IN THE ART GP THE NEAR AND MIDDLE EAST UP TO AND INCLUDING THE EARLIER ISLAMIC PERIGD
MARGARET HUXLET
T h e s is s u b m itte d f o r t h e d e g re e o f Ph.D S c h o o l o f O r i e n t a l an d A f r ic a n S t u d i e s ,
U n i v e r s i t y o f London
J u n e , 1 9 8 5 *
All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS
The qu ality of this repro d u ctio n is d e p e n d e n t upon the q u ality of the copy subm itted.
In the unlikely e v e n t that the a u th o r did not send a c o m p le te m anuscript and there are missing pages, these will be note d . Also, if m aterial had to be rem oved,
a n o te will in d ica te the deletion.
uest
ProQuest 10731123
Published by ProQuest LLC(2017). C op yrig ht of the Dissertation is held by the Author.
All rights reserved.
This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States C o d e M icroform Edition © ProQuest LLC.
ProQuest LLC.
789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346
Ann Arbor, Ml 4 8 1 0 6 - 1346
ABSTRACT
The s c i e n t i f i c im p o rta n c e o f th e z o d ia c t o th e a s tro n o m e rs and a s t r o l o g e r s o f a n t i q u i t y can be gauged from B a b y lo n ia n cu n eifo rm s o u r c e s and G reek and L a t in t e c h n i c a l t r e a t i s e s . L e ss a c c e s s i b l e i s th e h i s t o r y o f th e s i g n s , and t h e i r m eanings and a l l u s i o n s i n e x t a n t works o f a r t , a s on t h e s e s u b j e c t s th e a n c i e n t s th e m s e lv e s were a m b iv a le n t. T h is s tu d y , by an a n a l y s i s o f th e ic o n o g ra p h ic e v id e n c e , s e e k s t o u n c o v e r th e o r i g i n s o f t h e tw e lv e im ages t h a t make up th e z o d ia c c y c le and to t r a c e so m eth in g o f t h e i r su b se q u e n t h i s t o r y i n th e Graeco-Rom an w o rld and th e M iddle E a s t , u p t o th e e a r l i e r I s la m ic p e r i o d .
On th e p i c t o r i a l e v id e n c e o f th e s e a l s , b o u n d ary s t o n e s , and o th e r w orks o f a r t , th e t h e s i s w i l l c o n te n d , d e s p i t e a few d i s s e n t i n g v o ic e s , t h a t p r i o r i t y i n th e r e c o g n i t i o n o f th e z o d ia c , and th e developm ent o f i t s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c im ages b e lo n g s to M esopotam ian c i v i l i z a t i o n . S e v e r a l o f th e c o n s t e l l a t i o n f i g u r e s had a l r e a d y b een i d e n t i f i e d by th e e a r l y seco nd m ille n n iu m B .C ., and th e re m a in d e r a r e a t t e s t e d b e f o r e th e b e g in n in g o f th e f i r s t m ille n n iu m . The f u lly - f o r m e d z o d ia c was in u se i n M esopotamia by c . 500 B .C . and was d i f f u s e d from t h a t a r e a . L i t e r a r y ev id e n c e
e s t a b l i s h e s t h a t th e z o d i a c a l c o n s t e l l a t i o n s were known i n th e G reek w orld b e f o r e th e tim e o f A le x a n d e r, though fo llo w in g h i s v i s i t t o B abylon th e p o p u l a r i t y o f th e to p i c was g r e a t l y e n h a n c e d . T h u s, i n th e H e l l e n i s t i c p e r io d th e z o d ia c was a d o p te d i n t o th e ic o n o g ra p h y o f k in g s h ip , a r o l e t h a t i t m a in ta in e d i n th e c o u r t s o f I m p e r ia l Rome.
An e x te n s iv e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f th e z o d i a c 's a s s i m i l a t i o n i n t o th e
r e l i g i o u s ic o n o g ra p h y o f th e Roman e m p ire i s u n d e r ta k e n , e s p e c i a l l y i n th o s e c u l t s w here th e d e i t y was i d e n t i f i e d w ith a c e l e s t i a l b o d y , o r l i n k e d w ith th e a b s t r a c t co n ce p t o f Time, f o r ex am ple, o f M ith r a s , S a r a p i s , A rte m is and A io n . The l a r g e number o f e x t a n t z o d ia c monuments i n d i c a t e s i t s im p o rta n c e a s an ic o n , w h ile m inor v a r i a t i o n s b etw ee n one c y c le and a n o th e r s u g g e s t ch an g in g n u an ces o f m eaning i n d i f f e r e n t c o n t e x t s .
The z o d i a c 's power o v e r human d e s t i n y was a c o n c e p t so w e ll- e n tr e n c h e d i n p o p u la r im a g in a tio n t h a t th e r i s e o f th e g r e a t m o n o th e is tic r e l i g i o n s , J u d a e is m , C h r i s t i a n i t y and Is la m , may have changed i t s s t a t u s b u t h a r d ly d im in is h e d i t s p r e v a le n c e . In L e v a n tin e sy n a g o g u e s , and even i n th e Q u r'S n i t s e l f , th e c o n s t e l l a t i o n s and p l a n e t s , th o u g h no lo n g e r d e i t i e s i n t h e i r own r i g h t , w ere s t i l l r e g a r d e d as l e g i t i m a t e pow ers u n d e r God.
S a s a n ia n im p e r ia l ic o n o g ra p h y a l s o em ployed th e z o d ia c , a f a c t which p r o b a b ly had an e f f e c t on th e sym bols o f k in g s h ip i n I s la m , and in f lu e n c e d th e c h o ic e o f ic o n o g ra p h y o f a t l e a s t one Umayyad p r i n c e . The s u s t a in e d l i n k betw een th e z o d ia c and r o y a l t y i s one im p o r ta n t theme t h a t h as
em erged from t h i s s tu d y . A seco n d i s t h a t th e z o d ia c * tho ug h composed o f tw e lv e s ta n d a r d s i g n s , c o u ld be v a r i e d i n s m a ll ways t o e x p r e s s r e l i g i o u s o r a s t r o l o g i c a l d o c t r i n e s , and t h a t t h e s e v a r i a t i o n s can som etim es p ro v id e in f o r m a tio n a b o u t th e monument o r i t s b a c k g ro u n d . Though l i t t l e d is c u s s e d by c l a s s i c a l a r c h a e o l o g i s t s , th e z o d ia c h as a more im p o r ta n t p a r t i n Roman a r t th a n i s g e n e r a lly a d m itte d .
Over a v e ry lo n g p e r io d o f tim e th e z o d ia c p ro v e d t o be a rem a rk ab ly v e r s a t i l e sym b ol. I t s im agery r e p r e s e n t e d an im p o r ta n t s c i e n t i f i c
i n n o v a tio n whose e v o l u tio n in th e M iddle E a s t i s d e m o n s tra te d by th e ic o n o g ra p h ic e v id e n c e , h e r e c o m p re h e n siv e ly a s s e m b le d f o r th e f i r s t tim e . A f te r w a r d s , th e z o d ia c was u n i v e r s a l l y a c c e p te d , b o th i n E uropean and O r i e n t a l c i v i l i z a t i o n s .
A rt e v o lv e s fro m a p r e - e x i s t i n g a r t i s t i c v o c a b u l a r y , j u s t as s c i e n c e d e v e lo p s fro m an e s t a b l i s h e d m a tr ix of s c i e n t i f i c id e a s * C hanges a s s u r e d ly o c c u r , b u t u s u a l l y g r a d u a l c h a n g e s , t h e sudden b r i l l i a n t f l a s h o f i n s p i r a t i o n t h a t w i l l d r a s t i c a l l y ch an g e th e c o u r s e o f a r t o r s c ie n c e b e in g r a r e , and o f te n i n i t i a l l y
m i s t r u s t e d . T h is t h e s i s i s d e d i c a te d t o t h e i d e a o f c o n t i n u i t y , a c e l e b r a t i o n o f t h e d e b t owed by any s o c i e t y t o i t s p r e d e c e s s o r s .
TABLE OF CONTENTS P age n0>
A b s t r a c t 1
D e d ic a tio n 2
T a b le o f c o n t e n ts 3
A cknow ledgem ents 1 0
INTRODUCTION 13
P a r t 1 THE MESOPOTAMIAN CRIGINS 18
C h a p te r 1 THE CONSTELLATIONS IN BABYLONIAN ASTRONOMY AND RELIGION
I n r t o d u c t i o n s The c o n s t e l l a t i o n s i n M esopotam ia 19 A. The z o d ia c and astro n o m y
The n a t u r e and o r i g i n o f t h e s o d ia c 2 0
The p e r io d o f d ev elo p m en t 22
The c a l e n d a r 28
B . The s t a r s i n B a b y lo n ia n r e l i g i o n 3 0
The p l a n e t s 3 0
R i t u a l s , p r a y e r s and i n c a n t a t i o n s 34
The r a d i a n c e o f t h e gods 38
The c o n s t e l l a t i o n s and m ythology 39
C h a p te r 2 THE CONSTELLATIONS IN THE VISUAL ARTS
The b o u n d ary s to n e s 41
The s i t i r same 46
Temple sym bolism 49
C h a p te r 3 THE ZODIACAL CONSTELLATIONS IN MESOPOTAMIA
A r ie s 51
T au ru s 57
Gemini 61
C an ce r 6 6
Leo JO
V irg o 73
L i b r a 75
S c o r p io 7 8
S a g i t t a r i u s 8 0
C h a p te r 3 , c o n t in u e d . p ag e n o .
