BATESON'S NAVEN: TOWARDS AN ANTHROPOLOGY OF PERFORMANCE
by Ian P a t r i c k F l a v i n
T h e s i s s u b m i t t e d i n f u l f i l m e n t o f r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r t h e d e g r e e o f MPhi l i n t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f A n t h r o p o l o g y and S o c i o l o g y , S c h o o l o f O r i e n t a l and A f r i c a n S t u d i e s , U n i v e r s i t y o f London
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ABSTRACT
The t h e s i s i s an a t t e m p t t o d ea l wi th two t o p i c s . The t e x t c o n s i s t s o f a d e t a i l e d r e a d i n g o f Gregory B a t e s o n ' s et hnog ra phy o f t h e Iatmul o f New Guinea, Naven (1936: 1958). In t h i s
c l a s s i c work Bateson a t t e m p t e d t o a n a l y s e a nexus o f r i t u a l and cere mo ni al a c t i v i t i e s among t h e I a t m u l . The t h e o r e t i c a l and m e t h o d o l o g i c a l q u e s t i o n s r a i s e d by Bateson in h i s book a r e of
profound impor tance f o r a nt h r o p o l o g y in g e n e r a l , and f o r s t u d i e s o f " r i t u a l " in p a r t i c u l a r . The t e n s i o n s e x p l o r e d in Naven, between e x p l a n a t i o n and u n d e r s t a n d i n g , between a c t i o n and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n and between i n t e l l e c t u a l c o h e r e n c e and s o c i a l c o n t e x t , a r e c r u c i a l c on ce r ns f o r a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s working in t h e 1980s. B a t e s o n ' s book was w r i t t e n a t a t i m e when s t r u c t u r a l - f u n c t i o n a l ism was t h e a s c e n d a n t paradigm in B r i t i s h a n t h r o p o l o g y , and i t d e a l t with problems which t h a t paradigm was u n ab l e t o f o r m u l a t e o r t o d i s c u s s . The t h e s i s a rg ues t h a t many o f t h e q u e s t i o n s which a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s have r a i s e d a b o u t r i t u a l would be b e t t e r p h r a s e d as q u e s t i o n s ab out p er f or ma nce, and i t s e t s o u t t o show t h a t Naven can be r e a d as a c o n t r i b u t i o n t o an a nt h r o p o l o g y o f per for ma nce r a t h e r t h a n as a c o n t r i b u t i o n t o an a n t h r o p o l o g y o f r i t u a l . This c o n s t i t u t e s t h e second t o p i c . The t h e s i s c o n s i d e r s c r i t i c a l l y t h e work o f o t h e r s c h o l a r s in t h i s f i e l d , n o t a b l y Edmund Leach, C l i f f o r d G e e r t z , Claude L e v i - S t r a u s s , G i l b e r t Lewis, V i c t o r Tur ner and Richard S c h e ch n er . Tur ner and Schechner have r e c e n t l y been r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e development o f a " d r a m a t u r g i c a l " model o f r i t u a l and o f b r o a d e r s o c i a l c o n t e x t s , and t h e t h e s i s c o nc l ud es w i th a c r i t i q u e o f some o f t h e p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s i m p l i c i t in t h e i r work. The n o t i o n o f per for mance i s n ot o f f e r e d as an a l t e r n a t i v e c a t e g o r y t o t h a t o f r i t u a l , f o r t h i s would o n ly r e p l a c e one e s s e n t i a l i s m by a n o t h e r . I t i s s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e development o f a t h e o r y o f pe rf or ma nc e would c o n s t i t u t e a u s e f u l s t r a t e g y in contemporary c o n c e r n s w it h t h e d e c e n t e r i n g and d e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t r a d i t i o n a l a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l c a t e g o r i e s .
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
A b s t r a c t 2
Foreword 4
Chapt er
One In tro d u ctio n 5
Two Gregory Bateson - The Background 29
Three The Ethnographic S e ttin g 41
Four Naven: Theory and S tra teg y 70
Five I d e n tity and I d e n t if ic a t io n 90
Six K insh ip , S o c io lo g y and S tru ctu re in Naven 109
Seven Ethos 131
E ight Ethos and Naven 156
Nine Schism ogenesis 176
Ten Eidos and E p ilogu es: From System t o
Context and Back 194
Eleven D econ stru ction v ersu s Dramatism 228
Twelve An Ecology o f Mind: B a teso n 's Work
A fte r Naven 267
T h i r t e e n Towards an Anthropology o f Performance 293
Fou rt een C onclusion 303
B ib liograp h y 306
Diagrams
1 Iatmul Kinship Terminology 48
2, 2a From B iosphere t o C ulture in Naven 77 3 How an A n th ro p o lo g ist S tu d ies a C ulture 78 4 B a teso n 's F ive Functions as A n a ly tic a l S ta g es 87
5 From B ateson, (1936: 89) 112
6 FZD Marriage 117
7 WB as Focus f o r A llia n c e 121
8 Z as Focus f o r A llia n c e 121
9 Skewing R ule, T rio/Iatm ul 122
10 R ep etitio n o f Wau-Laua Link o ver Three
G enerations 126
FOREWORD
No w r i t e r w r i t e s a l o n e . F r i e n d s , loved ones and t e a c h e r s a r e n ot a n c i l l a r y workers b u t p r e r e q u i s i t e s f o r any work a t a l l .
My i n t e r e s t in Gregory Bateson stems from my t i m e as an
u n d e r g r a d u a t e a t t h e London School o f Economics. I have t o t ha n k my t e a c h e r s a t t h e Department o f S o c i a l Anthr opology t h e r e ,
p a r t i c u l a r l y Dr A l f r e d Gell who, with an a p p r e c i a t i o n o f t h e Grand A l l i a n c e which t h e a u t h o r o f Naven and t h e sometime husband o f Margar et Mead would have a p p r e c i a t e d , i n c l u d e d a l e c t u r e on Bateson in a c o u r s e on American a n t h r o p o l o g y . Dr Michael S a l l n o w ' s p e r c e p t i v e and i m a g i n a t i v e t e a c h i n g l ed me t o an
i n t e r e s t in t h e o r i e s o f r i t u a l and p e rf o rm a nc e. I would a l s o l i k e t o t ha n k a n o t h e r o f my t e a c h e r s a t t h e LSE, Dr Joanna Overing, f o r h e r c o n t i n u i n g i n t e r e s t in my work as an u n d e r g r a d u a t e and as a r e s e a r c h s t u d e n t . Her gu id a nc e and h e r f r i e n d s h i p has been i n v a l u a b l e .
My p r e l i m i n a r y r e s e a r c h a t t h e School o f O r i e n t a l and A f r i c a n S t u d i e s was f unded by a g r a n t from t h e S o c i a l S c i e n c e Research Council from 1982 t o 1984. I must a l s o th a nk t h e Royal Anthropo
l o g i c a l I n s t i t u t e f o r a g ener ous award which has f i n a n c e d t h e f i n a l s t a g e s o f t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f my t h e s i s .
I r e c a l l w i th warm a p p r e c i a t i o n my t e a c h e r s a t t h e Royal Academy o f Dramatic Art who i n s p i r e d me w it h a l i f e - l o n g love f o r t h e p e r fo r mi n g a r t s , and f o r t h e t h e a t r e in p a r t i c u l a r .
I would s p e c i a l l y l i k e t o mention Keith J o h n s t o n e , who i s n o t o nl y a t e a c h e r o f a c t i n g b l e s s e d w i th g e n i u s ; he was a l s o r e s p o n s i b l e f o r my f i r s t t a k i n g a s e r i o u s i n t e r e s t in a n t h r o p o l o g y .
I would l i k e t o t ha n k a l l my f r i e n d s f o r t h e i r encouragement, companionship and s u p p o r t . Thanks, p a r t i c u l a r l y , t o Jude A ld er s on , Suki H u n ti n g t o n , John and Vera B o lt o n, Eve Grace and Penny Ward.
This t h e s i s i s f o r Kath leen Br a d l e y , 1906-1983. I owe h e r more, much more, t h a n I can e v e r s ay .
