in g f r a n c h i s e , th e s t r e n g t h e n i n g o f th e k h a d d a r c l a u s e , and th e f u r t h e r r e d u c t i o n i n th e s i z e o f th e C o n g re s s s e s s i o n an d o f th e A .I .C .C . w ere n o t new i d e a s f o r h i s f o l l o w e r s . N e i t h e r w ere h i s u l t i m a t a .
J a w a h a r l a l N ehru r e f e r r e d t o G andhi a s a l e a d e r w ith d i c t a t o r i a l t e n d e n c ie s and d e s c r i b e d an a d d r e s s G andhi gave t o a g ro u p o f M uslim C ongressm en i n 1920. They c o u ld th ro w him o u t , s a i d th e M ahatm a, b u t so lo n g a s th e y k e p t him a s t h e i r l e a d e r r th e y h ad t o a c c e p t h i s
c o n d i t i o n s , th e y h a d t o a c c e p t " d i c t a t o r s h i p " an d " m a r t i a l la w ." 13 The i n n e r c i r c l e o f G a n d h i’ s f o l l o w e r s , th e " o ld g u a rd " a s th e y so m etim es c a l l e d th e m s e lv e s , 1A j u s t i f i e d t h e s e m eth o d s by c la im in g t h a t G andhi
(an d t h u s th e y th e m s e lv e s ) spoke f o r th e i n a r t i c u l a t e m ass o f th e I n d ia n p e o p le . G andhi c o u ld q u i t e s e r i o u s l y sp e a k o f th e " s i l e n t an d u n e x p re s s e d p r e s s u r e o f m ass o p i n i o n ," 15 s i l e n t , one a s s u m e s , t o th o s e who d id n o t h ave G a n d h i’ s g i f t t o h e a r i t . B ut h i s s t a t e m e n t s on th e
12G andhi s a i d t h a t th e 1920 c o n s t i t u t i o n r e p r e s e n t e d h i s r e a l e n t r y i n t o th e r a n k s o f C o n g re s s l e a d e r s . B e fo re t h e n , he s a i d , he h a d , f o r th e m ost p a r t , f u n c ti o n e d a s a fu n d r a i s e r and " d r a f ts m a n ."
L e a d e r , 7 J a n 1929-
13N eh ru , A u to b io g ra p h y , p . k 6 . 1A
J . B . K r i p a l a n i , The I n d i a n N a t i o n a l C o n g re s s (Bombay, 1 9 ^ 6 ), P»58.
i 5cwmg, v o l . 3 9 , p . ^ 7 1 .
16
n a t u r e o f dem ocracy coulcl be c o n t r a d i c t o r y a n d so m etim es seem ed t o s h e d d o u b t on h i s b e l i e f i n th e wisdom o f m ass o p in io n : 16
Those who c la im t o l e a d t h e m a sse s m ust r e s o l u t e l y r e f u s e to be l e d by them , i f th e y w ant t o a v o id mob law an d d e s i r e
o r d e r e d p r o g r e s s f o r th e c o u n t r y . I b e l i e v e t h a t mere p r o t e s t a t i o n o f o n e ’ s o p in io n an d s u r r e n d e r t o th e m ass o p in io n i s n o t o n ly n o t en o u g h , b u t i n m a t t e r s o f v i t a l im p o r ta n c e , l e a d e r s m ust a c t c o n t r a r y t o th e m ass o f o p in io n i f i t d o e s n o t commend i t s e l f t o t h e i r r e a s o n .