C a p r ic o r n 84
A q u a riu s 86
P i s c e s 89
P a r t I I THE FIFTH AND FOURTH CENTURIES B .C . 9 6
C h a p te r 4 THE ACHAEMENID EMPIRE AND THE GREEK WORLD
Some i n t r o d u c t o r y rem ark s 97
The A chaem enids 97
The G reeks 100
S ta r-m a p s and t h e d e s c r i p t i o n s o f c o n s t e l l a t i o n s 101
The c o n s t e l l a t i o n s i n G reek a r t 103
The Ruvo v a s e 104
The New Y ork S a g i t t a r i u s gem 105
M esopotam ia: The f i r s t h o ro s c o p e s and e a r l y a s t r o l o g y
i n c u n e ifo rm s o u rc e s 107
P a r t I I I THE HELLENISTIC PERIOD 115
C h a p te r 5 A NEW SYMBOL
I n t r o d u c t i o n : A le x a n d e r i n A s ia 116
The s o d ia c an d t h e H e l l e n i s t i c k in g s ; th e t h i r d c e n t u r y B .C . 116
The to d i a c ab o v e 121
Z o d ia c c e i l i n g s : t h e Temple o f Khnum, E sna 123
t h e c i r c u l a r Bodiac, Temple o f H a th o r, 123 B e n d e ra
Temple o f Montu and R a<taw i 126
Temple o f I s i s , S han hu r 127
R e c ta n g u la r r o d i a c , Temple o f H a th o r , 127 D en d era
Tem ple o f Min and I s i s , Q u if t (K o p to s) 127
Tem ple o f Khnum, E sn a 128
H e l l e n i s t i c a s t r o l o g y 129
The Leo o f Nimrud Bagh 133
The S c o rp io n and t h e S c a le s 134
The B r i n d i s i d i s k 135
The e o d ia c c a l e n d a r , A thens 136
The S c o rp io n and t h e S c a le s gem ( B r i t i s h Museum) 137
The s o d ia c an d t h e s c ie n c e s 138
C h a p te r 5* c o n t in u e d . p a g e n o .
The S a lz b u r g d i s k 139
The F a r n e s e g lo b e 140
The H e lio s gem ( B r i t i s h Museum) 145
P a r t IV THE ROMAN IMPERIUM
TaL— - - - 1= ■ - - 1'" 1 — ... 1 5 0
C h a p te r 6 THE ZODIAC IN RCMAN IMPERIAL ICONOGRAPHY
I n t r o d u c t i o n s t h e h o ro s c o p e o f A ugustus 151
The Gemma A u g u ste a 154
The H erm itag e cameo 155
The C a p r ic o r n cam eos o f New Y ork and B e r l i n 156
The L i v i a gem 157
The L e g io n a ry i n s i g n i a 160
The i m p e r i a l c o in a g e 162
I m p e r i a l h o ro s c o p e s and c e i l i n g s 171
The em peror a s d i v i n e h e ro : Com m odus-Hercules 178
The A b u k ir m edals 180
The em peror t r a n s l a t e d t o h e a v e n 185
The a p o t h e o s i s o f A n to n in u s P iu s and F a u s t i n a 185
The a p o t h e o s i s i v o r y 189
C h a p te r 7 MARS
The V a tic a n t o r s o 193
V i r t u e 197
C h a p te r 8 MITHRAS
Ic o n o g ra p h y an d a n te c e d e n ts 204
C l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f t h e z o d ia c monuments 213
The T a u r o c to n ie s :
A rched z o d ia c s 215
R in g z o d ia c s 216
The S id o n T a u ro c to n y 217
B i r t h monum ents: 218
The T r i e r b i r t h r e l i e f 219
The H o u s e s te a d s b i r t h r e l i e f 223
The s n a k e -e n tw in e d d e i t y 224
The Modena P h a n e s 234
Z o d ia c s i n M ith r a ic a r c h i t e c t u r e : t h e P o nza c e i l i n g 236
O th e r M ith r a ic z o d ia c s 238
C o n c lu s io n s 2 4 0
I n t r o d u c t i on
S a r a p i s , and S a r a p i s - J u p i t e r I s i s
H orus
C h a p te r 10 AION
The god i n t h e z o d ia c r i n g The A ion m o saic from S en tiu m The A ion m o sa ic , A n tio c h A ion m o sa ic , P h i l i p p o p o l i s A ion m o s a ic , H ippo R e g is A ion m o s a ic , H a id ra The O s t ia A ion The C a rth a g e s t e l e
Two m o saics fro m C a rth a g e The P a r a b ia g o d i s h
An a n a l y s i s o f t h e ic o n o g ra p h y o f A ion : The z o d ia c
The s e a s o n s The s e r p e n t
The e n tr a n c e g u a r d ia n The a t t r i b u t e s o f k in g s h ip The S a tu r n m o s a ic , B i r Chana
C h a p te r 11 THE SUN AND MOON The su n and moon t o g e t h e r The H a tr a z o d ia c
The su n
The B ingen z o d ia c I n c e n s e sp o o n , O lb ia The S y r ia n b a e t y l The moon
A rte m is o f E phesus A rte m is o f P e rg e The Argos S e le n e
242 248 256 258
260 260 261 262 265 266 267 268 268 277 2 8 0 282 282 282 283 283 286
290 292 295 295 297 298 3 0 0 3 0 0 309 311
C h a p te r 12 THE ZODIAC IN THE ROMAN NEAR EAST
I n t r o d u c t i o n 315
B e l o f P alm y ra 315
The Bodiac c e i l i n g , Tem ple o f B el 317
The P alm y ren e * o d ia c fra g m e n t 3^9
The P alm y ren e t e s s e r a e 321
The N ah ate an zo d ia cs 325
C h a p te r 13 THE ZODIAC IN FUNERARY ART
I n t r o d u c t i o n 3 3 3
The G ra e c o -E g y p tia n s a rc o p h a g i 3 3 7
The z o d ia c to m b s, a l-S a la m u n 347
The tomb a t A r t h r i b i s 3 4 9
Roman s a r c o p h a g i; t h e z o d ia c and se a so n s 35-)
The h e r o i c a p o t h e o s i s 355
The SaIo f l a s k 356
The I g e l tomb 358
C a p r ic o r n , a g a in 361
C h a p te r 14 ART AND THE ASTROLOGER 363
D a r e s s y ’ s z o d ia c 364
The B ia n c h in i p l a n i s p h e r e 366
Two i v o r y d ip t y c h s 37 0
How t h e p l a n i s p h e r e s w ere u s e d 3 7 3
r A g l a s s p la q u e fro m T a n is C3 7 9
A c o d ia c fra g m e n t fro m Meroe 378
The Temple o f T r i p h i s and P an 380
The h o ro s c o p e gem 381
The h o ro s c o p e s a t A r t h r i b i s 382
The P h ry g ia n a s t r o l o g e r 384
The S p a r t a m o saic 386
P a r t V LATE ANTIQUITY 387
C h a p te r 15 PALESTINE: THE SYNAGOGUE ZODIACS 388
Hammath T i b e r i a s 388
Y a fa 391
B e th A lpha 392
Nar a r a n 395
H u s i f a
C h a p te r 15* c o n t in u e d . p ag e no*
H o rv a t S u s iy a 397
L En G edi 398
C h a p te r 16 IRAN, THE NEAR EAST, AND THE TRANSMISSION O f THE ZODIAC TO ISLAM
Z o d ia c te r m in o lo g y i n N ear E a s t e r n la n g u a g e s 408
S a s a n ia n a s t r o l o g y 411
S a s a n ia n z o d ia c ic o n o g ra p h y 414
A r d a s lr * s c i t y 416
The T hrone o f K h u sra u ( T a k h t- i- T a q d is ) 419
Q u say r £Amra 427
C h a p te r 17 CONCLUSIONS* THE ZODIAC IN ANCIENT ART 433
SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL
BIBLIOGRAPHY AND ABBREVIATIONS 4 5O
APPENDIX A s G lo s s a r y o f a s t r o l o g i c a l te rm s u s e d i n t h e t e x t .
A.1 The B a b y lo n ia n z o d i a c a l s ig n s and e q u i v a le n t m onths 482
M odern d a t e e q u i v a l e n t s 482
A .2 The p l a n e t a r y E x a l t a t i o n s 483
A .3 The p l a n e t a r y H ouses 486
A*4 The A sc e n d a n t 488
A*5 A sp ects* 4 9 0
T r in e 490
Q u a r t i l e 491
S e x t i l e 492
O p p o s itio n 492
C o n ju n c tio n 493
A* 6 The D ecans 494
A .7 The l u n a r n o d e s ( t h e Head and T a i l o f t h e D ragon) 497
A*8 The p l a n e t a r y Terms 499
A-9 The D o d ecao ro s 5 00
A .1 0 The D o d e c a te m o ria 502
A.1 1 The S o th ic c y c l e 5Q3
A*12 The tw e lv e P l a c e s 504
A. 13 S a t u r n - J u p i t e r c o n ju n c tio n s 506
A. 14 Key t o t h e sym bols o f t h e z o d i a c a l s ig n s and p l a n e t s 5 Oj
A .1 5 The M esopotam ian " A s t r o l a b e s " . 508
APPENDIX B: F o r e ig n la n g u a g e s o u r c e s 509
CATALOGUE CF ZODIAC MONUMENTS 517
L i s t o f F ig u r e s 577
L i s t o f P l a t e s 5^3
FIGURES 591
PLATES
ACKKCTMGEMTg
I g r a t e f u l l y ack n o w led g e t h e f i n a n c i a l a s s i s t a n c e r e c e iv e d fro m t h e CRS f e e s u p p o r t schem e, a d m in is te r e d by th e C om m ittee o f V ic e -C h a n c e llo rs and P r i n c i p a l s , who h av e met h a l f of my t u i t i o n f e e s a t t h e S cho ol of O r i e n t a l and A f r i c a n S t u d i e s , U n iv e r s it y of London f o r two y e a r s . My g r a t e f u l th a n k s a l s o t o t h e C e n t r a l R e se a rc h F und, U n i v e r s i t y of London, and t o t h e G o v e rn in g Body o f t h e S c h o o l o f O r i e n t a l and A f ric a n S t u d i e s , w hose f i n a n c i a l s u p p o r t e n a b le d me t o exam ine a t f i r s t hand some o f t h e monuments s t u d i e d i n t h e f o llo w in g p a g e s , and t o c o n s u l t m a n u s c rip ts i n I s t a n b u l and Rome.