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
FIFTY YEARS AFTER i t s p u b l i c a t i o n , Gregory B a t e s o n ' s Naven remains a r g u a b l y one o f t h e g r e a t u n a p p r e c i a t e d c l a s s i c s of s o c i a l a n t h r o p o l o g y . Indeed, h i s p u b l i s h e d work o t h e r t h a n t h e e t h nog ra phy o f t h e Iatmul p r o b ab l y has a w id er r e a d e r s h i p o u t s i d e a n t h r o po l o gy t h a n w i t h i n i t . This i s b eca use from t h e mid-1950s u n t i l h i s d e a t h in 1980 Bateson became w el l known f o r h i s r e s e a r c h in o t h e r a r e a s , p a r t i c u l a r l y animal communication, f a m i l y groups o f s c h i z o p h r e n i c s and e c o l o g y . His f o l l o w i n g d u r i n g t h e 1960s amongst t h e r a d i c a l mandar ins o f a n t i - p s y c h i a t r y , e c ol o gy and t h e o t h e r movements which made up t h e ' c o u n t e r - c u l t u r e ' had l i t t l e o r n o t h i n g t o do with h i s r e p u t a t i o n as an a n t h r o p o l o g i s t . This i s d e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t h i s e a r l i e s t work, a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l f i e l d - w o r k c a r r i e d o u t in t h e e a r l y 1930s amongst a s t o n e age p e o p l e l i v i n g on t h e Upper Sepik Rive r in New Guinea, c o n t a i n e d t h e seeds o f many o f h i s l a t e r a c hi e ve me nt s.
Thi s t h e s i s i s in p a r t an a t t e m p t t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h i s c o n t i n u i t y in B a t e s o n ' s t h o u g h t by means o f a d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s o f Naven. In doing s o , I hope a l s o t o show him t o have been a s eminal f i g u r e in t h e h i s t o r y o f s o c i a l a n t h r o p o l o g y , and one o f c r u c i a l r e l e v a n c e f o r a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s working in t h e l a t e 1980s. F u r t h e r , t h e t h e s i s i s an a t t e m p t a t an o r i g i n a l c r i t i q u e o f B a t e s o n ' s Naven which examines t h e work as a c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e t h e o r y o f p er f or ma n ce in a n t h r o p o l o g y . In u s i n g t h i s te rm I am r e f e r r i n g t o a d i s p a r a t e c o l l e c t i o n o f w r i t i n g s which do n o t c o n s t i t u t e an a c c e p t e d co r pu s o f l i t e r a t u r e b u t which I w i l l use as r e f e r e n c e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y in t h i s I n t r o d u c t i o n and in t h e l a s t s e c t i o n o f t h e t e x t . These a r e l a r g e l y drawn from a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s o f r i t u a l in g e n e r a l and, more p a r t i c u l a r l y , r e c e n t work which has employed t h e " d r a m a t u r g i c a l " model n ot o nl y o f r i t u a l b u t o f s o c i e t y ( o r , a t l e a s t , v a r i o u s s o c i e t i e s ) a t l a r g e . I r e f e r h e r e i n p a r t i c u l a r t o t h e w r i t i n g s o f V i c t o r T u r n e r , C l i f f o r d Geer tz and Richard S ch echn er, as w el l as t o t h e symboli c i n t e r a c t i o n - i s t approach o f Erving Goffman. The t h e s i s a l s o draws on p h i l o s o p h i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s from D e r r i d a , G i r a r d , W i t t g e n s t e i n , S a r t r e and
T a y l o r . In u s in g t h e t e rm “ performance t h e o r y " as a g e n e r i c l a b e l f o r t h e s e and o t h e r r e f e r e n c e s I may be s e t t i n g a p r e c e d e n t , b ut
I hope t o show t h a t i t i s a u s e f u l one f o r s o c i a l a n t h r o p o l o g y . The t h e s i s w i l l , I hope, i n d i c a t e something o f t h e p o s s i b l e s u b j e c t m a t t e r , scope and i m p l i c a t i o n s o f an approach t o p er f or ma n ce .
In t h e main body o f t h e t h e s i s I hope t o show t h a t Naven
(1936 1 s t e d i t i o n ; 1956 2nd e d i t i o n ) i s a c r u c i a l e a r l y c o n t r i b u t i o n towards an a n t h r o p o l o g y o f per f or ma nce. My b a s i c argument h e r e i s t h a t B a t e s o n ' s t e x t c o n t i n u a l l y a t t e m p t s t o t r a n s c e n d a s t r u c t u r a l - f u n c t i o n a l i s t model o f r i t u a l by opening up s e v e r a l l i n e s o f
t h e o r e t i c a l d e b a t e which, I s u g g e s t , can u s e f u l l y be c o n s i d e r e d as p o i n t i n g t owar ds t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f an a n t h r o p o l o g y o f p er f or ma n ce . Even a p a r t from t h i s , however, I w i l l t r y t o show why t h i s book pr oves Bateson t o have been a major f i g u r e in s o c i a l a n t h r o p o l o g y d e s p i t e t h e s e l f - c o n f e s s e d f a i l u r e s not ed by t h e a u t h o r a t t h e end o f h i s t e x t and t h a t t h e s e f a i l u r e s c o n t r i b u t e t o w a r d s , r a t h e r t h a n d e t r a c t from, t h e s u c c e s s o f Naven as an e x p o s i t i o n o f a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l
argument. F u r t h e r , t h e s e f a i l u r e s c o n t r i b u t e in no s mall measure t o t h e i mpor tance o f t h e book as an e x e r c i s e in an a n t h r o p o l o g y o f p e rf o rm a nc e, s i n c e t h e ver y t h e o r e t i c a l c l o s u r e s which Bateson r e g r e t t e d n o t a c h i e v i n g by t h e end o f h i s t e x t would a c t u a l l y work a g a i n s t an a n t h r o p o l o g y o f per for ma nce in my s e n s e o f t h e t e r m .
Bateson h i m s e l f does n o t use t h e n o t i o n o f per f or ma nce in h i s t e x t , whereas t h e terms ' r i t u a l ' and 'ceremony' o c c u r f r e q u e n t l y . These t er ms a r e used as c o n v e n t i o n a l common-places, and imply what can be c a l l e d an e s s e n t i a l i s t meaning o f ' r i t u a l ' and o f ' c e r e m o n y ' ; t h a t i s , t h a t a l l r i t u a l s and a l l cer emonies s h a r e a common e s s e n c e which a l l o ws them t o be p l a c e d w i t h i n t h e same a n a l y t i c a l c a t e g o r i e s . Bateson i s t h u s open t o t h e c ha r g e o f t h e ' c r a v i n g f o r g e n e r a l i t y 1 which W i t t g e n s t e i n (1958) d e s c r i b e d . My t h e s i s q u e s t i o n s t h i s e s s e n t i a l ism, and a t t e m p t s t o add t h e dimension o f p er for mance t o Naven by means o f a d e t a i l e d r e a d i n g o f t h e book which pays p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n t o t h e o p p o s i t i o n s and t e n s i o n s which h au nt t h e o r i g i n a l t e x t . These o p p o s i t i o n s a r e l e g i o n , b ut t h e y i n c l u d e t h e p u l l between e x p l a n a t i o n and u n d e r s t a n d i n g , as well as t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s i n h e r e n t in g r a f t i n g t h e o r y on t o d e s c r i p t i o n and t h e c h o i c e s which have t o be made between d i f f e r e n t modes o f d e s c r i p t i o n in t h e f i r s t p l a c e
(and, in t u r n , t h e n e c e s s i t y o f a t h e o r e t i c a l schema - e i t h e r e x p l i c i t o r i m p l i c i t - w i t h i n which such c h o i c e s a r e made).
F i n a l l y t h e r e i s t h e c o n f l i c t between t h e s t r u c t u r a l - f u n c t i o n a l i s t framework w i t h i n which Bateson was working and in which he had been t r a i n e d , and h i s own s t r o n g s e n se o f t h e l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h a t framework. I s u g g e s t t h a t B a t e s o n ' s u n c r i t i c a l employment o f an e s s e n t i a l i s t n o t i o n o f " r i t u a l " p r o v i d e s an i m p o r t a n t i n d i c a t i o n of many o f h i s d i f f i c u l t i e s in t h e book, and I p r o po s e an a l t e r n a t i v e a r e n a o f a per for mance p e r s p e c t i v e as a means o f examining t h e t e x t of Naven a f r e s h . This does n o t mean t h a t I w i l l a t t e m p t t o r e p l a c e an e s s e n t i a l i s t n o t i o n o f r i t u a l with an e s s e n t i a l i s t n o t i o n o f p e r fo r ma n ce . R a t h e r , I w i l l l e a v e t h e te rm " p e r f o r m a n c e " u nd ef in ed e x c e p t as an a r e na o f d e s c r i p t i v e and t h e o r e t i c a l p o s s i b i l i t i e s , and a llow t h e s e p o s s i b i l i t i e s t o emerge as my r e a d i n g o f Naven
p r o g r e s s e s .