G andhi sh e d f u r t h e r l i g h t on h i s view o f th e r e l a t i o n s h i p
b e tw e e n p o l i t i c a l l e a d e r s an d t h e i r c o n s t i t u e n t s i n h i s f i r s t a t te m p t s t o e s t a b l i s h a s p in n in g f r a n c h i s e i n th e c o n s t i t u t i o n . S p in n in g was a k e y p a r t o f G a n d h i’ s e n t i r e p ro g ra m . I n an a r t i c l e i n Young I n d i a , 5 Ju n e 1924, G andhi s u g g e s te d t h a t a l l members o f th e A .I .C .C . who d i d n o t b e l i e v e i n h i s p ro g ra m , who d i d n o t s p i n f o r o n e - h a l f h o u r p e r d a y , h a d l o s t to u c h w ith th e m a sse s an d s h o u ld r e s i g n . 17 On 29 Ju n e th e A .I .C .C . p a s s e d G a n d h i's r e s o l u t i o n r e q u i r i n g a l l C o n g re ss members t o " r e g u l a r l y s p i n f o r a t l e a s t a h a l f h o u r e v e r y day" and t o p r o v id e t o th e C o n g re ss 2000 y a r d s o f y a r n p e r m onth. 18 When he d e fe n d e d h i s r e s o l u t i o n b e f o r e th e A .I .C .C . m e e tin g , G andhi s a i d t h a t t h e i r a d o p tin g th e s p in n in g f r a n c h i s e w ould be an e x p r e s s i o n o f f a i t h i n him and i n th e n a t i o n : 19 •
What w i l l i t mean i f you m e re ly th ro w 2000 y a r d s o f y a r n a t me?. . . T h a t w ay, y a r n s e n t by one p e r s o n w i l l o n ly s e r v e f o r a ro p e
t o h ang me by . . . I w is h t o s e e you f i l l e d w ith su c h f a i t h and o n ly i f you h ave i t , s h o u ld you v o te i n my f a v o u r . Remember t h a t you have t o exam ine y o u r f a i t h , n o t m in e. What i s need ed i s y o u r f a i t h .
I n O c to b e r 1924 G a n d h i's f r i e n d C .F . Andrews e x p r e s s e d some d o u b ts a b o u t th e wisdom o f m aking s p in n in g a m a n d a to ry p a r t o f th e C o n g re s s p ro g ra m . W a s n 't i t s v o l u n t a r y n a t u r e one o f th e g r e a t s t r e n g t h s o f th e prog ram ? Y es in d e e d , s a i d G an d h i, h i s a p p e a l was
" a d d r e s s e d o n ly t o th o s e who b e l i e v e i n v o l u n t a r y s p in n in g a s an
a b s o l u t e n e c e s s i t y f o r t h e c o u n t r y . " S uch p e o p le w o u ld , th o u g h t G an d h i, hav e no r e a s o n n o t t o make i t a c o n d i t i o n o f j o i n i n g t h e i r own o r g a n i z a t i o n . Andrews s a i d t h a t G andhi w as g e t t i n g h i s s t e p s o u t o f s e q u e n c e . He s h o u ld f i r s t c o n v in c e i n d i v i d u a l C o n g re ss members t h a t s p in n in g was
16CWMG, v o l . 1 8 , p . 4 5 . 18I b id . , p. 267.
^ I b i d . , v o l . 2 4 , p . 1 9 1 .
^ I b i d . , p . 3 0 9 .
17
a good t h i n g an d th e n make i t a p a r t o f th e C o n g re ss p ro g ram . G andhi d id n o t a g r e e
You do n o t q u i t e r e a l i z e w hat th e C o n g re ss i s . Today i t h a p p e n s t o be an i l l - d e f i n e d an d d i s o r g a n i z e d i n s t i t u t i o n . T h ere i s much more i n i t th a n i s a p p a r e n t from i t s c o n s t i t u t i o n . I f th e C o n g re s s i s t o be a t r u l y d e m o c r a tic o r g a n i z a t i o n , i t s c o n s t i t u t i o n m u st be more d y n am ic, more h o n e s t . I t m ust more t r u l y f u l f i l t h e r e q u ir e m e n t s o f th e n a t i o n . We d o n ’ t n e e d m em bers.
When I s e c u r e d th e a c c e p ta n c e o f th e f o u r - a n n a f r a n c h i s e , I h ad hop ed t h a t t h e C o n g re s s w ould become a m ig h ty a s s e m b ly , b u t w o rk e rs w ere l a c k i n g . Our c o u n tr y to d a y i s a c o u n try o f i d l e r s an d
d re a m e rs . I r e f e r , n o t to th e dumb m i l l i o n s who a r e g r o a n in g u n d e r p o v e r t y and s l a v e r y , b u t t o o u r s e l v e s — th e s o - c a l l e d i n t e l l i g e n t s i a , th e t a l k e r s . How c an I eng ag e a l l t h e s e i n some k in d o f n a t i o n a l w ork e x c e p t th r o u g h th e s p in n in g w h eel?