Itfuch k in d l y h e l p h a s b e e n g iv e n t o me i n t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f my t h e s i s . M ost o f a l l I am in d e b t e d t o my s u p e r v is o r , D r. A .D .H .B iv a r, who h as b e e n g e n e ro u s w ith h i s tim e , h i s e r u d i t i o n and e n c o u ra g e m e n t. I am e s p e c i a l l y g r a t e f u l f o r D r. B iv a r ^ s w i l l i n g n e s s t o h e lp me o v e r t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s o f a r e s e a r c h p ro g ram t h a t c r o s s e d s e v e r a l d i s c i p l i n a r y b o r d e r s , and f o r h i s a s s i s t a n c e w ith t r a n s l a t i o n s from G reek, L a t in and P e r s ia n t e x t s .
Ms Mary P l a s t i r a * s t r a n s l a t i o n s from G reek t e x t s , u se d i n s e v e r a l p l a c e s th r o u g h t h e t h e s i s , have b e e n d e e p ly a p p r e c i a t e d . The h e lp of Mrs E v e ly n M e i s s n i t z e r and Ms R uth H a rte w ith t r a n s l a t i o n s from
r e f e r e n c e s i n German a r e g r a t e f u l l y acknow ledged, and a l s o th e a d v ic e o f Ms M a r c e lle Bou D ag her o v e r d i f f i c u l t p a s s a g e s i n I t a l i a n or A r a b ic .
I n a d d i t i o n , I am g r a t e f u l t o th o s e who hav e draw n my a t t e n t i o n t o z o d ia c monuments p r e v i o u s l y unknown t o me. Ms D e s p in a Ig n a tL a d o u in fo rm e d me o f t h e u n p u b lis h e d z o d ia c frag m en t fro m P h i l i p p i , and Mr R o b e r t K o rk o t t o l d me o f an u n p u b lish e d z o d ia c fra g m e n t from Meroe i n t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f t h e E g y p to lo g y D epartm ent a t U n i v e r s i t y C o lle g e , L ondon. Mr M orkot s k e tc h e d i n some o f th e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l background o f t h e Meroe f r a g m e n t, and P r o f e s s o r H .S .S m ith , Head o f t h e E g y p to lo g y D ep artm en t a t U n i v e r s i t y C o lle g e , g r a c i o u s l y a llo w e d me t o d is c u s s t h e
f ra g m e n t i n my t h e s i s .
I n c o n n e c tio n w ith a d i f f e r e n t p h ase o f my r e s e a r c h , I am in d e b te d t o Ms K h a ire a h 1 Amr, who d ro v e me many m ile s th ro u g h t h e J o r d a n ia n d e s e r t t o v i s i t Q usayr cAmra and o th e r a r c h a e o lo g ic a l s i t e s . My th a n k s , t o o , t o P r o f e s s o r A s la n a p a and P r o f e s s o r D i y a r b a k i r l i o f I s t a n b u l , who r e c e iv e d me k i n d l y and a r r a n g e d a c c e s s t o m a n u s c rip ts i n t h e u n i v e r s i t y l i b r a r y ,
I have a p p r e c i a t e d t h e u se o f s e v e r a l f i n e l i b r a r i e s w ith in th e U n i v e r s i t y of London, i n c l u d i n g SOAS, S e n a te H ouse, t h e W arburg, th e C l a s s i c a l I n s t i t u t e and t h e I n s t i t u t e o f A rc h a e o lo g y . I n a d d i tio n I h av e b e e n p r i v i l e g e d t o u s e t h e c o l l e c t i o n s o f t h e B r i t i s h L ib r a r y , t h e B o d le ia n L i b r a r y , and t h e V a tic a n L ib r a r y , and t o e a c h o f th e s e i n s t i t u t i o n s I w ish t o e x p r e s s my t h a n k s . A word o f a p p r e c i a t i o n i s a l s o due t o t h e B r i t i s h Museum, who a r e g e n e ro u s i n a llo w in g a c c e s s t o t h e c o l l e c t i o n s .
On a more p e r s o n a l l e v e l , I owe a d e b t o f g r a t i t u d e t o my b r o t h e r , Mr Bon H ux ley , and t o nry s i s t e r - i n - l a w M erle, who h av e f r e e d me from many w o r r i e s b y a t t e n d i n g t o nry a f f a i r s a t home d u r in g my a b s e n c e . T h e ir s u p p o r t and t h a t o f o th e r f a m ily and f r i e n d s i n A u s t r a l i a , gave me t h e c o u ra g e t o r i s k l e a v i n g home and employment t o a t t a i n a d e s ir e d g o a l .
I n E n g lan d I h av e b e e n b e f r ie n d e d by many, some B r i t i s h c i t i z e n s , and o t h e r s l i k e m y s e lf from o v e r s e a s . Some, i n c l u d i n g Mr and Mrs S te p h e n s and S u s a n , B e a t r i c e and R ic h a rd D o p ite r , G e o ffe ry and C o l l e t t e Khan, G eo rg and E v e ly n M e l s s n i t z e r , Mr and Mrs ( Amr and K h a ire a h , have ta k e n me i n t o t h e i r homes i n v a r io u s p a r t s o f E n g lan d , A u s t r i a and Jo rd a n t o e n jo y a h o l i d a y from London. O th ers have re s c u e d me d u r in g t h e th r e e f r u s t r a t i n g p e r i o d s e a c h y e a r when my u n i v e r s i t y h a l l o f r e s i d e n c e c lo s e d down. I am e s p e c i a l l y g r a t e f u l t o L iz and N ig e l E r r in g t o n , i n whose home I h av e s p e n t many p l e a s a n t w eek s, and o th e r s su c h as S t e l l a A le x a n d e r, H usain G h a ra i and R o b in L eg a rd e h av e s i m i l a r l y r e s c u e d me f o r s h o r t e r p e r io d s on o th e r
o c c a s i o n s . To t h e s e and o th e r f r i e n d s who h av e s u p p o rte d ms d u r in g th e p r e p a r a t i o n o f my t h e s i s , I o f f e r my most s i n c e r e t h a n k s .
THE SIGNS CF THE ZODIAC IN THE ART OF THE NEAR AND KIDDLE EAST UP TO AND INCLUDING THE EARLIER ISLAMIC PERIOD
INTRODUCTION
E s s e n t i a l l y , t h e z o d ia c i s a c y c l e o f tw e lv e c o n s t e l l a t i o n s , e a c h d e s i g n a t e d b y i t s own name and c o n v e n tio n a l im ag e. Long b e f o r e th e y w ere com bined i n t o a c y c l e , t h e v a r io u s im ages had a m ean ing and h i s t o r y , and o u r f i r s t t a s k w i l l b e t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e i r p a s t . To do t h i s , we s h a l l t u r n t o t h e a r t s o f M esopotam ia, as t h e e v id e n c e o f c u n e ifo rm t e x t s has shown i n r e c e n t d e c a d e s t h a t th e a s tro n o m e rs o f t h a t r e g i o n w ere th e f i r s t t o em ploy t h e z o d ia c a s p a r t o f a s y ste m o f a s tr o n o m ic a l m easurem ent. A c o m p re h e n s iv e i n v e s t i g a t i o n w i l l e s t a b l i s h t h e p r e s e n c e o f a l l tw e lv e c o n s t e l l a t i o n im ages i n M esopotam ian a r t b e f o r e t h e b e g in n in g of t h e f i r s t m ille n n iu m B .C ., t h u s d e m o n s tr a tin g t h a t th e z o d ia c f i g u r e s , l i k e z o d i a c a l m a th e m a tic s , o r i g i n a t e d i n M esopotam ia.
The tw e lv e im ag es w ere t h e sym bols o f d iv i n e c o n s t e l l a t i o n s , e a c h a r e l i g i o u s ic o n i n i t s own r i g h t . B in d in g them t o g e t h e r i n a f ix e d c y c l e p ro d u c e d t h e z o d ia c , and b esto w ed on them a new c o r p o r a t e i d e n t i t y t h a t was n o l e s s a r e l i g i o u s ic o n , b u t w ould a c q u ir e i n t h e f o llo w in g c e n t u r i e s new c o n n o t a tio n s and i m p l i c a t i o n s .