In f o c u s i n g on t h e o p p o s i t i o n s and t e n s i o n s which form t h e
f o u n d a t i o n s o f B a t e s o n ' s t e x t , my r e a d i n g w i l l a t t e m p t a " d e c o n s t r u c t i o n " o f Naven. ( I am a p p l y i n g t h e o f t e n i m p r e c i s e l y used term
" d e c o n s t r u c t i o n " h e r e in t h e s e n s e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e work o f * Jacqu es D e r r i d a ; s e e t h i s C h a p t e r , pp 1 9- 2 2. ) L a t e r in t h e t h e s i s r e f e r e n c e w i l l be made t o W i t t g e n s t e i n ' s l a t e r p h il o s o p h y o f l a n gu ag e, and h i s s t r e s s on ‘' u s e " , as a n o t h e r s t r a t e g y which has a l r e a d y proved u s e f u l in t h e r e - e x a m i n a t i o n o f c r u c i a l c a t e g o r i e s such as " k i n s h i p " and " b e l i e f " and which mi ght a l s o be o f a s s i s t a n c e
in a r e - e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e c a t e g o r y " r i t u a l " . Here, I would on ly t e n t a t i v e l y s u g g e s t t h a t i t i s p o s s i b l e t o view any f i e l d o f
per forma nce as a s e r i e s o f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s - o r r e - p r e s e n t a t i o n s - in which a c t i o n , and t h e r e f o r e u s e , become c r u c i a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s in t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f any one p e rf o rm a nc e. In t h e r e m a in de r o f t h i s I n t r o d u c t i o n I w i l l c o n s i d e r t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e v a r i o u s s t r a t e g i e s which can be termed d e c o n s t r u c t i v e , in t h e l i g h t o f t h e work o f D e r r i d a , F o u c a u l t and G i r a r d , w h i l e o u t l i n i n g some o f t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s f a c i n g a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s a t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e in t h e n o t i o n o f " r i t u a l ".
a c e n t r a l a n a l y t i c a l c a t e g o r y in s o c i a l a n t h r o p o l o g y s i n c e t h e b e g i n n i n g . In r e c e n t y e a r s s e v e r a l s c h o l a r s have r a i s e d i m p o r t a n t , and d i s t u r b i n g , q u e s t i o n s as t o t h e v a l i d i t y o f o t h e r a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l c a t e g o r i e s ; Leach (1961) and Needham (1971) on k i n s h i p and m a r r i a g e , Needham (1972) on b e l i e f and S p e r b e r (1975) on symbolism a r e pr omi nent examples o f such “ r e t h i n k i n g " . Some o f t h e q u e s t i o n s which I hope t h i s t h e s i s w i l l r a i s e have a l r e a d y been s t a t e d by S p e r b e r in t h e opening words o f h i s c r i t i q u e o f a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l t h e o r i e s o f symbolism:
'What i s a t h e o r y o f symbolism? What c o n d i t i o n s must i t f u l f i l ? What g e n e r a l p r o p e r t i e s must i t ac c ou n t f o r ? ' (1975: x)
S u b s t i t u t e ' r i t u a l ' f o r ' symboli sm' h e r e and t h e q u o t a t i o n becomes a s t a t e m e n t o f many o f t h e c on c e r n s o f t h i s t h e s i s . For r e a s o n s t o be d i s c u s s e d I do n o t wish t o s u g g e s t however t h a t we should abandon t h e a n a l y t i c a l c a t e g o r y o f ' ' r i t u a l " a l t o g e t h e r .
In a r e c e n t a r t i c l e , t h e p s y c h i a t r i s t and me d ic al a n t h r o p o l o g i s t Roland L i t t l e w o o d draws a t t e n t i o n t o t h e u s e f u l comparison which can be made between p s y c h i a t r y ' s c a t e g o r y o f “ n e u r o s i s " and t h e a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l c a t e g o r y o f “ r i t u a l " :
'One in a hundred a d o l e s c e n t g i r l s t a k e s an o v e r d o s e e ver y y e a r and i t i s now t h e most common r e a s o n f o r t h e ad mi ssi on of
women t o h o s p i t a l . What a r e t h e symbols such r i t u a l s a r t i c u l a t e ? How a r e t h e y c o n s t r u c t e d , v a l i d a t e d and employed? How do we go a b ou t a s s e s s i n g such i n s t r u m e n t a l i t y ? I f p s y c h i a t r y has in t h e p a s t p a t h o l o g i z e d w h o l e s a l e such n o r m a t i v e s o c i a l r i t u a l s as ' p o s s e s s i o n s t a t e s ' , a n t h r o p o l o g y has b u i l t up a s o p h i s t i c a t e d body o f t h e o r y t o approach ' r i t u a l ' ' (1986: 11)
L i t t l e w o o d t h e n a rg u e s t h a t t h e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f such b e h a v i o u r as t a k i n g o v e r d o s e s as ' m a n i p u l a t i v e ' and ' n e u r o t i c ' can be viewed in t h e l i g h t o f f u n c t i o n a l i s t e x p l a n a t i o n s o f ' p o s s e s s i o n s t a t e s ' in non-Western s o c i e t i e s .
' Whereas p e r s o n a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e r e a c t i o n and any
p r a g m a t i c m ot i v es can be d i s p l a c e d on an i n t r u d i n g s p i r i t , t h e n o t i o n o f d i s e a s e in t h e West may s e r v e s i m i l a r f u n c t i o n s ' (1986: 1 1s a u t h o r ' s e m p h a s i s ) .
The c r i t i c i s m o f t h e use o f t h e c a t e g o r y " r i t u a l " i s n o t t h a t t h e c a t e g o r y e x i s t s , b u t t h a t i t has o f t e n been used t o e x p l a i n e i t h e r t o o l i t t l e o r t o o much. The t e n o r o f my argument i s r e f l e c t e d in one o f Gregory B a t e s o n ' s ' M e t a l o g u e s ' w i th h i s d a u g h t e r :
' D a u g h t e r : Daddy, what i s an i n s t i n c t ?
F a t h e r : An i n s t i n c t , my d e a r , i s an e x p l a n a t o r y p r i n c i p l e . D: But what does i t e x p l a i n ?
F: Anything - al mos t a n y t h i n g a t a l l . Anything you want i t t o e x p l a i n .
D: D o n ' t be s i l l y . I t d o e s n ' t e x p l a i n g r a v i t y .
F: No. But t h a t i s bec a us e nobody wants " i n s t i n c t " t o e x p l a i n g r a v i t y . I f t h e y d i d , i t would e x p l a i n i t . We coul d
s impl y say t h a t t h e moon has an i n s t i n c t whose s t r e n g t h v a r i e s i n v e r s e l y as t h e s q u a r e o f t h e d i s t a n c e . . .
D: But t h a t ' s n on se ns e , Daddy.
F: Yes, s u r e l y . But i t was you who mentioned " i n s t i n c t " , n ot 11 (1972 ( a ) : 3 8 ) .
In t h i s t h e s i s I do n o t want t o s u g g e s t t h a t one " e x p l a n a t o r y p r i n c i p l e ' * ' ( r i t u a l ) s hould be r e p l a c e d by a n o t h e r ( p e r f o r m a n c e ) . I do, however, wish t o r e f l e c t on why t h e c a t e g o r y o f r i t u a l has been so power ful t h r o u g h o u t t h e h i s t o r y o f a n t h r o p o l o g y , and why t h e n o t i o n o f per f or ma nce has been so l i t t l e e n c o u r a g e d . L i t t l e w o o d ' s comparison o f t h e c r e a t i o n o f a d i s c o u r s e a b ou t n e u r o s i s by
p s y c h i a t r y and t h a t o f t h e d i s c o u r s e a bout r i t u a l by a n t h r o p o l o g y i s r e m i n i s c e n t o f F o u c a u l t ' s h i s t o r y o f t h e d i s c o u r s e a bout
madness, and t h e f a c t t h a t f o r F o u c a u l t t h i s d i s c o u r s e , as w i th a l l d i s c o u r s e s , i s c o n s t i t u t e d by what i t e x c l u d e s - which, in t h e c a s e o f madness, i s Reason i t s e l f . Or r a t h e r , Reason i s i n i t i a l l y d e f i n e d
in t e rm s o f what
i t
e x c l u d e s , namely " m a d n e s s 11 ( 1 9 6 7 ) . One o f t h e q u e s t i o n s a d d r e s s e d in what f o l l o w s i s t h e r e f o r e , what has t h ea n t h r o p o l o g i c a l d i s c o u r s e a b ou t r i t u a l e xc l u d e d ? Or t o use F o u c a u l t ' s s t y l e o f argument, what has i t e xcl uded o r m a r g i n a l i s e d ?
