AN APPfiOACH TO THE EXAMINATION OF LAND MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS IN A DEVELOPMENT PLANNING PROCESS:
SOME ASPECTS OF THE CHANGING ROLE OF THE NATIVE LAND TRUST BOARD OF F U I, 1940-1985
Thesis subm itted i n p a r ti a l f u lf illm e n t of th e req u irem en ts f o r th e degree of Doctor of Philosophy
Paul W illion Munro-Faure
School of O riental and A frican S tu d ies U niversity of London
Malet St London W. C, 1
1
ProQuest Number: 10672614
All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS
The qu ality of this repro d u ctio n is d e p e n d e n t upon the q u ality of the copy subm itted.
In the unlikely e v e n t that the a u th o r did not send a c o m p le te m anuscript and there are missing pages, these will be note d . Also, if m aterial had to be rem oved,
a n o te will in d ica te the deletion.
uest
ProQuest 10672614
Published by ProQuest LLC(2017). C op yrig ht of the Dissertation is held by the Author.
All rights reserved.
This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States C o d e M icroform Edition © ProQuest LLC.
ProQuest LLC.
789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346
Ann Arbor, Ml 4 8 1 0 6 - 1346
ABSTRACT
The th e s is aims t o id e n tif y a p h ilo so p h ical approach to th e q u e stio n of how we can a tte m p t t o r e s o l v e p ro b lem s i n th e s o c ia l s c ie n c e s . Two p a r t i c u l a r problem a re a s th a t have geographical relevance in t h i s a re a are development planning and th e management of th e land resource. Follow ing t h i s defined approach re le v a n t area s of theory a rs discussed and assessed i n th e l i g h t of th e p hilo sop hical c r i t e r i a A conceptual framework w ith in which a development planning process might o p erate i s proposed, and lin k ag es w ith land id e n tifie d . This m a te ria l i s viewed i n th e context of re le v a n t in fo rm a tio n drawn from th e experience of F iji .
I t i s arg u ed t h a t a l l ’d e v e lo p m e n t1 r e s u l t s from in d i v i d u a l and j o i n t d ecisio n s i n any given system (or im pingeing thereon) being converted in to a c tio n U ntil such tim e as s u b s ta n tia l advances a re made i n in d iv id u a l and group behavioural theory, understanding of processes o p e ra tin g and the a b i l i t y to p red ic t outcomes (which i t i s argued i s e s s e n tia l fo r e f f e c tiv e development planning) w ill be very r e s tr ic te d . Understanding and th e accum ulation of knowledge i n such circum stances may depend not so much upon th e c o n s tru c tio n and te s tin g of hypotheses but upon the c a re fu l observatio n, reco rd in g and a n a ly sis of changes. In th e p resen t case, p ressu res and p ro cesses r e s u ltin g i n changes i n th e management of N ative Land are considered using d e ta ile d m a te ria ls from f i e l d research.
C o n c lu sio n s a r e draw n r e g a r d in g t h e p h ilo s o p h ic a l ap p ro ac h ad op ted, development planning and the developed conceptual framework, and the processes of change and im pacts a r is in g from the p o lic ie s and o p e ra tio n s of th e Native Land T rust Board i n the context of F i j i ’s development fo r th e period 1940- 1985.'
2
PREFACE
The main co n ce rn and c o n te n t o f th e t h e s i s i s th e dev elop m ent o f th e N ative Land T r u s t Board o f F i j i betw een 1940 and 1985.
The Board was c r e a t e d i n 1940 by th e N a tiv e Land T r u s t O rd in an ce o f th a t y e a r . I t was a s s ig n e d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r th e a d m in is tr a t io n and management o f N a tiv e Land, w hich h i t h e r t o had been s u b je c t to an ad hoc p r o c e s s .
Land and i t s a v a i l a b i l i t y f o r u se p la y a c e n t r a l r o l e i n e n a b lin g developm ent to p ro c e e d . I t i s , a s a r e s u l t , a f a c t o r to be c o n s id e re d i n p la n n in g f o r developm ent a t th e n a t i o n a l l e v e l .
T h is i s o f p a r t i c u l a r im p o rta n c e i n th e c o n te x t o f F i j i , w here la n d ow nership i s d iv id e d i n t o f r e e h o l d (8% ), Crown (9 .5 % ), and N ativ e (82.5% ) - c r e a t i n g w hat am ounts to a v i r t u a l monopoly i n th e su p p ly o f la n d f o r new developm ent on th e p a r t o f th e B oard.