Prom M esopotam ia know ledge o f t h e z o d ia c was p a s s e d on t o o th e r p a r t s o f t h e a n c i e n t w o rld . I t h a s b e e n assum ed p r e v i o u s l y t h a t t h e s p r e a d o f G reek c u l t u r e f o ll o w i n g t h e c o n q u e s ts o f A lex an d e r was t h e agency by w h ich t h i s h a p p e n e d . Our s tu d y o f t h e ic o n o g ra p h y , h o w ev er, w i l l i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e d i f f u s i o n p r o b a b ly to o k p l a c e i n t h e Achaemenid p e r io d ; and t h a t , t h e r e was n o t one l i n e o f tr a n s m i s s i o n , b u t t h r e e : one from M esopotam ia t o E g y p t; a se c o n d fro m M esopotam ia t o th e G reek c i t i e s ; and a t h i r d from M eso p o tam ia t o S y r i a , P a l e s t i n e and o th e r p a r t s o f t h e N ear E a s t. T h is
o r d e r o f l i s t i n g d o e s n o t im p ly a p r i o r i t y i n t i m e . P o s s i b ly a l l t h r e e l i n e s w ere i n o p e r a t io n s im u lta n e o u s ly , b u t a t p r e s e n t t h e r e i s to o l i t t l e
t h e r e s u l t was a s o d ia c whose ic o n o g r a p h ic t r a d i t i o n v a r i e d i n m in o r p o i n t s fro m r e g io n t o r e g i o n , b u t whose v a r i a n t d e t a i l s a r e a l l t o be fo u n d i n M esopotam ian p r o t o t y p e s . A c o n t i n u a l exchange o f a s t r o l o g i c a l i d e a s th r o u g h
o u t a n t i q u i t y b l u r r e d t h e s h a r p n e s s o f t h e r e s p e c t i v e t r a d i t i o n s , b u t d id n o t d e s t r o y them . T h u s, even a f t e r t h e second c e n t u r y A.D. S a g i t t a r i u s was s t i l l p o r tr a y e d w ith t h e w ings and s c o r p i o n 's t a i l o f B a b y lo n ia n o r i g i n i n E g y p tia n z o d ia c s , and A q u a riu s a s a b u c k e t o r w e ll o f c u r r e n t l y u n e x p la in e d i n s p i r a t i o n i n t h e z o d ia c s o f t h e B ear E a s t . Such v a r i a n t s p r o b a b ly
r e p r e s e n t g e o g ra p h ic o r c u l t i c d i f f e r e n c e s w ith in a n c i e n t M esopotam ia, b u t a v a i l a b l e e v id e n c e d o e s n o t y e t f u l l y s e t t l e t h i s q u e s t i o n .
A v e r y few z o d ia c s h av e s u r v iv e d from t h e H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d , and one o r tw o a r e m en tio n ed i n l i t e r a r y s o u r c e s , b u t Roman exam p les a r e n u m ero us.
The e v id e n c e s u g g e s ts a s t e a d i l y i n c r e a s i n g i n t e r e s t i n a s t r o l o g y and t h e z o d ia c from c . .100 B .C . onw ards. T h is t r e n d was r e f l e c t e d i n t h e a r t s . The z o d ia c was p o r tr a y e d on s ta r - m a p s , c e l e s t i a l g lo b e s and a s t r o l o g i c a l p l a n i s p h e r e s , and f u n c ti o n e d a s a s a c r e d symbol on r e l i g i o u s monuments and i n t h e ic o n o g ra p h y o f k i n g s h i p . S i m i l a r them es c an a l r e a d y be d is c e r n e d i n t h e H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d .
L ess a t t e n t i o n h a s b een g iv e n t o Roman zo d ia c monuments th a n i s m e r ite d b y t h e i r numbers and i n t r i n s i c i n t e r e s t , p a r t l y p e r h a p s , b e c a u se t h e i r M esopotam ian b a ck g ro u n d was u n f a m i l i a r t o c l a s s i c a l s c h o l a r s . I n d i v i d u a l monuments have b e e n s t u d i e d , b u t i t i s o f te n assum ed t h a t th e z o d ia c i t s e l f i s a commonplace sym bol, v a r y in g l i t t l e from one exam ple t o a n o t h e r . Our s t u d y , how ever, w i l l i n t r o d u c e a p r e v i o u s l y unknown f a c e t o f z o d ia c ic o n o g ra p h y : i t s e x c e p tio n a l r i c h n e s s and f l e x i b i l i t y a s a sym bol. Beyond an y sy m b o lic m eaning w ith w hich t h e z o d ia c a s a w hole was endowed, we s h a l l s e e t h a t segm ents o f t h e c y c l e , and even i n d i v i d u a l s ig n s , c a r r i e d t h e i r own c o n n o t a tio n s . By o r i e n t i n g th e c y c le so t h a t th e d e s i r e d s ig n s w ere p la c e d i n t h e most c o n s p ic u o u s p o s i t i o n , o r w ere i n some way
em p h asized o r shown i n i s o l a t i o n , s u b t l e ch ang es i n t h e m eaning o f t h e sy m bo lism c o u ld be a c h ie v e d * F o r i n s t a n c e , th e s ig n s A r ie s and T a u ru s s i g n i f i e d th e i d e a o f B p rin g , w ith i t s a t te n d a n t a l l u s i o n s t o new l i f e and g ro w th . These s i g n s w ere a s s o c i a t e d w ith th e d e i t y A io n , th o u g h t t o c o n t r o l and p e r p e t u a l l y ren ew t h e co sm ic c y c l e s , w hich i n t u r n g o v ern ed t h e s e a s o n s on e a r t h . O ther s i g n s , o r segm ents o f th e c y c l e , r e f e r r e d t o o th e r d e i t i e s , o r t o i d e a s su ch a s b i r t h , d e a th , Jud gem ent, o r t h e a s c e n t of t h e s o u l .
B i r t h and d e a t h , i n e s c a p a b le and fu n d am e n tal i n t h e l i f e c y c l e o f e v e r y human b e in g , w i l l o f t e n occupy ou r a t t e n t i o n , f o r t h e z o d ia c was a sym bol
o f t h e c e l e s t i a l s p h e r e s from w hich t h e s o u l was th o u g h t t o have d e s c e n d e d , and t o w hich i t w ould one d ay r e t u r n . We s h a l l f i n d t h e z o d ia c i n te m p le s , i n tom bs and on s a r c o p h a g i , a s w e ll a s i n th e ic o n o g ra p h y o f d e i t i e s s u c h a s I tL th r a s , S a r a p i s , A rte m is , and A ion among o t h e r s . We s h a l l c o n s i d e r t h e r o l e o f z o d ia c ic o n o g ra p h y i n t h e c u l t o f e a c h i n t u r n . F o r M ith r a s , we s h a l l a l s o draw a t t e n t i o n t o a r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n h i s ic o n o g ra p h y and im a g e s fro m a n c i e n t M esopotam ia, and t o a p r e v io u s l y u n n o tic e d t e x t d e a l i n g w ith h i s c u l t i n t h e Boman e m p ire . The t e x t d a t e s t o t h e m id d le o f t h e
seco n d c e n tu r y A .D ., a p e r i o d i n w hich th e c u l t was e x p a n d in g .
O th e r t e x t u a l e v id e n c e w i l l e n a b le us t o r e c o g n iz e and d e s c r i b e t h e u s e o f a w hole c l a s s o f o b j e c t s whose p u rp o se was f o r m e r l y a m a tte r o f s p e c u l a t i o n . T hese a r e t h e a s t r o l o g i c a l p l a n i s p h e r e s . The t e x t i s fro m a w ell-k n o w n c o m p o s itio n , t h e A le x a n d e r Romance o f P s e u d o - C a l l i s t h e n e s , w hich was t r a n s l a t e d i n t o s e v e r a l la n g u a g e s d u r in g a n t i q u i t y , e a c h v e r s i o n w ith m in o r d i f f e r e n c e s . The b e s t d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e p l a n i s p h e r e s i s fo u n d i n t h e S y r ia c v e r s i o n , u n d o u b te d ly t h e r e a s o n why i t h a s n o t b een n o t i c e d b y s c h o l a r s d e a l i n g w ith t h e monuments o f c l a s s i c a l a n t i q u i t y .
A d e b a te o f lo n g s t a n d i n g on w hich our r e s e a r c h h a s b e e n a b l e t o shed new l i ^ i t c o n c e rn s t h e c h o ic e made b y t h e Roman em p ero r A ugustus t o a d o p t C a p r ic o r n a s an emblem. The s ig n a p p e a rs on h i s c o in a g e , a s t h e i n s i g n i a o f h i s l e g i o n s , and g r a c e s A u gustan cam eos, y e t t h e em pero r was b o rn i n
l a t e S ep te m b er, u n d e r t h e s ig n L i b r a . We s h a l l i n t r o d u c e Tiew e le m e n ts i n t o t h e d e b a te , s u g g e s tin g an answ er t h a t i s s im p le , th o u g h p e rh a p s
somewhat u n e x p e c te d .