In o r d e r t o p u t such q u e s t i o n s in c o n t e x t i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o r e c a l l e a r l i e r u s a g e, in p a r t i c u l a r Durkheim' s us e o f one o f K a n t ' s most c r u c i a l f o r m u l a t i o n s : t h e d i s t i n c t i o n between t h e s e n s i b l e and t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l . This d i s t i n c t i o n was t a k e n up by Durkheim and r epac kaged as an i n h e r e n t t e n s i o n between t h e demands o f s o c i e t y and t h e demands o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s o r g a n i c n a t u r e . This en ab l ed Durkheim t o c l a i m t h a t such a t e n s i o n p r o v i d e s t h e dynamic which i n f u s e s and informs a l l “ c o l l e c t i v e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s " ; in The
El ementary Forms o f t h e R e l i g i o u s L i f e h i s c l a i m i s a p p l i e d t o t h e c o l l e c t i v e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s produced t h r ou g h r e l i g i o u s a c t i v i t i e s , t h r o u g h , t h a t i s , r i t u a l . R e l i g i o n does n o t c r e a t e s o c i e t y , b ut r e l i g i o n js^ t h e c o l l e c t i v e e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e c o n t i n u a l c r e a t i o n o f s o c i e t y by t h e g r o up . Symbols a r e powerful b e c a us e t h e y t r a n s c e n d t h e i n d i v i d u a l ; r i t u a l s l i k e w i s e . For Durkheim, t h e d i s t i n c t i v e t r a i t o f r e l i g i o u s t h o u g h t i s t h e d i v i s i o n o f t h e world i n t o two s e p a r a t e domains, namely t h e s a c r e d and t h e p r o f a n e ( 19 1 5) . The Kanti an m e t a p h y s i c a l du al i sm o f t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l and t h e s e n s i b l e i s s o c i o l o g i s e d i n t o t h a t between t h e s a c r e d and t h e p r o f a n e .
For a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s , t h i s d u al i sm has t r a d i t i o n a l l y been i m p l i c a t e d in a n o t h e r ; t h a t between e x p e r i e n c e , o r " b e l i e f ", and " a c t i o n ”, o r " r i t u a l " . R i t u a l a c t i o n from t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e i s viewed as
" e x p r e s s i v e " , as opposed t o Hi n s t r u m e n t a l " , in t h e l i g h t of P a r s o n s ' dichotomy. Thus, we s e e a continuum o f o p p o s i t i o n s in a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l w r i t i n g a bout r i t u a l which can be t r a c e d back t o Kant, i . e . s e n s i b l e / p r o f a n e / t e c h n i c a l on t h e one hand, and
i n t e l l e c t u a l / s a c r e d / e x p r e s s i v e on t h e o t h e r . Much a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l d e b a t e a b ou t t h e n a t u r e o f r i t u a l , whether o f an 1 i n t e l l e c t u a l i s t 1 o r a ' s y m b o l i s t ' t y p e ( Sk orupski 1976), have a r g u a b l y c e n t r e d around t h e s e d u a l i s m s . I t i s my c o n t e n t i o n t h a t t h e n o t i o n o f
per for ma nce i n d i c a t e s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a number o f s t r a t e g i e s which would be a b l e t o avoi d t h e p r i v i l e g i n g o f e i t h e r s i d e o f any
e x p e r i e n c e - a c t i o n a x i s . R i t u a l s and o t h e r p e rf o rm a nc es c oul d t h e n be f r e e d from t h e burden o f ‘' b e l i e f ' 1 which o f t e n v i t i a t e a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s ' a t t e m p t s t o u n d e r s t a n d a c t i v i t i e s which t h e y have, r i g h t l y o r
wrongly, l a b e l l e d as " r i t u a l " .
A s t r e n u o u s a t t e m p t t o overcome Durkheimian d u a l i s m s was made by Leach in t h e f i r s t c h a p t e r o f h i s e t h no g ra p hy o f Highland Burma and in a l a t e r a r t i c l e . But in both works r i t u a l a c t i o n i s d i s p l a c e d by r i t u a l s t a t e m e n t s ; " d o i n g t h i n g s " g i v e s way t o " s a y i n g t h i n g s " . Almost e v e r y human a c t i o n can be d i v i d e d i n t o a ‘t e c h n i c a l a s p e c t v which does something and an a e s t h e t i c , communicative a s p e c t which s ays s ome t hi ng ' (1968: 5 2 3 ) . Here Leach t r a n s f o r m s t h e Kantian o p p o s i t i o n between t h e s e n s i b l e and t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l i n t o an
o p p o s i t i o n between a c a t e g o r y d e f i n e d as " t h e t e c h n i c a l 11, c o n g r u e n t w it h " d o i n g " and a c a t e g o r y d e f i n e d as " t h e a e s t h e t i c 11, which i s
c o n g r u e n t w i th " t h e communicative".
This i s a r e s t a t e m e n t o f t h e p o s i t i o n Leach had e a r l i e r o u t l i n e d in h i s e t hno gr ap hy o f Highland Burma, where he wrote
‘from t h i s p o i n t o f view t e c h n i q u e and r i t u a l , p r o f a n e and s a c r e d , do n o t d e n o t e t y p e s o f a c t i o n b u t a s p e c t s o f a l m o s t any kind of a c t i o n 1 (1954: 13, a u t h o r ' s e m p h a s i s ) . A Kachin r e l i g i o u s s a c r i f i c e may be r e g a r d e d as a t e c h n i c a l , economic a c t . But Leach c o n t i n u e s :
' . . . f r o m t h e o b s e r v e r ' s p o i n t o f view t h e r e i s a good d e a l t h a t goes on a t a s a c r i f i c e t h a t i s q u i t e i r r e l e v a n t as f a r as b u t c h e r y , cooki ng and meat d i s t r i b u t i o n a r e c o n c e r n e d . I t i s t h e s e o t h e r a s p e c t s which have meaning as symbols o f s o c i a l s t a t u s , and i t i s t h e s e o t h e r a s p e c t s which I d e s c r i b e as r i t u a l wh et he r o r n o t t h e y i n v o l v e d i r e c t l y any c o n c e p t u a l i s a t i o n o f t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l o r t h e m e t a p h y s i c a l ' (1954: 13 ).
Leach t h u s d e f i n e s ' r i t u a l ' a s a r e s i d u a l c a t e g o r y , t h a t which i s n o t t e c h n i c a l . R i t u a l i s d e c e n t r e d by bei ng d e f i n e d in t e rm s of t e c h n i c a l a c t i v i t y from which i t i s e x c l u d e d , j u s t as f o r F o u c au l t t h e West has d e f i n e d madness in t er ms o f what i t i s n o t , i . e .
Reason. A s i m i l a r d e c e n t e r i n g o f " e m o t i o n 1* in t e r m s o f a p r i v i l eged " i n t e l l e c t " can be t r a c e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e West.
Myth and r i t u a l , Leach c l a i m s , a r e two ways o f s a y in g t h e same t h i n g . He c r i t i c i s e s t h e
' c l a s s i c a l d o c t r i n e in E n g l i s h s o c i a l a n t h r o p o l o g y . . . t h a t myth and r i t u a l a r e c o n c e p t u a l l y s e p a r a t e e n t i t i e s which p e r p e t u a t e one a n o t h e r t h r o u g h f u n c t i o n a l i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e - t h e r i t e i s a d r a m a t i s a t i o n o f t h e myth, t h e myth i s t h e s a n c t i o n o r c h a r t e r f o r t h e r i t e ' (1954: 13).
I t i s t h i s approach which has made i t p o s s i b l e f o r myths t o be d i s c u s s e d as i s o l a t e d e n t i t i e s , and as ' c o n s t i t u t i n g a system o f b e l i e f (1954: 13) . This has given r i s e t o much ' s c h o l a s t i c n o n s e n s e ' c once rned w i th e l u c i d a t i n g t h e ' c o n t e n t o f b e l i e f and o f t h e
r a t i o n a l i t y o r o t h e r w i s e o f t h a t c o n t e n t ' (1954: 1 3) . R i t u a l and myth a r e i n t e r d e p e n d e n t , a c c o r d i n g t o Leach, b u t n o t be ca u se o f any f u n c t i o n a l i n t e r p l a y between them.
'As I s e e i t , myth r e g a r d e d as a s t a t e m e n t in words " sa ys " t h e
same t h i n g as r i t u a l r e g a r d e d as a s t a t e m e n t in a c t i o n . To ask q u e s t i o n s a bo ut t h e c o n t e n t o f b e l i e f which a r e n o t c o n t a i n e d in t h e c o n t e n t o f r i t u a l i s n o n s e n s e 1 (1954: 1 3 - 1 4 ) .
R i t u a l , t h e r e f o r e , i s a means o f communication b u t n o t o f a c t i o n and i t i s s t i l l , d e s p i t e t h e c l o s e l y argued d i s c l a i m e r s made in t h e Highland Burma book and in t h e 1968 a r t i c l e , an a n a l y t i c a l l y
d i s c r i m i n a b l e c a t e g o r y o f ' a s p e c t s ' o f a c t i o n s , i f n o t o f a c t i o n s p e r s e .