I n w h at o t h e r m anner c o u ld th e C o n g re s s be made a p r a c t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n ? My hope i s t h a t t h i s w i l l come a b o u t by th e
2 , 0 0 0 - y a r d s - a - m o n th s p in n in g i d e a . As m a t t e r s s t a n d a t p r e s e n t , we have n o th i n g l i k e c o n c e r te d e f f o r t a t a l l . . . I aim a t
c o n c e n t r a t i n g a l l th e e n e r g y and e f f o r t on one t h i n g and o b t a i n i n g s u b s t a n t i a l r e s u l t s .
G and hi d i d n o t r e l y on th e h a r d s e l l t o a c h ie v e a l l o f h i s e n d s . A number o f C o n g re s s l e a d e r s who w ere n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y fo n d o f th e i d e a o f a s p in n in g f r a n c h i s e w a n te d th e C o n g re s s t o s u p p o r t t h e i r e f f o r t s t o g a in s e a t s i n t h e l e g i s l a t u r e fo rm ed u n d e r th e G overnm ent o f I n d i a A ct o f 1919* A lth o u g h G an dhi o b j e c t e d t o t h i s i d e a , he w as w i l l i n g to com prom ise. I n e a r l y November 192^-, S w a ra jy a P a r t y l e a d e r s M o t i l a l N ehru and C .R . Das came t o a n a g re e m e n t w ith th e Mahatma on w hat came t o be c a l l e d th e C a l c u t t a p a c t . He a g r e e d t o s u sp e n d th e n o n - c o o p e r a t i o n movement th e n i n p r o g r e s s an d t o s u p p o r t S w a ra jy a P a r t y e f f o r t s i n th e n e x t e l e c t i o n s . They a g r e e d t o th e r e p e a l o f th e f o u r - a n n a f r a n c h i s e ( a r t i c l e 7 o f th e c o n s t i t u t i o n ) and t o th e s u b s t i t u t i o n o f th e s p in n in g f r a n c h i s e . They d i d , h o w ev er, a s k f o r a q u a l i f i c a t i o n : Those who, from ’’i l l n e s s , u n w i l l i n g n e s s o r an y s u c h c a u s e , " w ere u n a b le t o s u p p ly t h e i r own h a n d -s p u n y a r n c o u ld c o n t r i b u t e y a r n sp u n by any o t h e r p e r s o n .21
I n s h o r t o r d e r th e A .I .C .C . a p p ro v e d o f th e a g re e m e n t, 22 and th e n e x t C o n g re s s s e s s i o n (B elg aum , D ecem ber 192^f) made th e r e q u i r e d change i n t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n . 23 B u t w i t h i n a few m onths G andhi h ad t o a d m it t h a t th e C o n g re s s h a d n o t ta k e n t o h i s i d e a a s w h o le - h e a r t e d ly a s he h ad h o ped i t w o u ld . I n A p r i l 1923 He s a i d he r e a l i z e d t h a t i t
20C o n v e r s a tio n b e tw e e n G and hi and A ndrew s a s r e c o r d e d by Mahadev D e s a i, 15 O ct 192*f, i b i d . , v o l . 2 5 , p p . 2 3 0 -3 6 .
^ I b i d . , p p . 288- 9 . ^ I b i d . , p p . 351-3*
^ I b i d . , p . J+9 2 .
h a d become common p r a c t i c e f o r C o n g re s s o r g a n i z a t i o n s t o a c c e p t money i n l i e u o f y a r n f o r m e m b e rsh ip s. He seem ed r e s i g n e d to l o s i n g on th e i s s u e . The s p i r i t o f th e a r t i c l e , he s a i d , r e q u i r e d th e C o n g re s s t o " c a t e r an d c a n v a s s f o r o n ly s e l f - s p i n n i n g m em b ers," b u t he knew t h a t t h i s m ig h t n o t be p o s s i b l e . He h a d a t l e a s t w an ted C o n g re s s members t o " ta k e th e t r o u b l e o f know ing good h a n d -s p u n y a r n from b ad and p u r c h a s in g i t . " 2k
The f o u r - a n n a f r a n c h i s e w as r e i n t r o d u c e d by th e A .I .C .C . on 22 S ep te m b e r 1925? s p in n in g w as k e p t a s an a l t e r n a t i v e . The v o te on th e r e s o l u t i o n w as 93 t o 7- The same m e e tin g gave G andhi p e r m is s io n t o form a b o d y , u n d e r th e a e g i s o f t h e C o n g re s s b u t in d e p e n d e n t o f i t , w h ich w ould prom o te s p in n in g w ith o u t t a k i n g p a r t i n C o n g re ss p o l i t i c s .23 T h u s, th e A l l - I n d i a S p in n e r s A s s o c i a t i o n came i n t o b e i n g .