The z o d ia c monuments t o be s t u d i e d i n th e f o ll o w i n g p ag es ra n g e i n d a t e o v e r a p e r io d o f a th o u s a n d y e a r s , from c .3 0 0 B .C . t o t h e d e c a d e o r s o f o ll o w i n g A .B . fOO. G e o g r a p h ic a lly , th e y a r e fro m a v a r i e t y o f s i t e s i n b o th e a s t and w e s t. The lo n g sp an o f tim e w i l l a llo w u s t o o b s e rv e t h e c o n t i n u i t y o f t h e sym bol, o r t o ch ec k f o r e v o l u t i o n a r y c h a n g e s f w h ile t h e g e o g r a p h ic a l d i s t r i b u t i o n w i l l h i g h l i g h t r e g i o n a l d i f f e r e n c e s . The c o n s i d e r a b l e number o f monuments in v o lv e d w i l l com pel u s t o l i m i t t h e d e s c r i p t i o n s t o e s s e n t i a l s , b u t w i l l f a c i l i t a t e g r o u p in g and c l a s s i f y i n g . T h is b ro a d a p p ro a c h s h o u ld p ro d u c e i n s i g h t s i n t o t h e n a t u r e o f t h e m a t e r i a l a s a w h o le. We s h a l l o b s e rv e t h e p r e s t i g e o f th e z o d ia c from i t s u s e i n th e i m p e r i a l p a l a c e , and i n t h e s a n c t u a r i e s of im p o r ta n t d e i t i e s . We s h a l l s e e i t s v e r s a t i l i t y a s a sym bol, and become aw are o f some u n e x p e c te d l i n k s b e tw e e n r e l i g i o n and a s t r o l o g y . The s p e c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p b etw een t h e z o d ia c and a d e i t y th o u g h t t o g o v e rn t h e g r e a t u n i v e r s a l c y c l e s w i l l be e x p lo r e d , and f i n a l l y , w ith t h e w hole body o f m a t e r i a l i n m ind, we s h a l l r e c o n s t r u c t t h e m eaning o f z o d ia c sym b olism . W hile t h i s b ro a d o v e rv ie w w i l l b e ou r p r i n c i p a l aim , t h e r e w i l l s t i l l b e o p p o r tu n ity t o exam ine s p e c i f i c i s s u e s , and we s h a l l s u g g e s t new i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s f o r c e r t a i n w orks o f a r t , c o n t r i b u t e in f o r m a tio n to w a rd s t h e u n d e r s ta n d in g o f o th e r s , and s u g g e s t a th e o r y
c o n c e r n in g a g ro up o f sym bols on P alm y rene t e s s e r a e .
The s tu d y w i l l b e b a s e d on t h e v i s u a l e v id e n c e o f t h e monuments, c o u p le d w h en ever p o s s i b l e w ith t e x t u a l s o u r c e s . A s t r o l o g i c a l d o c t r i n e s w i l l be m e n tio n e d f r e q u e n t l y , and t o a v o id c o n fu s io n a s t r o l o g i c a l te rm s s u c h as E x a l t a t i o n , H ouse, A sc e n d a n t, and so on, w i l l b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d w ith a c a p i t a l . Throughout t h e s tu d y q u o ta tio n s w i l l b e i n E n g lis h , b u t f o r t h e i n t e r e s t e d r e a d e r t h e y w i l l b e l i s t e d i n th e o r i g i n a l to n g u e i n A ppendix B.
I am n o t a l i n g u i s t , and have no p e r s o n a l com petence i n t h e ra n g e o f
la n g u a g e s fro m w h ich my t e x t s a r e draw n, o th e r t h a n an e le m e n ta ry know ledge o f A r a b ic . I h av e r e l i e d , t h e r e f o r e , on p u b lis h e d t r a n s l a t i o n s , and
when n e c e s s a r y , s o u g h t t h e a d v ic e o f th o s e w ith t h e a p p r o p r i a t e e x p e r t i s e . D i f f i c u l t a s t r o l o g i c a l te rm s u se d i n t h e t e x t h av e b e e n d e f in e d i n
A ppendix A. F i n a l l y , o u r c a t a lo g u e o f z o d ia c monuments w i l l p ro v id e f u r t h e r d e t a i l s and a b i b l i o g r a p h y f o r e a c h o f th e monuments d is c u s s e d .
By t h e p e r io d o f t h e Roman e m p ire , from w hich t h e b u lk o f our
monuments d a t e , t h e z o d ia c had s p re a d f a r fro m i t s n a t i v e M esopotam ia t o becom e a u n i v e r s a l l y r e c o g n iz e d sym bol from I n d i a t o B r i t a i n . Even a t
t h a t tim e i t was t h e p r o d u c t o f a v a n is h e d c i v i l i z a t i o n , and had a c q u i r e d an a u r a o f v e n e r a b le a n t i q u i t y , o f a m y ste ry h a lf-k n o w n , i n h e r i t e d fro m a n c i e n t s a c r e d w isdom . Some re m n a n ts o f t h i s a u r a c l i n g t o i t even now, and we may a f f i r m t h e re m a r k a b le , and lo n g l a s t i n g , s u c c e s s of t h e z o d ia c a s a sym bol.
THE MESOPOTAMIAN ORIGINS
C h a p te r o n e. THE ZCDIAC IN MESOPOTAMIAN ASTRONCMY AND RELIGION
INTRODUCTIONS THE CONSTELLATIONS IN MESOPOTAMIA
The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e tw e lv e z o d i a c a l c o n s t e l l a t i o n s i s d u e t o t h e i r p o s i t i o n on t h e e c l i p t i c , t h a t i s , on th e p a th t a k e n a n n u a lly "by t h e s u n , moon, and p l a n e t s . They w ere among t h e many c o n s t e l l a t i o n s t h a t h ad b e e n d i s t i n g u i s h e d and named i n a n c i e n t M esopotam ia, w here an i n t e r e s t i n t h e n i g h t sky e x te n d e d h a c k o v e r a lo n g p e r io d o f ti m e . The e a r l y h i s t o r y o f t h e c o n s t e l l a t i o n s i s u n d e r s ta n d a b ly o b s c u re , th o u g h t h e p r o c e s s o f d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g and n am in g t h e s t a r - g r o u p s had e v i d e n t l y b eg u n b y th e t h i r d m ille n n iu m B .C ., a s s t a r l i s t s fro m t h e tim e o f S a rg o n o f Agade ( c . 2 ,3 3 4 - 2 ,2 7 9 B .C .) a r e B t i l l e x t a n t .^ I n d e e d , a few s e a l s fro m even e a r l i e r p e r io d s c a r r y s t a r s and o th e r sym bols t h a t may r e f e r t o c o n s t e l l a t i o n s .
The f a m i l i a r v i s u a l im ages a s s o c i a t e d w ith t h e z o d ia c even to d a y a l s o o r i g i n a t e d i n M eso p o tam ia. T h ese may h av e u n d erg o n e a p r i o r in d e p e n d e n t d e v e lo p m e n t, th o u g h i n most c a s e s t h e e a r l i e s t s u r v i v i n g exam ples s u g g e s t
t h a t th e y w ere a l r e a d y a s s o c i a t e d w ith a c o n s t e l l a t i o n . We s h a l l s e e t h a t some o f t h e more d i s t i n c t i v e , s u c h a s t h e g o a t - f i s h and t h e f lo w in g v a s e , a c h ie v e d d e f i n i t i v e fo rm i n t h e A kkadian p e r i o d , w h ile o th e r s s u c h a s t h e s c o r p i o n , l i o n and b u l l , w ere w id e ly u s e d sy m b o ls, and p e rh a p s e q u a te d w ith c o n s t e l l a t i o n s , many c e n t u r i e s b e f o r e .
Of p a r t i c u l a r co n se q u e n c e t o o u r s tu d y i s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e s t a r s and p l a n e t s w ere r e g a r d e d a s d i v i n i t i e s , and t h e q u e s t i o n o f when t h i s f i r s t hap p en ed i s o f some i n t e r e s t . E ven i n t h e A k kadian p e r io d c o n s t e l l a t i o n s s u c h a s t h e g o a t - f i s h b e lo n g e d t o t h e re a lm o f t h e g o d s , and b y t h e Old B a b y lo n ia n p e r i o d ( f i r s t h a l f o f t h e second m ille n n iu m B .C .) a hymn t o
v 2
I s t a r i d e n t i f i e d h e r a s t h e p l a n e t Y enus. T h is b r i g h t lu m in a ry was
1 D .J.W isem an. " A s tr o lo g y " i n B ak er* s D i c t io n a r y o f C h r i s t i a n E t h i c s ( e d . C .F .H .H e n ry ). F o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f l i s t s o f t h i s n a t u r e , s e e A .L.O ppenheim , A n c ie n t M esopotam ia, r e v i s e d e d . (1 977)9 2 4 4 -2 4 8 .
2 S .L angdon, "A hymn t o I s t a r a s t h e p l a n e t V enus and t o Id ^ n -D a g sn a s Tammuz", JRAS, 1923, 3 1 .
a p p a r e n t l y t h e f i r s t o f t h e p l a n e t s t o be r e c o g n i z e d , and seems fro m e x t a n t s o u r c e s t o h av e b e e n t h e f i r s t s t u d i e d . The r e l i g i o n o f B a b y lo n ia i s
c o n s id e r e d p r i m a r i l y i n te rm s o f i t s a n th ro p o m o rp h ic d e i t i e s , t h e i r n y t h - o lo g y , r i t u a l s , te m p le s and s a c r i f i c e s , i n w hich s e t t i n g names su ch a s Anu,
V v V 3
E n l i l , E a, M arduk, Nabu, I s t a r , N e rg a l, Samas and S in a r e p ro m in e n t. Many o f t h e s e , a s we s h a l l s e e , had a s t r a l a s s o c i a t i o n s . Our s u rv e y w i l l show t h a t t h e s t a r s w ere p e t i t i o n e d d u r i n g many im p o r ta n t r e l i g i o u s c e r e m o n ie s , t h a t s a c r i f i c e s and p r a y e r s w ere d e d i c a te d t o th em , and t h a t th e y w ere h o n o u re d I n t h e h i g h e s t l e v e l s o f B a b y lo n ia n s o c i e t y .