A s i m i l a r dichotomy i s t o be found in t h e r e c e n t body o f work produced by C l i f f o r d Geert z which a t t e m p t s an e x e g e s i s o f B a l i n e s e symbolic and r i t u a l l i f e a f t e r t h e manner o f a c u l t u r a l h e r m e n e u t i c s . The a p o t h e o s i s o f t h i s view r e s u l t s in a p i c t u r e o f B a l i n e s e
per f or ma nce as a r e f l e c t i o n o f symbols o r b e l i e f s , e n c a p s u l a t e d w i t h i n a r i t u a l i s e d ' t h e a t r e s t a t e ' ( 1 980(b) )Hoba rt has c r i t i c i s e d t h i s p i c t u r e as an e t h n o g r a p h i c ' f r e e z i n g ' o f t h e s u b j e c t s o f a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l e n q u i r y in t h e w r i t i n g o f what he c a l l s ' e u g e n i c t e x t s ' ( i n p r e s s : 8 ) . G e e r t z ' s conce rn with symbolism as a system o f a l l - p o w e r f u l e s s e n c e s r e d u c e s B a l i n e s e a c t o r s l i t e r a l l y t o t h e s t a t u s o f a c t o r s in t h e t h e a t r i c a l s e n s e . In t h i s a n a l y s i s , a c c o r d i n g t o Ho bar t, t h e B a l i n e s e t h e m s e l v e s a r e d e n i e d a v o i c e , f o r G eer tz b e l i e v e s t h a t
' a d e s c r i p t i o n o f c o l l e c t i v e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s ( i s ) t h e n e c e s s a r y and s u f f i c i e n t e x p l a n a t i o n o f human a c t i o n s ' (Hobart 1987: 12, my p a r e n t h e s i s ) .
Whereas Leach had a t t e m p t e d t o c o n f i n e r i t u a l e f f i c a c y t o a demarcated a r e n a o f communication, f o r Geer tz r i t u a l has become t h e l oc us o f s o c i a l a c t i v i t y in B a l i ; a“ t o t a l s o c i a l f a c t " in t h e c l a s s i c Durkheimian s e n s e , a f a c t which i s so t o t a l l y s o c i a l t h a t i n d i v i d u a l a c t i o n and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n and, t h e r e b y , t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f any r ewor king o f t h e 1's y s t e m " i s p r e c l u d e d . There a r e s i m i l a r i t i e s between G e e r t z ' s a n a l y s i s o f t h e B a l i n e s e and T u r n e r ' s o f t h e Ndembu.
The ' c u l t s o f a f f l i c t i o n ' d e s c r i b e d by Tu rner in h i s e a r l i e r works (1957, 1968) a r e e l a b o r a t e d i n t o ' s o c i a l dramas' t h r o u g h which, in s o c i e t i e s a l l o v er t h e w o rl d , t r a n s i t i o n i s a c h i e v e d from c i v i t a s t o commuhitas and back ( 19 6 9) . Here a g a i n , r i t u a l becomes an
e s s e n t i a l i s t e x p l a n a t o r y p r i n c i p l e which moves n o t o n l y t h e i n h a b i t a n t s o f Ndembu v i l l a g e s , b u t t h o s e o f t h e world a t l a r g e . I s h a l l d i s c u s s T u r n e r ' s work a t some l e n g t h in my Ch ap t er 11.
I t i s u s e f u l t o compare t h e work o f Geer tz and Tur ner with a n e o - M a r x i s t s t a t e m e n t on r i t u a l by Bloch ( 1 9 74 ) . There a r e
r ema r ka bl e and i m p o r t a n t s i m i l a r i t i e s between h i s p o s i t i o n and t h a t o f L e v i - S t r a u s s , whose work I w i l l examine l a t e r i n t h i s I n t r o d u c t i o n . Both w r i t e r s have a t t e m p t e d a r a d i c a l c r i t i q u e o f a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l d e b a t e s on t h e t o p i c o f r i t u a l , and both f o c u s on t h e n o t i o n of *'r i t u a l l a n g u a g e 1'.
For Bloch, t h e power o f r i t u a l language i s t o be found not in i t s c o n t e n t b u t in i t s f o r m . The media o f r i t u a l c a r r y no meaning w h a t s o e v e r , a t l e a s t not in t h e l o g i c a l s e n s e . This i s because r i t u a l l anguage and b e h a v i o u r a r e e x c e s s i v e l y f o r m a l i z e d , and t h e y t h u s d r a s t i c a l l y l i m i t t h e c h o i c e s a v a i l a b l e , in b oth speech and b e h a v i o u r , t o r i t u a l p a r t i c i p a n t s . The f o r m a l i z e d l anguage used in r i t u a l c a r r i e s what A u st i n (1962) r e f e r s t o as i l l o c u t i o n a r y f o r c e , which i s t o say t h a t i t does something in t h e world by u s in g a c o n v e n t i o n a l , p e r s u a s i v e , ‘' p e r f o r m a t i v e " f o r c e . I t does n ot convey
i n f o r m a t i o n a bout t h e w o rl d . Promises and a p o l o g i e s coul d be
c o n s i d e r e d as speech a c t s o f t h e i l l o c u t i o n a r y k i n d . R i t u a l langu ag e, a c c o r d i n g t o Bloch, i s i mpoverished by t h e a b s e n s e o f l o c u t i o n a r y speech a c t s which, u n l i k e i l l o c u t i o n a r y speech a c t s , c a r r y p r o p os - i t i o n a l f o r c e . They a r e d e s c r i p t i v e and i n f o r m a t i v e , and a t t e m p t t o ' . . . c o r n e r r e a l i t y by a d a p t i n g communication t o p a s t p e r c e p t i o n and c o n n e c t i n g t h i s wi th f u t u r e p e r c e p t i o n ' (Bloch 1974: 6 7 ) .
Bloch e q u a t e s r i t u a l language wi th t h a t o f t r a d i t i o n a l a u t h o r i t y , a l anguage in which t h e a p p r o p r i a t e r e s p o n s e s t o any g iv en s t a t e m e n t a r e a l r e a d y s t i p u l a t e d . R i t u a l l anguage i s t h u s l i m i t e d , j u s t i f i c a t o r y and, l i t e r a l l y , n o n - s e n s e . S in ce t h e r u l e s which g e n e r a t e t h e p r o p o s i t i o n a l , l o g i c a l , c o n t e n t o f s peech, o r t h e ' f e a t u r e s o f
a r t i c u l a t i o n ' , a r e n e ga t e d in i l l o c u t i o n a r y u t t e r a n c e s , i l l o c u t i o n ar y f o r c e i s n o n - l o g i c a l , s i n c e f o r i t s e x p r e s s i o n l o g i c demands t h e d i a l e c t i c o f argument, c o u n t e r - a r g u m e n t and r e s o l u t i o n . To p u t i t s imp ly, Bloch w r i t e s :
'we can say t h a t l o g i c depends on t h e f l e x i b i l i t y o f t h e f e a t u r e s o f a r t i c u l a t i o n in l anguage and i f t h e r e i s no such f l e x i b i l i t y t h e r e can be no argument, no l o g i c , no e x p l a n a t i o n , and in one
s e n s e o f t h e word, no s e m a n t i c s ' (1974: 6 6 ) .
Thus when a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s a s k , 11 What i s t h e meaning o f r i t u a l ? " , t h e y a r e a c t u a l l y a s k i n g , "What i s t h e meaning o f i l l o c u t i o n a r y s p e e c h ? " in t h e s e n se o f , "What does i t e x p l a i n ? 11 Bloch c on cl udes t h a t
'To ask t h i s q ues ti on;: assumes a f u n c t i o n o f t r a d i t i o n a l a u t h o r i t y and r e l i g i o n which i t c an no t have and draws a t t e n t i o n away from o t h e r p o s s i b l e f u n c t i o n s which i t may have, e . g . t o h i d e r e a l i t y ' (1974: 6 7 ) .