G a n d h i’ s n e x t p ro p o s e d change i n th e c o n s t i t u t i o n w as t o r e q u i r e members t o w ear k h a d d a r h a b i t u a l l y — t h e 1920 c o n s t i t u t i o n r e q u i r e d them t o w ear k h a d d a r w h ile on C o n g re s s b u s i n e s s . The G a u h a ti C o n g re s s
(D ecem ber 1926) d e c id e d t o make th e h a b i t u a l w e a rin g o f k h a d d a r a
r e q u ir e m e n t f o r v o t i n g i n any C o n g re s s e l e c t i o n o r h o ld i n g any C o n g re s s o f f i c e , 26 b u t , l i k e th e s p in n in g f r a n c h i s e , th e m a n d a to ry w e a rin g o f k h a d d a r p ro v e d n o t t o be a c o m p le te s u c c e s s . I n Ju n e 1927? i n r e s p o n s e t o a d e c l i n e i n C o n g re ss e n th u s ia s m f o r th e m e a s u re , G andhi w ro te t h a t k h a d d a r , i f i t w as th e f o r c e he b e l i e v e d i t t o b e , w ould p r o s p e r w h e th e r o r n o t th e C o n g re s s a c c e p te d i t . He a s k e d C o n g re s s members t o k e e p i t o n ly i f th e y b e l i e v e d i n i t and i f th e y th o u g h t th e m a sse s1 b e l i e v e d i n i t : " . . . C o n g re s s c a n n o t p o s s i b l y ta k e up t h i n g s m e re ly b e c a u s e t h e y a r e go od . I t c a n ta k e up t h i n g s t h a t a r e g o o d , p r o v id e d th e y h av e p o p u la r b a c k i n g ."27
The A .I .C .C . r e c e i v e d a num ber o f c o m p la in ts from C o n g re ss
members who c la im e d t h a t l o c a l b o s s e s w ere u s i n g th e G a u h a ti r e s o l u t i o n on th e h a b i t u a l w e a r in g o f k h a d i a s a way o f k e e p in g t h e i r o p p o n e n ts o u t o f o f f i c e u n f a i r l y . The c o m p la in a n ts a s k e d th e co m m ittee t o i s s u e g u i d e l i n e s t h a t w ou ld h e l p i n s u r e a u n ifo rm a p p l i c a t i o n o f th e r e s o l u t i o n . As a r e s u l t , G andhi d r a f t e d a r e p l y f o r th e A .I .C .C . w h ich i n s t r u c t e d s u b o r d in a t e c o m m itte e s t o a c c e p t th e w ord o f anyone w e a rin g k h a d i a t C o n g re ss f u n c t i o n s and c la im in g t o be a h a b i t u a l w e a r e r o f
ph.I b i d . , v o l . 26, p . 4^5.
p£
I b i d . , v o l . 3 2 , p . ^ 6 5 .
^ I b i d . , v o l . 2 8 , p . 211
^ I b i d . , v o l . 3 3 i p p . ^58-9*
19
k h a d i , u n l e s s i t c o u ld he c l e a r l y d e m o n s tr a te d t h a t th e p e r s o n was l y i n g . 28 The o n u s o f p r o o f w ould be on th e a c c u s e r .
S p in n in g an d k h a d d a r w ere two o f th e sy m b ols w h ic h G an dh i f e l t w ould e n a b le th e m ass o f I n d i a n p e a s a n t s t o i d e n t i f y w ith h i s w ork an d w ith th e C o n g re s s . G andhi a l s o ho ped t h a t th e s e sy m b o ls w ould g iv e C ong ressm en, p a r t i c u l a r l y th o s e he te rm e d " i n t e l l e c t u a l s an d t a l k e r s , "
a f e e l i n g o f a f f i n i t y w ith th e p e a s a n t s and w ith G andhi h i m s e l f a s th e p e a s a n t s ’ r e p r e s e n t a t i v e . H ow ever, many o f th e i n t e l l e c t u a l s and t a l k e r s seem ed t o G andhi t o be more i n t e r e s t e d i n o f f i c e , i n th e
C o n g re ss an d o u t s i d e i t , th a n i n w hat he c a l l e d h i s c o n s t r u c t i v e w ork.