I n t h e f o ll o w i n g p a g e s we s h a l l exam ine t h e p l a c e o f t h e c o n s t e l l a t i o n s i n t h e B a b y lo n ia n m i l i e u . Most o f t h e e v id e n c e w i l l b e draw n fro m t e x t s
and monuments o f t h e f i r s t m ille n n iu m B .C ., s o i t m ust b e assum ed t h a t th e p i c t u r e w hich em erges r e l a t e s p r i m a r i l y t o t h a t p e r i o d . Some o f t h e m a t e r i a l , h o w ev er, a lth o u g h c o p ie d i n t h e f i r s t m ille n n iu m , comes fro m much o l d e r t e x t s , s o o u r o b s e r v a tio n s r e l a t i n g t o t h e f i r s t m ille n n iu m may h o ld good i n some e s s e n t i a l s f o r e a r l i e r tim e s a s w e ll*
A. THE ZODIAC AND ASTRQNCMT
THE NATURE AKD ORIGIN OF THE ZODIAC
By t h e m id d le o f t h e f i r s t m ille n n iu m B .C . t h e p r i e s t - a s t r o n o m e r s o f B a b y lo n had e v o lv e d t h e f u l l y d e v e lo p e d z o d ia c . I t was c o n c e iv e d a s an im a g in a r y b and i n t h e h e a v e n s , tw e lv e d e g re e s w id e , th r o u g h t h e m id d le of w h ic h r a n t h e e c l i p t i c , t h e o r b i t o f t h e s u n . I t was d iv id e d i n t o tw e lv e
e q u a l segm ents o f t h i r t y d e g r e e s o f a r c , e a c h known b y t h e name o f t h e c o n s t e l l a t i o n t h a t l a y w i t h i n i t . The sun t r a v e l s th r o u g h each o f t h e tw e lv e c o n s t e l l a t i o n s i n t u r n , s p e n d in g one m onth i n e a c h ; t h e p l a n e t s and t h e moon f o llo w t h e same r o u t e , b u t t r a v e l a t d i f f e r e n t s p e e d s , t h e moon
3 F o r t h e h i e r a r c h i c a l o r d e r o f B a b y lo n ia n d e i t i e s c .8 0 0 B .C ., s e e
J.B rin k m a n , u n d e r "K u d u rru ” i n Re a l l e x i k o n d e r A s s y r io l o g ie und V order-*
a s i a t i s c h e n A r o h a o lo g ie . 19 ^1.
h u r r y i n g th ro u g h t h e w hole z o d ia c i n one m onth. The z o d i a c f s tw e lv e d e g re e s o f w id th a llo w e d f o r t h e s m a ll d e v i a t i o n o f t h e moon from t h e s u n 's p a t h , c a l c u l a t e d b y t h e B a b y lo n ia n s a s p l u s o r minus s i x d e g r e e s . The tw e lv e seg m en ts o f t h i r t y d e g r e e s p r o v id e d a u s e f u l s e t o f c o - o r d i n a t e s f o r meas
u r i n g th e p r o g r e s s o f t h e s u n , moon, and p l a n e t s th r o u g h t h e s e a s o n a l y e a r , ev en th o u g h t h e su n and t h e c o n s t e l l a t i o n s c o u ld n o t b e s e e n a t t h e same tim e# The sy stem was a n c h o re d t o t h e s o l s t i c e s and e q u in o x e s , w hich w ere s e t i n i t i a l l y a t t h e m id - p o in t o f t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e s i g n s : th e s p r i n g
e q u in o x a t 15° A r i e s , t h e summer s o l s t i c e a t 15° C a n c e r, t h e autum n eq u in o x a t 15° l i b r a , and t h e w in te r s o l s t i c e a t 15° C a p r ic o r n . I n l a t e r B a b y lo n ia n a stro n o m y t h i s p o s i t i o n was c h an g e d t o t h e t e n t h d e g r e e o f t h e r e s p e c t i v e s i g n s , and l a t e r a g a i n t o t h e e i g h t h d e g r e e . We s h a l l s e e t h a t G reek a s tro n o m e rs w ere f i n a l l y t o f i x t h e s o l s t i c e s and e q u in o x e s a t t h e f i r s t d e g r e e o f t h e i r s ig n s (b e lo w , p . 142) * The names and o r d e r o f t h e tw e lv e s i g n s a r e g iv e n i n A ppendix A .1 .
By th e e a r l y A chaem enid p e r i o d t h e z o d ia c r e p r e s e n t e d t h e l a t e s t d ev elo p m en t i n s c i e n t i f i c t h e o r y , p r o v id i n g a v e r s a t i l e means o f a c c u r a t e c e l e s t i a l m easu rem en t. I n i t s f u l l y e v o lv ed fo rm i t i s a s o p h i s t i c a t e d c o n c e p t t h a t m odern s c h o l a r s a g r e e m ust have b e e n c o m p le te b y c .5 0 0 B .C .^
The e a r l i e s t known a t t e s t a t i o n o f i t s f i n a l fo rm comes fro m tw o c u n e ifo rm t e x t s , BJ©6599 and BM36737 + EM47912, o f t h e A chaem enid p e r io d , p u b li s h e d b y S a c h s and A aboe, 5 w h ich d e a l w ith p r e d i c t e d lu n a r e c l i p s e s i n t h e y e a r s
4 7 5 -4 5 7 B .C . One o f t h e t a b l e t s i s d a te d b y c o lo p h o n t o 5 D ecem ber, 475 B .C . B a b y lo n ia n a s tr o n o m ic a l t e x t s o f t h e S e le u c id p e r i o d u se d s e t m ethods of n o t i n g t h e z o d i a c a l s ig n s i n l i s t s o f d a t a o r c a l c u l a t i o n s . I n t h e t e x t o f 475 B .C . t h e d a t a was p r e s e n te d i n co lu m ns, one h e a d e d b y t h e B a b y lo n ia n
4 O .N eugebauer, HAMA I I , 1 9751 593*
5 A .A aboe, A .S a c h s, "Two l u n a r t e x t s of t h e A chaem enid p e r i o d " , C e n ta u r u s , XIV, 19&9>
te rm f o r " z o d i a c a l s i g n " , u s i n g th e n o t a t i o n f a m i l i a r from sc cores o f l a t e r t e x t s , s u g g e s tin g t h a t i t was a l r e a d y w e ll e s t a b l i s h e d .
THE PERI Cg) CF DEVELOPMENT
The c r e a t i o n o f t h e z o d ia c i n t h e m i d - f i r s t m ille n n iu m B .C . i m p l i e s t h a t B a b y lo n ia n a s tro n o m y had u n d erg o n e a lo n g p e r i o d o f p r i o r d e v e lo p m e n t, y e t t o be t r a c e d i n d e t a i l . Many o f t h e c o n s t e l l a t i o n names a r e o f S u m erian
o r i g i n , s u g g e s tin g a n i n t e r e s t i n th e heavens a t l e a s t a s a n c i e n t . The e a r l i e s t e v id e n c e o f p l a n e t a r y o b s e r v a tio n s comes from t h e m id d le o f t h e se c o n d m ille n n iu m B .C . D u rin g t h e r e i g n o f K ing Ammisaduqa ( c . 1 6 4 6 -1 6 2 6 B . C .) , t h e p e n u l t i m a t e k in g o f t h e f i r s t d y n a s ty o f B ab y lo n , o b s e r v a tio n s
o f Venus w ere r e c o r d e d o v e r a p e r i o d o f tw e n ty -tw o y e a r s . They s u r v iv e as
" T a b l e t 63" i n a g ro u p o f s e v e n ty omen t e x t s , known a s Enuma Anu E n l i l . The V enus t a b l e t ^ d e a l s w ith omens b a s e d m a in ly on t h e f i r s t and l a s t v i s i b i l i t i e s o f Venus a s m o rn in g and e v e n in g s t a r . T h at Venus was a l r e a d y r e c o g n iz e d a s b o th m o rn in g and e v e n in g s t a r s u g g e s ts t h a t e a r l i e r o b s e r v a tio n s h ad b een made. The t e x t c o n t a i n s t h e e a r l i e s t known a tte m p t t o d e s c r i b e a p l a n e t * s movements m a th e m a tic a lly .
E a r l y s t a r - l i s t s show t h a t t h e p r a c t i c a l and m y th o lo g ic a l a s p e c t s of astro n o m y w ere in te r w o v e n . A c c o rd in g t o t h e B a b y lo n ia n E p ic of C r e a t i o n , when Marduk c r e a t e d t h e h e a v e n s o u t o f h a l f o f t h e s p l i t body o f T ia m a t, h e a p p o in te d t h r e e s t a r s t o r i s e e a c h month a s t i m e - k e e p e r s . T h e ir e s t a b l i s h e d r i s i n g tim e s w ere u s e f u l p o i n t s o f r e f e r e n c e , a s t h e B a b y lo n ia n s u sed a l u n a r c a l e n d a r , w h ich d o e s n o t c o rre s p o n d t o t h e s o l a r y e a r . D ependence on a l u n a r c y c l e r e s u l t s i n a " w a n d e rin g y e a r " , w here a n a n n u a l f e s t i v a l i n tim e t r a v e l s th r o u g h a l l t h e s e a s o n s , an e f f e c t s e e n i n t h e y e a r l y v a r i a t i o n o f t h e I s la m ic f a s t o f Ramadan. The B a b y lo n ia n s r e g u l a t e d t h e i r c a l e n d a r by c h e c k in g th e l u n a r m onths a g a i n s t t h e r i s i n g and s e t t i n g of t h i r t y - s i x f ix e d s t a r s w hich r o s e t h r e e p e r month th ro u g h o u t t h e y e a r . When t h e l u n a r month
6 E .R e in e r , D .P in g r e e , Enuma Anu I j h l i l , t a b l e t 6 3 . The Venus t a b l e t o f Ammisaduqa , 1975* P a s s im .