Bloch draws on a p a r t i c u l a r r i t u a l , t h e c i r c u m c i s i o n ceremony o f t h e Merina o f Madagascar, f o r h i s argument. Again, a p a r t i c u l a r e t h n o g r a p h i c example i s used t o c o n s t r u c t an e s s e n t i a l , g e n e r a l t h e o r y o f r i t u a l . I would q u e s t i o n wh et her B l o c h ' s l o g i c a l p o s i t i v i s t s t a n c e , in t h e form o f h i s use o f A u s t i n ' s l i n g u i s t i c p h i l o s o p h y , l i m i t s t h e s e n s e in which t h e c o n c e p t o f " l o g i c a l communication" i s used t o "convey i n f o r m a t i o n ' 1 a bout t h e w or ld . Is i t r e a l l y t r u e t h a t a l l k i nd s o f l o c u t i o n a r y u t t e r a n c e s convey l e g i t i m a t e i n f o r m a t i o n a bout t h e wor ld , whereas a l l i l l o c u t i o n a r y u t t e r a n c e s a r e mere shadows, mere empty g e s t u r e s ? (1 ) What, p r e c i s e l y , i s t h e mix o f l o c u t i o n a r y and i l l o c u t i o n a r y u t t e r a n c e s in t h e n e w s r e a d e r ' s s c r i p t ? I s i t n o t b f t e n t h e c a s e t h a t in c e r t a i n k i n d s o f s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n , t h e predominance o f s upposedly
' f a c t u a l ' , ' i n f o r m a t i v e ' exchanges can be e v i d e n c e o f a d i s j u n c t i v e p o v e r t y o f communication, r a t h e r t h a n o f a c l a r i t y and weal t h o f i t ? At t h e h e a r t o f B l o c h ' s a n a l y s i s i s a n o t h e r o p p o s i t i o n which
p r i v i l e g e s one t er m ( " i n f o r m a t i o n " ) a t t h e exp en s e o f a n o t h e r
( " p e r f o r m a n c e " ) . This r e a c h e s i t s a p o t h e o s i s in t h e c l a im t h a t s i n g ing and d anci ng a r e a t t h e f a r end o f t h e i l l o c u t i o n a r y s pectrum and t h a t a r t i t s e l f i s t o be e q ua t e d w it h i l l o c u t i o n a r y u t t e r a n c e . The s o - c a l l e d c r e a t i v i t y o f t h e a r t i s t i s a f i c t i o n , s i n c e what r e a l l y happens i s t h a t when t h e complex g e n e r a t i v e p o t e n t i a l of l anguage o r b o d i l y movement has been f o r b i d d e n
‘t h e r ema ini ng c h o i c e s l e f t a r e so s impl e t h a t t h e y can s uddenly be apprehended c o n s c i o u s l y . C r e a t i v i t y has s udd en ly become c o n t r o l l a b l e , hence e n j o y a b l e . . . a r t i s . . . a n i n f e r i o r form o f communication' (1974: 7 2 - 7 3 ) .
In one o f t h e few examples in t h e l i t e r a t u r e o f a c o h e r e n t r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s of a ‘p e r f o r m a t i v e approach t o r i t u a l 1, Tambiah has l u c i d l y c r i t i c i s e d l a t t e r - d a y r e s t a t e m e n t s of t h e f u n c t i o n a l i s t p o s i t i o n which s e es r i t u a l as s e r v i n g on ly t o b o l s t e r a p r e - o r d a i n e d s o c i a l o r d e r . Here Tambiah t a k e s i s s u e with B l o c h ' s p r o p o s i t i o n t h a t f o r m a l i z e d communication, common t o both t r a d i t i o n a l a u t h o r i t y and r e l i g i o n , s e r v e s t o ' h i d e r e a l i t y '
(Bloch, 1974: 6 7 ) . Tambiah w r i t e s :
'My q u a r r e l i s n o t w i th a M a r x i s t f o r m u l a t i o n as such b ut with t h a t kind o f f o r m u l a t i o n which s ee s a p r i o r " r e a l world" o f
" b r u t e f a c t s " t h a t r e l i g i o n , as a m y s t i f i c a t i o n , s eek s t o h i d e , as i f t h e r e a r e some p r i v i l e g e d o r d e r s o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l f a c t s which have a p r e - s y m b o l i c o r p r e - c u l t u r a l e x i s t e n c e . . .Moreover, f o r me, t h e e x c i t i n g k ind o f a n a l y s i s i s t h a t which s ee s
r i t u a l i n v o l u t i o n n o t so much as a d i a b o l i c smoke-scr een b u t as an i d e o l o g i c a l and a e s t h e t i c s o c i a l c o n s t r u c t i o n t h a t i s
d i r e c t l y and r e c u r s i v e l y i m p l i c a t e d in t h e e x p r e s s i o n , r e a l i z a t i o n and e x e r c i s e o f power' (1981: 153).
In a f o o t n o t e Tambiah pushes h i s p o i n t home:
' C e r t a i n n e o - M a r x i s t s and a d a p t a t i o n e c o l o g i s t s use t h e e p i t h e t o f ' m y s t i f i c a t i o n ' t o o f a c i l e l y as an e xc u s e o r c ov e r - u p f o r e i t h e r n o t s e r i o u s l y i n v e s t i g a t i n g o r n o t comprehending r i t u a l symbolism and r i t u a l p a t t e r n i n g ; t h e y me re ly s e e f u n c t i o n a l and u t i l i t a r i a n u ses f o r r i t u a l a c t i o n ' (1981: 153).
I hope t o show in t h e main body o f t h e t h e s i s t h a t Bateson would have been in sympathy with Tambiah' s s t a t e m e n t .
An a t t e m p t t o d i s p o s e o f t h e problem of r i t u a l as an a n a l y t i c c a t e g o r y a l t o g e t h e r , t o d e s t r o y r i t u a l as a l o c us o f meaning from a p e r s p e c t i v e which shows i n t e r e s t i n g s i m i l a r i t i e s t o B l o c h ' s , has come from L e v i - S t r a u s s . In h i s 1968 a r t i c l e c i t e d above, Leach d e c l a r e d t h a t L e v i - S t r a u s s ' i s i n c l i n e d t o s e e r i t u a l as i n t e g r a l with p r o c e s s e s o f t h o u g h t . . .Such an approach i m p l i e s t h a t we should t h i n k o f r i t u a l as a language in a q u i t e l i t e r a l s e n s e ' (Leach 1968: 5 2 4 ) .
But Leach i s r e f e r r i n g t o t h e L e v i - S t r a u s s o f The Savage Mind;
by t h e t i m e t h a t Leach was w r i t i n g , L e v i - S t r a u s s h i m s e l f was denying such an i m p l i c a t i o n . In t h e F i n a l e t o h i s f i n a l volume o f h i s
s t u d i e s o f myth, L e v i - S t r a u s s wis hes t o e n t i r e l y d i s s o c i a t e r i t u a l
from t h e a r e n a o f s t r u c t u r a l i s t a n a l y s i s . L £ v i - S t r a u s s ' s argument h e r e can be viewed as a paradigm f o r an i n t e l l e c t u a l i s t d i s m i s s a l o f r i t u a l a c t i v i t y . I s h a l l , t h e r e f o r e , r e f e r t o i t a t some l e n g t h . Mythology, L e v i - S t r a u s s a r g u e s , ' e x i s t s in two c l e a r l y d i f f e r e n t m o d a l i t i e s ' , sometimes as e x p l i c i t , r a n k i n g as ' works in t h e i r own r i g h t 1 and sometimes as mere fr ag me n ts which a r e ' l i n k e d t o a p a r t i c u l a r p has e of t h e r i t u a l , on which i t s e r v e s as a g l o s s , and i t i s o n ly r e c i t e d in c o n n e c t i o n w i th t h e pe rf or ma nc e o f r i t u a l a c t s ' (1971: 6 6 9 ) . At one l e v e l o f a n a l y s i s , t h e r e f o r e , we c a nn o t s e p a r a t e r i t u a l from myth which, d i s a s t r o u s l y , many a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s concer ned wi th r i t u a l have a t t e m p t e d t o do. V i c t o r Turner i s one s u ch . What a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s should do, i f t h e y wish t o s t ud y r i t u a l in t e r m s o f i t s s p e c i f i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s as a s e p a r a t e e n t i t y from myth, i s t o remove from i t t h e ' i m p l i c i t mythology' which
' a d h e r e s t o i t w i t h o u t r e a l l y bei ng p a r t o f i t ' (1971: 6 69 ).
This i m p l i c i t mythology i s n o t hi n g l e s s t h a n ' t h o s e b e l i e f s and r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s which a r e c on nec ted wi th a p h i l o s o p h y o f n a t u r e '
(1971: 6 6 9 ) . But I would a rgu e t h a t t h i s c ou l d r e f e r t o j u s t about a n y t h i n g which might be r e f e r r e d t o in any r i t u a l anywhere. Lev i- S t r a u s s c o n t i n u e s wi th t h e warning t h a t a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s l i k e Tur ner who c l a i m t o wish t o adduce a n o n - v e r b a l l anguage o f r i t u a l symbolism s h ou ld be wary o f t h e e r r o r committed by Leach when he a s s e r t s
on t h e one hand t h a t r i t u a l t r a n s m i t s and communicates i n f o r m a t i o n about t h e w o r l d , and on t h e o t h e r hand t h a t p r i m i t i v e symbolism i s h i g h l y ch ar ge d e m o t i o n a l l y (1971: 6 6 9- 6 7 0) . I s u g g e s t t h a t Levi - S t r a u s s i s h e r e a do p t i n g t h e s t r u c t u r a l i s t s t r a t e g y which p r i v i l e g e s c o n c e p t u a l i t y as a g a i n s t emotion; t h e r e a r e s i m i l a r i t i e s . h e r e , t o o , with B l o c h ' s a n a l y s i s . L e v i - S t r a u s s c l a i ms t h a t t h e two p o s s i b i l i t
i e s a r e c o n t r a d i c t o r y , f o r t h e r e can be no c o g n i t i v e meaning in r i t u a l a c t s p e r s e . For i t i s on ly t r u e myt hology, mythology u n t a r n
i s h ed by ' r i t u a l f r a g m e n t s ' , which i s a t t a c h e d t o l a n g ua g e . But L e v i - S t r a u s s does n o t i n d i c a t e h i s c r i t e r i a f o r d e c i d i n g what ' t r u e myt hology' i s . Mythology in i t s e s s e n c e has ' a r t i c u l a t e l anguage as
i t s v e h i c l e ' (1971: 6 70 ) . Music marks a b r e a k i n g away from l a ng uag e, a l t h o u g h vo ca l music s t i l l r e t a i n s an a f f i n i t y w i t h i t , ' an a f f i n i t y which i s d e m o n s t r a t e d by t h e f a c t t h a t myths a r e o f t e n ch an t ed o r
s u n g 1 (1971: 6 7 0) . This a f f i n i t y g r a d u a l l y l e s s e n s , however, in t h e movement from p u r e l y vocal music t o s i n g i n g o r c h a n t i n g w i t h mus ic al accompaniment. When we g e t t o pur e i n s t r u m e n t a l music, we a r e no l o n g e r in t h e r eal m of language a t a l l .