I n d e e d , l o c a l l y - p o w e r f u l C ongressm en (S w a ra jy a P a r t y mem bers) p o s s e s s i n g th e p e l f and p r i z e s o f o f f i c e , e v e n i f o n ly a t th e lo w e s t l e v e l s , w ere a s e r i o u s t h r e a t t o th e pow er o f th e G a n d h i i t e s . The l u r e o f o f f i c e e n d a n g e re d th e G an d h ian c o n c e p tio n o f s w a r a j.
The r e s p o n s e o f C o n g re s s -S w a ra jy a P a r t y members o f th e l e g i s l a t i v e c o u n c i l s an d o f th e C e n t r a l L e g i s l a t i v e A ssem bly t o th e L ah o re r e s o l u t i o n o f 1929 m ust h ave b e e n a b i t o f a d is a p p o in tm e n t t o th e C o n g re s s l e a d e r s . On 3 J a n u a r y 1930 M o t i l a l N eh ru , i n a c c o rd a n c e w ith th e L ah o re r e s o l u t i o n , c a l l e d on a l l S w a ra jy a P a r t y members t o r e s i g n t h e i r s e a t s im m e d ia te ly a s a f i r s t s t e p i n th e com ing c i v i l d is o b e d ie n c e cam p aig n. 29 At t h e en d o f J a n u a r y , tw e n ty - n in e p e r c e n t o f th e C o n g re s s -
30 ' ' '
S w a ra jy a P a r t y M .L .A .s an d M .L .C .s w ere r e f u s i n g t o com ply. I n m id - F e b r u a r y w ith o n ly a few w eeks t o go b e f o r e th e a sse m b ly s e s s i o n s w ould have en d ed anyw ay, th e W orking C om m ittee fo u n d i t n e c e s s a r y t o t h r e a t e n r e c a l c i t r a n t C o n g re s s -S w a ra jy a P a r t y M .L .A .s and M .L .C .s w ith e x p u l s i o n from th e C o n g re s s i n an e f f o r t t o g e t them t o r e s i g n t h e i r s e a t s . ^
G andhi d id n o t c o n f in e h i s c r i t i c i s m t o th o s e who s o u g h t g o v e rn m e n ta l o f f i c e . I n May 1931 G andhi e x p r e s s e d f e a r s f o r th e f u t u r e o f h i s movement an d s a i d t h a t an o f f i c e - s e e k i n g m e n t a l i t y
p e rv a d e d th e e n t i r e C o n g re s s . C a n d id a te s f o r C o n g re s s co m m ittee o f f i c e s w ere p a y in g v o t e r s ’ m em bership f e e s , p r o v id i n g them t r a n s p o r t a t i o n t o th e p o l l i n g p l a c e s , and g i v i n g f e a s t s t o v o t e r s i n a n a t te m p t t o g a i n p o s i t i o n s o f pow er i n th e C o n g re s s . B u t, a c c o r d in g t o G a n d h i, th e s e o f f i c e s e e k e r s w ere j u s t th e men th e C o n g re s s c o u ld do w i t h o u t ; i f
28AICC f i l e G^3 o f 1927- S ee a l s o f i l e G2? o f 1928.
29I n d ia n A nnual R e g i s t e r ( h e r e i n a f t e r LAE), 1930, v o l . 1 , p .1 7 » 30See T a b le 3 -1 b e lo w .
31Home D ep artm en t F o r t n i g h t l y R e p o rt ( h e r e i n a f t e r F R ), Bombay, 2nd h a l f o f F eb 1930.
20
t h e i r c o r r u p t p r a c t i c e s w ere n o t s to p p e d , s a i d G an d h i, th e in d e p e n d -
• 32 e n c e movement i t s e l f w ould f a i l .