f a i l e d t o c o r r e s p o n d a c c e p ta b l y t o t h e r i s i n g o f t h e s e s t a r s , an a d d i t i o n a l m onth was add ed t o t h e y e a r t o make up t h e d i f f e r e n c e (b e lo w , p . 29 ) •
L i s t s o f t h e t h i r t y - s i x tim e - k e e p e r s t a r s c o m p ile d b e f o r e t h e b e g in n in g o f t h e f i r s t m ille n n iu m a r e e x t a n t* These l i s t s h av e b e e n dubbed " a s t r o - la b e s " ' th o u g h th e y b e a r no r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e i n s t r u m e n t s of t h a t name 7
u s e d i n l a t e r c e n t u r i e s b y t h e a s tro n o m e rs o f I s l a m . The B a b y lo n ia n " a s t r o la b e s " had tw o c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w hich a r e of i n t e r e s t t o t h i s s tu d y : f i r s t , t h e y c o n t a in t h e names o f t h e z o d i a c a l c o n s t e l l a t i o n s ; and s e c o n d ly , t h e e a r l i e s t a p p e a r t o hav e had a c i r c u l a r fo r m a t, d iv i d e d i n t o tw e lv e segm ents w ith r a d i a t i n g l i n e s . T h is form h a s been deduced fro m t h e o r e t i c a l c o n s id e r a t i o n s and fro m a l a t e r f r a g m e n ta r y exam ple fro m t h e l i b r a r y of A s s u r b a n ip a l
g
i n N in e v e h . The s e g m e n ts, num bered c lo c k w is e , s i g n i f i e d one month e a c h . APPENDIX
The w hole was f u r t h e r s u b d iv id e d i n t o t h r e e c o n c e n t r i c r i n g s (A .1 5 ) , c o n t
a i n i n g i n t u r n , t h e s t a r s o f E n l i l ( i n n e r r i n g ) , th e n t h e s t a r s o f Anu, and t h e s t a r s o f Ea i n t h e o u te r r i n g . The c i r c u l a r fo rm a t g r a p h i c a l l y p r e s e n t s t h e c y c l i c n a t u r e o f t h e phenom ena, and i s r e m i n i s c e n t o f t h e z o d ia c p l a n i s p h e r e s o f G raeco-Rom an a r t , t o b e c o n s id e r e d i n Ch. 1 4 .
The d i v i s i o n o f t h e s t a r s i n t o t h r e e g ro u p s r e c u r s i n o th e r s t a r - l i s t s . I t was th o u g h t e a r l i e r t h a t t h e B a b y lo n ia n s d i v i d e d t h e sky p a r a l l e l t o th e c e l e s t i a l e q u a to r i n t o t h r e e g r e a t b a n d s, c o n t a i n i n g r e s p e c t i v e l y from n o r th t o s o u th , t h e s t a r s o f t h e Way o f E n l i l , t h e Way o f Anu, and t h e Way o f Ea.
R e c e n tly , how ev er, P in g r e e and R e in e r 9 have s u g g e s te d t h a t th e s e d i v i s i o n s a p p l i e d o n ly t o t h e e a s t e r n h o r iz o n , w here t h e s t a r s w ould b e o b se rv e d t o r i s e h e l i a c a l l y . W hichever i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s p r e f e r r e d , t h e s e b an ds w i l l b e
o f i n t e r e s t i n c o n n e c tio n w ith a te m p le r e f u r b i s h e d b y S e n n a c h e rib , t o b e d i s c u s s e d p r e s e n t l y ( p . 4
E v id en ce fro m t h e nni^ APIN t e x t s d e m o n s tr a te s t h a t t h e c o n c e p ts n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e f o r m u l a tio n o f t h e z o d ia c w ere a l r e a d y u n d e r s to o d b e f o r e 70 0 B .C .
7 B .L .v a n d e r W aerden, " B a b y lo n ia n a s tr o n o m y II , t h e t h i r t y - s i x s t a r names"
JNES V I I I , 1949, 1 0 .
8 Idem , S c ie n c e A w akening I I , 1974, 6 2 . 9 E .R e in e r , EAE. t a b l e t s 5 0 -5 1 ♦ 1981, 17*
T h ese t e x t s a r e a s e r i e s o f t h r e e t a b l e t s , a compendium of th e a s tr o n o m ic a l know ledge o f t h e i r d a y , known fro m s e v e r a l c o p i e s , p r i n c i p a l l y BM86378 f o r
1 0 1 1 v V
t a b l e t one, an d VAT9412 f o r t a b l e t tw o , . The o l d e s t co p y , from A s s u r, h a s b e e n d a te d t o 687 B .C *, i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e c o m p o s itio n i s somewhat o l d e r . A c c o rd in g t o R e i n e r , 12 t h e a s tr o n o m ic a l d a t a f i t s b e s t th e p e r io d aro u n d 1 ,0 0 0 B .C . a t t h e l a t i t u d e o f N in ev eh (c. 36 °N ). The s e r i e s i s known by t h e o p e n in g w o rd s, " AP1N. " t h e P lo u g h s t a r . . . ” , a s modern A s s y r i o l o g i s t s h a v e a d o p te d t h e p r a c t i c e o f t h e a n c i e n t s c r i b e s i n r e f e r r i n g t o a t a b l e t b y i t s o p e n in g w ords ( i n c i p i t ) . The te rm nrul i s t h e S um erian e q u i v a le n t of t h e A kkadian te r m k a k k a b u . m eaning n s t a r " . T hese a r e logogram s em ployed as d e t e r m i n a t i v e s b e f o r e s t a r nam es, and we s h a l l e n c o u n te r b o th f r e q u e n t l y i n t h e p a g e s t o f o l l o w .
The mu^APIN t e x t s d e a l t w ith a r a n g e i>f a s tr o n o m ic a l phenom ena. They d e s c r i b e d how t o d e te r m in e t h e d a t e s o f s o l s t i c e s and eq u in o x es b y u s in g gnomon shadow s. T h e re was d a t a c o n c e r n in g f i x e d s t a r s and p l a n e t s , i n s t r u c t io n s on r e g u l a t i n g t h e c a l e n d a r , and a l i s t o f c o n s t e l l a t i o n s on t h e e c l i p t i c . The l a t t e r , h o w ev er, num bered e i g h t e e n , n o t tw e l v e . The z o d ia c a l c o n s t e l l a t io n s w ere a l l m e n tio n e d , b u t a g ro u p o f s t a r s w i t h i n T a u ru s , t h e P l e i a d e s , was l i s t e d s e p a r a t e l y , and t h r e e o t h e r c o n s t e l l a t i o n s t h a t l i e n e a r t h e e c l i p t i c , O rio n {,mul SIPA.ZI.AN.NA. " t h e t r u e S h ep h erd o f H eav en "), P e rs e u s (H^ S U . G I . " t h e Old M an"), and A u rig a (^^GAM . " t h e C ro o k " ), w ere a l s o i n c l u d e d . I n a d d i t i o n , P i s c e s was d iv id e d i n t o t h r e e seg m en ts, t o make th e c o n s t e l l a t i ons .MBS. mu^SIM.MAH ( t h e S w allow ) and ^ ^ A n u n itu m .
The i n c r e a s e d num ber o f c o n s t e l l a t i o n s may h a v e r e p r e s e n t e d moon s t a t i o n s , a s t h a t lu m in a ry was u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n . The l i s t d o e s d e m o n s tra te t h a t th e c o n c e p t o f a b e l t o f c o n s t e l l a t i o n s m a rk in g t h e s e a s o n a l p a th o f t h e su n ,
10 E .F .W e id n e r, H andbuch d e r b a b y lo n is c h e n A stro n o m ie . 1915* 35-51 • 11 Idem , " E in ;fcab y lo n isch es Kompendium d e r H im m elskunde", AJSL, 1924*
186- 208.
12 E .R e in e r , EAE, t a b l e t s 5 0 -5 1 . 6 .
moon, and p l a n e t s was u n d e r s to o d . To c o m p le te t h e z o d ia c i t rem ain ed o n ly t o f i x t h e c o n s t e l l a t i o n s a t tw e lv e , m aking e a c h e q u i v a le n t to one m onth, and t o add th e s y ste m of d e g r e e s . B oth c o n c e p ts w ere a lr e a d y f a m i l i a r . The
" a s t r o l a b e s " w ere co m p ile d a s l i s t s o f tw e lv e g ro u p s o f s t a r s , eac h
a s s o c i a t e d w ith a m onth, and m ethods o f d i v i d i n g a c i r c l e i n t o u n i t s o f a r c , o r d e g r e e s , a r e a t t e s t e d from t h e seco n d m ille n n iu m B .C ., o r e a r l i e r .
F o u r m ethods o f d i v i d i n g t h e c i r c l e w ere u s e d i n B a b y lo n ia , 1 3 b u t o n ly tw o n eed c o n c e rn u s , one a v a r i a n t o f t h e o t h e r . The b a s i c u n i t was t h e
b e r u , one d o u b le —h o u r , o r i n a s tr o n o m ic a l te r m s , t h e a n g u la r d i s t a n c e t r a v e l l e r b y a s t a r i n t h a t ti m e . A co m p lem en tary d e f i n i t i o n o f b e r u i s t h a t i t e q u a ls
o n e - t w e l f t h o f a c i r c l e , i . e . , one z o d i a c a l s i g n e q u a ls one b e r u . From Old B a b y lo n ia n ti m e s , t h e c i r c l e was d iv i d e d i n t o tw e lv e b e r u . th e n f u r t h e r s u b d iv id e d a s f o ll o w s :
t h e f u l l c i r c l e = 12 b e r u ; 1 b e r u = 3 0 u s .