L § v i - S t r a u s s t h e n o f f e r s a p a r a l l e l w i th what o c c u r s in t h e t r a n s i t i o n from ' p u r e mythology' t o ' p u r e r i t u a l ' . E x p l i c i t r i t u a l
i s l i t e r a t u r e ' i n t h e f u l l s e n s e o f t h e t e r m ' . But in i m p l i c i t mythology we s ee t h a t ' f r a g m e n t s o f d i s c o u r s e ' a r e mixed in with
' n o n - l i n g u i s t i c a c t i o n s ' , and when f i n a l l y we g e t t o ' p u r e r i t u a l ' we f i n d t h a t a l l c o n t a c t w i th language has been l o s t . Here a gai n t h e r e a r e s t r i k i n g s i m i l a r i t i e s w i th B l o c h ' s a c c o un t o f t h e Merina c i r c u m c i s i o n ceremony. Pure r i t u a l , a c c o r d i n g t o L e v i - S t r a u s s ,
‘c o n s i s t s e i t h e r o f s a c r e d f o r mu l a e - i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e f o r t h e u n i n i t i a t e d , o r b e l on g in g t o an a r c h a i c t o n gu e t h a t i s no l o n g e r u n d e r s t o o d , o r even o f u t t e r a n c e s d evoi d o f any i n t r i n s i c
meaning, such as a r e o f t e n used in magic - o r o f p h y s i c a l movements o r o f t h e s e l e c t i o n and h a n d l i n g o f v a r i o u s o b j e c t s . At t h i s p o i n t r i t u a l , l i k e music a t t h e o t h e r ext reme o f t h e s y st e m, moves r i g h t o u t s i d e l a n g u ag e, and i f we wish t o u nd e r s t a n d i t s d i s t i n c t i v e n a t u r e , we have o b v i o u s l y t o c o n s i d e r t h i s p u r e form, n o t t h e i n t e r m e d i a r y s t a t e s ' (1971: 6 71 ).
What, t h e n , i s r i t u a l a l l a bo ut ? L e v i - S t r a u s s ' s answer i s s t u n n i n g l y s i m p l e . R i t u a l r e p r e s e n t s a f a i l u r e o f l anguage o r , r a t h e r , a f a i l u r e by p e o p l e t o use l anguage c o r r e c t l y . R i t u a l g e s t u r e s and t h e h an d l i n g o f r i t u a l o b j e c t s a r e ' a s u b s t i t u t e f o r w o r d s . . . T h e per for mance o f g e s t u r e s and t h e m a n i p u l a t i o n o f o b j e c t s a r e d e v i c e s which al low r i t u a l t o av oi d s p e e c h ' (1971: 6 7 1- 67 2) . Here L ^ v i - S t r a u s s a dopt s what D e r r i d a (1976) would c a l l t h e
l o g o c e n t r i c p o s i t i o n t h a t r i t u a l u s u r ps t h e 11 c o r r e c t 1* use of l angu ag e; in L ^ v i - S t r a u s s ' s a n a l y s i s , r i t u a l o c c u p i e s t h e same
degr aded p o s i t i o n wi th r e g a r d t o speech as does w r i t i n g in D e r r i d a ' s c r i t i q u e o f Western m e t a p h y s i c s . I w i l l d e a l more f u l l y wi th
D e r r i d a ' s i m p o r t a n t n o t i o n o f l o g o c e n t r i s m w i t h p a r t i c u l a r r e f e r e n c e t o h i s c r i t i q u e , o r " d e c o n s t r u c t i o n " , o f L e v i - S t r a u s s 1s s t r u c t u r a l i s t a n t h r o p o l o g y , l a t e r in my I n t r o d u c t i o n .
But t h e r e i s an obvious o b j e c t i o n t o L e v i - S t r a u s s ' s p r o p o s i t i o n which he h i m s e l f r a i s e s ; t h i s i s t h a t r i t u a l s u s u a l l y c o n t a i n a
g r e a t d e a l o f s p e ec h. Again, t h e argument sounds rema rk ab ly l i k e B l o c h ' s . Our n e x t s t e p , s ays L e v i - S t r a u s s , i s t o examine n o t what r i t u a l words s a y , b ut how t h e y say i t (1971: 6 72 ) .
R i t u a l language makes use o f two e s s e n t i a l p r o c e d u r e s . These a r e ' p a r c e l l i n g o u t 1 and ' r e p e t i t i o n ' . In t h e f i r s t c a s e , r i t u a l ' h a s no co nce rn f o r t h e g e n e r a l 1 and i s o bs e s s e d w i th t h e mi nutae o f t a xo no mi ca l c a t e g o r i e s , be t h e y c a t e g o r i e s o f p l a n t s , a n i m a l s , human b e i n g s , n a t u r a l o b j e c t s o r w h a t e v e r . The s l i g h t e s t d i f f e r e n c e in t h e e x p l i c a t i o n o f such taxonomies i s seen as c r u c i a l in r i t u a l p r a c t i c e s (1971: 6 7 2) . In t h e second c a s e , r i t u a l ' g o es in f o r a r i o t o f r e p e t i t i o n ; t h e same f o r m u l a , o r f o r m u l a e s i m i l a r in s y n t a x o r a s s o n a n c e , a r e r e p e a t e d a t s h o r t i n t e r v a l s . . . t h e same fo rmu la must be r e p e a t e d a g r e a t many t i m e s r u n n i n g 1 and so on
(1971: 6 7 3 ) . (2) L e v i - S t r a u s s c l a i m s t h a t f a r from bei ng in opp
o s i t i o n t o each o t h e r , t h e two p r o c e d u r e s o f p a r c e l l i n g o u t and r e p e t i t i o n a r e e q u i v a l e n t s . R e p e t i t i o n in f a c t r e p r e s e n t s t h e ext reme development of p a r c e l l i n g o u t . D i f f e r e n c e s between t h i n g s a r e emphasi sed and r e s t a t e d ad i n f i n i t u m ; t h e n t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s a r e made t o d i s a p p e a r a l t o g e t h e r : ' d i f f e r e n c e s which have become so
small as t o be i n f i n i t e s i m a l t e n d t o d i s a p p e a r in q u a s i - i d e n t i t y 1 (1971: 6 7 3) .
Mythology, t h e r e f o r e , p o i n t s t owar ds t h e d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n of r e a l i t y and i s t h e r e b y a l l i e d wi th l a n gu ag e. R i t u a l i s p l a c e d a t t h e o p p o s i t e end o f t h e cont inuum. I t s ee ks t o r e t u r n t o t h e pure u n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d which had e x i s t e d b e f o r e t h e moment o f mythology, t h e moment o f lang uage. The argument i s capped by t h e summary r e l e g a t i o n o f r i t u a l t o t h e h i t h e r s i d e o f t h e s t r u c t u r a l i s t e n t e r p r i s e in t h e s t a t e m e n t t h a t
' t h e o p p o s i t i o n between r i t e and myth i s t h e same as t h a t between l i v i n g and t h i n k i n g , and r i t u a l r e p r e s e n t s a b a s t a r d i z a t i o n o f t h o u g h t , b r o u g h t abo ut by t h e c o n s t r a i n t s o f l i f e . . . T h i s d e s p e r a t e , and i n v a r i a b l y u n s u c c e s s f u l , a t t e m p t t o r e e s t a b l i s h t h e c o n t i n u i t y o f l i v e d e x p e r i e n c e . . . i s t h e e s s e n c e o f r i t u a l . . . ' (1971: 675, my e m p h a s i s ) .