Two y e a r s e a r l i e r , i n 1929* G andhi h a d c o n t r a s t e d th o s e i n p r o v i n c i a l C o n g re s s o f f i c e s who h ad l i t t l e tim e t o do " c o n s t r u c t i v e w ork" w ith th o s e d o in g th e w ork who h ad no d e s i r e f o r o f f i c e . He
e x p r e s s e d h i s f e r v e n t hope t h a t th e ;A*I«C#C. w o uld " t a c k l e t h a t p ro b le m t o th e e x c l u s i o n o f e v e r y t h i n g e l s e " an d come up w ith a " d e v ic e . . . w hereby th e C o n g re ss m a c h in e ry may be w orked a t f u l l s p e e d and
e f f i c i e n t l y . " 33 The o b v io u s d e v ic e w as t o g iv e C o n g re s s o f f i c e s t o th o s e who w e re , a s G andhi s a i d , d o in g " c o n s t r u c t i v e w o rk " -~ to f o r c e o f f i c e upon th o s e who w ere r e f u s i n g t o s e e k i t .
When, i n th e e a r l y w eeks o f 192-9i G a n d h iite J a ir a m d a s D o u la tra m l o s t a b i d t o ta k e c o n t r o l o f th e S in d P .C .C . ( p r o v i n c i a l C o n g re ss c o m m itte e ) , G andhi w ro te t o th e v i c t o r , Swami G o v in d an an d , and a s k e d him t o become a r e a l s a n n y a s i and r e s i g n so t h a t th e two S in d l e a d e r s c o u ld s e l e c t a t h i r d man t o be p r e s i d e n t who w ould h av e un anim ous
34 s u p p o r t: "Why do you w a n t 'o f f i c e when th e o f f i c e d o e s n o t w ant y o u ?"
A few d ay s a f t e r w a r d , i n an a r t i c l e i n Young I n d i a on 21 .F eb ru ary 1929»
G andhi p u b l i c l y c h a s te n e d Swami G ovindanand f o r a t t e m p t i n g t o b u i l d a
S ' ‘ i
p o l i t i c a l b a s e i n o r d e r t o e n t e r th e . L e g i s l a t i v e A ssem b ly. J a ir a m d a s on th e o t h e r h a n d , s a i d G a n d h i, h ad no su ch s e l f i s h i n t e n t , h a d m e re ly b e e n t r y i n g t o p u t a n i m p a r t i a l man i n th e p r e s i d e n t i a l c h a i r s o he c o u ld g e t on w ith th e r e a l w ork o f th e C o n g re s s . G andhi e x p l a i n e d t h a t th e p ro b le m s c o u ld be s e e n i n th e s t r u c t u r e o f th e S in d C o n g re s s : w ith o n ly 400 on th e S in d C o n g re s s r o l l s , ^5 on th e P .C . C . , an d 15 on t h e l o c a l w o rk in g c o m m itte e , t h e r e w ere to o many c h i e f s an d to o few I n d i a n s . 35 The " b o rn d e m o c ra t" c o u ld h a r d l y a s k th e C o n g re ss t o g iv e up e l e c t i o n s , b u t he d id a s k i t t o r e d u c e th e num ber o f i t s e l e c t i v e o f f i c e s .
I n J a n u a r y 1929 a t a m e e tin g o f th e S u b j e c t s C om m ittee o f th e C a l c u t t a C o n g re s s , J a w a h a r l a l N ehru r e v iv e d G a n d h i's p r o p o s a l o f 1920 f o r a 1000-member C o n g re s s d e l e g a t i o n . T h ere f o llo w e d c o n s i d e r a b l e d i s c u s s i o n : 3000 was p u t f o r t h a s a more r e a l i s t i c f i g u r e , b u t i n th e end i t w as d e c id e d t o k e e p th e num ber a t 6 00 0 . 36 At th e n e x t C o n g re s s
( L a h o re , December 1 9 2 9 ), G andhi a s k e d th e S u b j e c t s C om m ittee, t o c o n s i d e r
■^CWMG, v o l . ^-6, p p .183- 8^-. ^ I b i d . , v o l.^ -0 , p.*+l6.
* I b id . , p . 2 .
3H in d u , 2 J a n 1929*
• ^ I b i d . , p . 2 . ^ I b i d . , pp. 10-12.