An u s , t h e r e f o r e , was e q u i v a le n t t o 1* i n m odern te r m s , d i v i d i n g t h e c i r c l e i n t o 3 6 0 ° . B a b y lo n ia n m a th e m a tic s , d e v e lo p e d e x t e n s i v e l y i n th e Old Baby
l o n i a n p e r i o d , u s e d a s m a ll c i r c l e a s a symbol f o r t h e number 3 6 0 . The u&
was f u r t h e r s u b d iv id e d i n t o 60 p a r t s , c o r r e s p o n d in g t o our m in u tes o f a r c , and e a c h o f t h e s e w ere s u b d iv id e d i n t o , .60 p a r t s , e q u a l t o o u r seco n d s o f a r c . T h is s y ste m i s s t i l l i n u s e i n t h e tw e lv e z o d i a c a l s ig n s o f t h i r t y d e g r e e s e a c h .
A v a r i a n t o f t h e sy ste m i s o f i n t e r e s t b e c a u s e i t was ad o p ted b y c l a s s i c a l a s tr o n o m e r s and p a s s e d i n t o modern a s tr o n o n y . The c i r c l e was d iv i d e d i n t o tw e lv e b e r u . t h e n s u b d iv id e d i n t o c u b i t s and f i n g e r s , th u s :
1 b e r u = 12 c u b i t s ; 1 c u b i t = 24 f i n g e r s .
The B a b y lo n ia n " f i n g e r " ( A kkadian ubanu) becam e t h e G reek <$«KT-uXos and th e m odern " d i g i t " . I t h a s rem a in ed t h e s ta n d a r d m easurem ent f o r e x p r e s s in g th e m a g n itu d e o f a l u n a r e c l i p s e , b e i n g e q u i v a le n t t o o n e - tw e l f th o f t h e moon1 s d i a m e t e r .
13 J .K .F o th e r in g h a m , " B a b y lo n ia n m easu res and t h e d a k t u lo s The O b s e r v a to r y , X I I I , 1919, 46-51
The b e r u a l s o came t o be u s e d a s a m easure o f l e n g t h , m eaning t h e d i s t a n c e t r a v e l l e d i n a m arch o f one d o u b le - h o u r , b u t i t s a p p l i c a t i o n as a u n i t o f tim e r e c k o n in g seems t o h av e b een t h e o r i g i n a l u s a g e .
P r i o r t o t h e c r e a t i o n o f t h e z o d ia c , t h e p r o g r e s s o f t h e moon and p l a n e t s was r e c o r d e d i n r e l a t i o n t o t h i r t y —one m arker s t a r s (som etim es c a l l e d
"N orm al s t a r s " ) ^ s c a t t e r e d a ro u n d t h e e c l i p t i c . The p o s i t i o n o f t h e moon o r p l a n e t was r e l a t e d t o t h e m a r k e r - s t a r by d i s t a n c e s m easured i n c u b i t s and f i n g e r s . I t was s t a t e d t o b e " i n f r o n t o f" o r " b e h in d " t h e m ark er s t a r b y s o many c u b i t s o r f i n g e r s . " I n f r o n t o f" s i g n i f i e d t h a t i t was t o th e w e s t o f t h e m a rk e r, i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f d a i l y r o t a t i o n . The t e x t s u s in g t h i s s y s te m r e f e r t o t h e tw e lv e z o d i a c a l c o n s t e l l a t i o n s , b u t th e m arker s t a r s w ere u se d i n s t e a d o f d e g r e e s .
I t seems t h a t t h e r e i g n o f N a b u - iia s ir (747-735 B .C .) opened a p e r io d of i n t e n s i f i e d i n t e r e s t i n a s tro n o m y , w h e r e a f te r a s tr o n o m ic a l t e x t s s u r v iv e i n i n c r e a s i n g n u m b e rs. P to le m y , t h e G reek a s tro n o m e r o f t h e second c e n t u r y A .D ., m e n tio n s (A lm ag. I l l , 7) t h a t h e had a c c e s s t o e c l i p s e r e c o r d s g o in g back
A — 1 5
t o N a b u - n a s ir * s r e i g n , and S a c h s s u g g e s te d t h a t i t may have b een t h e p e r i o d i n w h ich t h e s o - c a l l e d " a s tr o n o m ic a l d i a r i e s " w ere s t a r t e d . A number
o f t h e s e d i a r i e s a r e i n t h e B r i t i s h Museum. The o l d e s t f o r w hich a d a t e c a n b e e s t a b l i s h e d comes fro m t h e y e a r 652 B .C . (BM32312). O th ers c:an b e p l a c e d i n t h e s i x t h , f i f t h and f o u r t h c e n t u r i e s , w ith many more i n t h e
S e l e u c i d p e r i o d . The d i a r i e s r e c o r d o b s e r v a t i o n s , w hereas t h e g r e a t m a jo r ity o f t h e a s tro n o m ic a l, t e x t s d e a l w ith t h e com puted p o s i t i o n s o f t h e c e l e s t i a l b o d i e s . Each d i a r y c a v e r s a p e r i o d o f s i x o r s e v e n m o nths. They r e c o r d d e t a i l s
o f l u n a r and p l a n e t a r y phenom ena, w ind v e l o c i t i e s and d i r e c t i o n s , e c l i p s e s , c h a n g e s o f r i v e r l e v e l (m ea su re d i n c u b i t s and f i n g e r s ) , even com modity • p r i c e s .
14 A .S a c h s, "A l a t e B a b y lo n ia n s t a r c a t a l o g " , JCS V I, 1952, 146- 1 5 0 . 15 Idem , " B a b y lo n ia n o b s e r v a t i o n a l a stro n o m y ", i n The p la c e o f astro no m y
i n t h e a n c i e n t w o rld , ( e d . F .R .H o d so n ), 1974» 3 5 -5 0 .
The d i a r i e s w ere a s o u rc e o f d a t a f o r co m p u tin g l u n a r and p l a n e t a r y e p h e m e r id e s . A m a jo r g o a l o f B a b y lo n ia n astro n o m y was t o p r e d i c t phenomena s u c h a s t h e new moon, a n e c l i p s e , a p p e a ra n c e s and d is a p p e a r a n c e s o f th e p l a n e t s , a s w e ll a s t h e i r s t a t i o n a r y p o i n t s , r e t r o g r a d a t i o n s , and so f o r t h . 16 T h is was done m a th e m a tic a lly , g i v i n g a h ig h e r d e g r e e o f a c c u ra c y th a n c o u ld b e o b ta in e d b y o b s e r v a ti o n s u s i n g th e p r i m i t i v e a i d s a v a i l a b l e t o astro n o m e rs
th r o u g h o u t a n t i q u i t y .
Lunar phenom ena r e c e i v e d s p e c i a l em p h asis. The moon g o vern ed t h e B abylon
i a n c a l e n d a r and was an im p o r ta n t s o u rc e of omens, e s p e c i a l l y a t tim e s of e c l i p s e . P r a y e r s t o a s t r a l d e i t i e s on t h e s e o c c a s io n s s u g g e s t t h a t th e B a b y lo n ia n s c o n s id e r e d th e m s e lv e s v u l n e r a b l e t o a t t a c k b y demons o r w itc h - c r a f t d u r i n g e c l i p s e s . 171 F u r th e r m o re , c e r t a i n e c l i p s e s c o u ld p o r te n d d an g er t o t h e w hole n a t i o n b y b e i n g om inous t o t h e k in g . At su c h tim e s c o u n te r m e a su re s m ig h t ev en i n c l u d e a p p o i n tin g a s u b s t i t u t e k in g , who w ould r e i g n
f o r one h u n d red d ay s t o ta k e t h e p o rte n d e d e v i l on h i m s e l f , and th u s sav e t h e p e r s o n o f t h e r e a l m o narch . 18 By t h e s e v e n th c e n t u r y B .C . t h e o b se rv a t i o n o f a s t r a l omens had become t h e m ost im p o r ta n t method o f p r e d i c t i o n , s u r p a s s i n g and p a r t i a l l y r e p l a c i n g o th e r form s o f d i v i n a t i o n . A dependence on a s t r a l omens w ould le n d im p e tu s t o th e d ev elo p m en t o f astro n o m y . The B a b y lo n ia n s r e c o g n iz e d t h a t p l a n e t a r y movements a r e c y c l i c , and t h e r e f o r e p r e d i c t a b l e , and c o u ld b e d e s c r ib e d m a th e m a tic a lly . I f d a n g e ro u s p e r io d s o f p l a n e t a r y movement c o u ld b e d e t e c t e d i n a d v a n c e , re m e d ie s c o u ld be s o u g h t th r o u g h r i t u a l s and c e r e m o n ie s . C o n v e rs e ly , i f f a v o u r a b le moments c o u l d b e p r e d i c t e d , one w ould know i n advance t h e b e s t tim e t o u n d e r ta k e i m p o r ta n t p r o j e c t s .
R e p o r ts o f o b s e rv e d phenom ena w ere d is p a tc h e d t o t h e A s s y r ia n k in g s
16 A .A aboe, " O b s e r v a tio n and t h e o r y i n B a b y lo n ia n a stro n o n ry ", C e n ta u r us XXIV, 198 0, 1 4 -3 5 .
17 L.W .K ing, B a b y lo n ia n m agic and s o r c e r y 1 8 9 6 , S e c t i o n V I, 5 3 -6 2 . 18 H .F r a n k f o r t, K in g s h ip and t h e g o d s . 194&* 262 - 2 6 5 .