✓
L e v i - S t r a u s s i s h e r e a p p e a l i n g t o what can be d e s c r i b e d as an a u t h e n t i c l i v e d r e a l i t y , c o t e rm in ou s w i th a language which i s
f a i t h f u l t o ' t h e c o n s t r a i n t s ' o f t h a t r e a l i t y . This i s opposed t o t h e ' b a s t a r d i z a t i o n o f t h o u g h t ' r e p r e s e n t e d by r i t u a l . Levi - S t r a u s s t h e r e b y p l a c e s r i t u a l o u t s i d e any d i s c o u r s e o f r ea s on - as does Bloch, a l t h ou gh f o r d i f f e r e n t p ol e m ic a l p ur p o s e s - but he i n s i s t s t h a t mythology be e n t h r o n e d w i t h i n r e a s o n , s i n c e f o r him mythology announces " t h e moment o f l a n g u a g e 11. This i s t h e u l t i m a t e e x p r e s s i o n o f a r a t i o n a l i s t e n t e r p r i s e which has run a l l t h e way t h r o u g h L £ v i - S t r a u s s ' s work, and which f i t t i n g l y c u l m i n a t e s
in t h e F i n a l e t o The My th o lo g iq ue s . L ^ v i - S t r a u s s wishes t o i n d i c a t e t h e p r e s e n c e o f a pur e l a ngu ag e, an a u t h e n t i c s peech which i s un
t a i n t e d by t h e m e a n i n g l e s s , r e p e t i t i o u s and i n d u l g e n t e x c e s s e s performed by t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s in r i t u a l .
I now t u r n t o . D e r r i d a ' s powerf ul comments on L e v i - S t r a u s s 1s s t r u c t u r a l i s m . In two e s s a y s , D e r r i d a o f f e r s a s u b t l e c r i t i q u e - o r in h i s t e rm s a " d e c o n s t r u c t i o n " - o f t h e us e by L e v i - S t r a u s s o f t h e o p p o s i t i o n s which have always been c r u c i a l t o t h e l a t t e r
(1972, 1976). In S t r u c t u r e , Sign and P la y in t h e D i s c o u r s e o f t h e Human S c i e n c e s , D e r r i d a shows t h a t t h e o p p o s i t i o n between Nature and C u l t u r e can be t r a c e d , a l b e i t in a v a r i e t y o f d i f f e r e n t g u i s e s , th r o u g h t h e e n t i r e h i s t o r y o f Western p h i l o s o p h y and t h a t indeed
i t i s c e n t r a l t o i t (1972: 2 5 2 ) . But in The El ement ary S t r u c t u r e s o f K i n s h i p , D e r r i d a p o i n t s o u t , L e v i - S t r a u s s p l a c e s t h i s o p p o s i t i o n in d oubt even as he a s s i g n s i t a c r u c i a l and u n i v e r s a l i mp or ta nc e . The i n c e s t t a b o o , claimed by L ^ v i - S t r a u s s t o be both o f n a t u r e and o f c u l t u r e , c an no t be lodged w i t h i n t h e o p p o s i t i o n . According t o D e r r i d a , t h e t a bo o t h e r e f o r e e s c ap e s
' t h e domain o f t r a d i t i o n a l c o n c e p t s ; i t i s something which e s c ap e s t h e s e c o n c e p t s and c e r t a i n l y p r e c e d e s them - p r o b a b l y as t h e c o n d i t i o n o f t h e i r p o s s i b i l i t y . I t cou ld p e r ha ps be s a i d
t h a t t h e whole o f p h i l o s o p h i c a l c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n , s y s t e m a t i c a l l y r e l a t i n g i t s e l f t o t h e n a t u r e / c u l t u r e o p p o s i t i o n , i s d e s ig ne d t o l e a v e in t h e domain o f t h e u n t h i n k a b l e t h e ver y t h i n g t h a t makes t h i s c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n p o s s i b l e : t h e o r i g i n o f t h e p r o h i b i t i o n o f i n c e s t ' (1972: 2 53 - 25 4 ).
L a t e r in t h e same e s s a y D e r r i d a t u r n s h i s a t t e n t i o n t o The Savage Mind in which L e v i - S t r a u s s p r e s e n t s t h e o p p o s i t i o n between t h e
b r i c o l e u r , t h a t : c o l l e c t o r o f ready-made o b j e c t s and c o n c e p t s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e " t o t e m i c o p e r a t o r " and t h e c o l l e c t i v e c r e a t i o n s o f
myt hology, and t h e e n g i n e e r who c o n s t r u c t s h i s own l anguage in t h e form o f a s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t s y n t a x and l e x i c o n . This o p p o s i t i o n t o o can be t u r n e d a g a i n s t i t s e l f . D e r r i d a w r i t e s t h a t
' t h e e n g i n e e r i s a myth. A s u b j e c t who would s u pp os e dl y be t h e a b s o l u t e o r i g i n o f h i s own d i s c o u r s e and would s uppose dly c o n s t r u c t i t " ou t o f n o t h i n g " , " out o f whole c l o t h " , would be t h e c r e a t o r o f t h e v e r b e , t h e v e r b e i t s e l f . The n o t i o n o f t h e e n g i n e e r who had s u ppo se dl y broken w i th a l l forms o f b r i c o l a g e i s t h e r e f o r e a t h e o l o g i c a l i d e a ; and s i n c e L e v i - S t r a u s s t e l l s us e l s e w h e r e t h a t b r i c o l a g e i s m y t h o p o e t i c , t h e odds a r e t h a t t h e e n g i n e e r i s a myth pr oduced by t h e b r i c o l e u r 1 (1972: 2 5 6) . D e r r i d a can now s u g g e s t t h a t t h e domains o f t h e b r i c o l e u r and t h e e n g i n e e r , f a r from d i s p l a y i n g t h e o p p o s i t i o n cl ai me d by L e v i - S t r a u s s , a c t u a l l y i n t e r p e n e t r a t e each o t h e r :
'From t h e moment t h a t we c e a s e t o b e l i e v e in such an e n g i n e e r and in a d i s c o u r s e b r e a k i n g w it h t h e r e c e i v e d h i s t o r i c a l
d i s c o u r s e , as soon as i t i s a d m i t t e d t h a t e v e r y f i n i t e d i s c o u r s e i s bound by a c e r t a i n b r i c o l a g e , and t h a t t h e e n g i n e e r and t h e s c i e n t i s t a r e a l s o s p e c i e s o f b r i c o l e u r s t h e n t h e ver y idea of b r i c o l a g e i s menaced and t h e d i f f e r e n c e in which i t t ook on i t s meaning decomposes' (1972: 2 5 6 ) .
El se wh er e, D e r r i d a f o c u s e s on a p a r t i c u l a r e t h n o g r a p h i c example from L e v i - S t r a u s s ' s T r i s t e s Tr opi ques (1973) in o r d e r t o unpack t h e o p p o s i t i o n between speech and w r i t i n g , and t h e Slv i o l e n c e " o f t h e l a t t e r , m o u r n f u l l y d e s c r i b e d by L e v i - S t r a u s s in h i s ac c ou nt o f t h e Nambikwara I n d i a n s . A g a i n s t L e v i - S t r a u s s ' s c l a i m t h a t t h e Nambikwara were w i t h o u t w r i t i n g in t h e i r i n d i g e n o u s , p r e - c o n t a c t s t a t e , D e r r id a a t t e m p t s t o show t h a t w r i t i n g i s a l r e a d y f u l l y i m p l i c a t e d w i t h i n Nambikwara c u l t u r e (1976: 1 01- 140) . For D e r r i d a , w r i t i n g i s t h e p r e c o n d i t i o n o f language and n o t , as t h i n k e r s from P l a t o t o Rousseau and beyond have c l a im e d , an i n f e r i o r o r s u p pl em en ta ry v e r s i o n o f i t . According t o D e r r i d a t h e r e i s no i n n o c e n t , a u t h e n t i c speech un
t a i n t e d by w r i t i n g and t h e v i o l e n c e which L e v i - S t r a u s s c l a i ms has been b r o u g h t t o p r i m i t i v e s o c i e t i e s by w r i t i n g . S o c i e t i e s e v e r y where a r e marked by w r i t i n g in D e r r i d a ' s s e n s e , by what he d e s c r i b e s as ' t h e v i o l e n c e o f t h e a r c h e - w r i t i n g , t h e v i o l e n c e o f d i f f e r e n c e , o f c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , and o f t h e system o f a p p e l l a t i o n s ' (1976: 110).
I t i s on t h e l a t t e r t h a t D e r r i d a f o c u s e s in t h e e s s a y under c o n s i d e r a t i o n ; a c c o r d i n g t o L e v i - S t r a u s s t h e Nambikwara a r e not