The t h e s i s v iew s ch an g es i n th e Board a g a i n s t t h i s background and a g a i n s t t h a t o f n a t i o n a l d ev elo p m en t.
The t h e s i s pays p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n to th e l e g a l and a d m in is tr a t iv e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f th e N a tiv e Land T r u s t B oard , and t o how t h i s h a s changed o v e r tim e . I t re v ie w s th e d ev elop m en t o f i t s p o l i c i e s i n r e l a t i o n to th e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and l e a s i n g o f th e la n d r e s o u r c e , and exam ines th e p r e s s u r e s and c o n s t r a i n t s upon th e Board in th e b r o a d e r c o n te x t o f F i j i and i t s n a t i o n a l d evelopm ent p la n n in g .
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
A bstract 2
Acknowledgements 5
L is t of Tables 6
L is t of F ig ures 9
Glossary of Terms 11
Chapter 1 In tro d u cto ry 14
Chapter 2 P h ilo so p h ical Approach 20
Why a re we p rim arily concerned w ith philosophy?
a) The aim of research
b) The disadvantages of not d efin in g an a p p ro p ria te p h iloso ph ical approach
What a r e th e op tio n s a s reg ard s d if f e r e n t p h ilo so p h ies?
a) Do we have ary option?
b) What op tio n s do we have?
What i s re q u ire d of our philosophy in praxis?
Epistem ological P ro p o sitio n s Epistemology I
E p ist emology I I
O ntological P ro p o sitio n s Ontology I
Ontology I I
P hiloso ph ical P ro p o sitio n s P h ilo so p h ical P o sitio n
31
48
60 69 Chapter 3 T h eo retical Framework
S o c io -c u ltu ra l theory and context S o c io -c u ltu ra l theory
S o c io -c u ltu ra l context P o lit ic a l theory and context
P o lit ic a l theory P o lit ic a l context
Economic theory and context Economic theory
Economic context
B ehavioural theory and context Behavioural theory
Behavioural context In te g ra tio n
T h eo re tic al p o s itio n Contextual p o s itio n
71 72
82
93
105
114
Chapter 4 The N ative Land T rust Board 1940-1973 Background
N ative Land T rust Ordinance, 1940 Development p ressu res 19 40-1973
a) P o pu lation growth b) Population d r i f t c) Economic growth d) L e g is la tiv e growth P ercep tio n s of re s p o n s ib ility
A dm inistration p o lic ie s and im p lan en tatio n a) S ta ffin g po licy and tr a in in g
b) Management s tr u c tu re and decision-m aking c) Accounting p r a c tic e s
121
122 125 128
136 141
3
Page
F ie ld p o lic ie s and im plam entation 151
a) Work load b) Finances
c) A g ric u ltu ra l land: g en erally : re se rv e s d) Urban land
e) Tourism f) F orestry
g) M inerals and e x tra c tiv e in d u s tr ie s
P ercep tion s of e ffe c tiv e n e ss 169
Chapter 5 The N ative Land T rust Board 1974—1985 173
Development p ressu res 1974-1985 174
a) P op ulation grcwth b) Population d r i f t c) Economic grcwth d) L e g is la tiv e growth
P ercep tio n s of r e s p o n s ib ility 182
A dm inistration p o lic ie s and im plem entation 186 a) S ta ffin g policy and tr a in in g
b) Management s tr u c tu re and decision-m aking c) Accounting p r a c tic e s
F ie ld p o lic ie s and im plem entation 200
a) Work load b) Finances
c) A g ric u ltu ra l lan d: g en era lly : re s e rv e s d) Urban land
e) Tourian f) F o restry
g) M inerals and e x tra c tiv e in d u s tr ie s
P erceptions of e ffe c tiv e n e ss 214
Chapter 6 F u tu re C o nsiderations 220
N ative Land T rust Board 221
F i j i 226
In te rn a tio n a l 228
Developments w ith in th e e x is tin g framework 230
Developments of the e x is tin g framework 233
P o s s i b i l i t i e s fo r d ire c tin g change 236
Chapter 7 Conclusions 239
On change 241
On processes of change 245
The fu tu re 247
A Note on Fieldwork 250
Notes 253
B ibliography 280
Ackncwledgement s
I t i s a pleasu re to acknowledge th e a s s is ta n c e of those who have been good enough to help i n some way in th e research and p re p a ra tio n o f t h i s t h e s i s I should lik e t o thank those members of the s t a f f and of th e stu d en t body of th e School of O rien tal and A frican S tu d ies who have le n t an e a r during my period of study. Harvey Demaine and Keith McLachlan as su p e rv is o rs have been kind and generous i n t h e i r in te re s t* encouragement, and advice.
I should li k e t o reco rd nry g r a titu d e to B rian Robson, my e rs tw h ile D irecto r of S tudies, fo r suggesting th a t I co nsider r e g is t r a tio n a t th e School; and to Dick Hodder f o r h is e a rly thoughts and enthusiasm which have done much to s u s ta in me as my id e a s have developed.
I owe a g r e a t and c o n tin u in g d e b t t o th e N a tiv e Land T r u s t B oard f o r i t s frie n d sh ip , i t s h o s p ita lity , and i t s gen erosity i n honouring me w ith access to i t s records, and i n allow ing me to d iscu ss m a tte rs fr e e ly w ith i t s management and s t a f f . I hope th a t they w ill f in d th i s work to be of sane i n t e r e s t .
There are, of course, rnary o ther people to whom thanks a re due w ith in F i j i : a t th e A g r i c u l t u r a l T r ib u n a l’s o f f i c e ; a t th e U n iv e r s ity o f th e South P a cific; i n th e Government Archives, in th e C entral Planning O ffice L ibrary and i n v a r io u s o th e r G overnm ent and l o c a l governm ent o f f i c e s ; i n th e I n s t i t u t e of V aluatio n and E sta te Management of F i j i ; i n th e F i j i I n s t i t u t e of A g ric u ltu ra l Science; and elsew here. To a l l of them thanks are given.
I t i s in a p p ro p ria te to l i s t a l l of those who have been of a s s is ta n c e , but i t i s a p leasu rab le duty to mention two, guiding s p i r i t s from w ith in the Board, J o s e fa ta Kamikamica and Waisake Savou, and to thank them fo r t h e i r indulgence, Vinaka.
The typing of th e th e s is has been a long and drawn out a f f a i r since e a rly 1986 when Mary T u ll and C a ro le Moody f i r s t s t a r t e d t o f e e d i t i n t o a r a t h e r g e r i a t r i c R acal word p r o c e s s o r . T h e ir f o r t i t u d e i n s t r u g g l i n g w ith my handw riting and w ith such a tr y in g machine deserve a h e a r t f e l t thankyou.
I t i s cu riou s t o observe how one’s fam ily in v a ria b ly f a l l s t o be considered la s t . I thank my p a re n ts fo r t h e i r gen erosity both of funds and of s p i r i t which has continued beyond a l l th e bounds of reasonable p a re n ta l duty.
My e f f o r ts a s they fo llow , and such a s they are, a re however b est p u t in to c o n te x t by th o s e o f my w ife J u d i t h ; who h a s been d e l i v e r e d o f our th r e e ch ild ren , Napier, Hannah and Sophie; who has su ffe re d the death of our f i r s t daughter, Hannah, in New Zealand; who has organised s ix changes of address;
who h a s p u t up w ith h e r husband ch an g in g em ploym ent t h r e e tim e s w h i l s t research in g and w r itin g up h is th e s is ; and who has even found tim e to work in te r m itte n tly over the p ast f iv e years.
H ig h c liffe Min chi nh ampton Glouce s t e rs h ire .
5
L i s t o f t a b l e s
Page
Chapter 2: P h ilosophical Approach
2.1 Three kinds of s c i e n t i f i c theory (A fter Bunge) 39
Chapter 3: T heoretical Framework
3.1 D is tr ib u tio n of freeh o ld or eq u iv alen t ten u re 77
3 .2 C u ltural r e la tio n s h ip s w ith land 78
3.3 Changes i n e l e c t e d r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a t th e n a t io n a l l e v e l i n 87 F i j i
3.5 The d ev elo pm ent p la n n in g p r o c e s s and l i n k a g e s w ith la n d i n 119 F i j i
Chapter 4 : The N ative Land Trust Board 1940-1973
4.1 P o p u la tio n g ro w th , 1936-1976: t o t a l s and g ro w th r a t e s based 128 upon decennial censL
4.2 P o p u la tio n d r i f t , 1966-1976: by D iv is io n b ased upon d e c e n n ia l 130 censi
4.3 P opulation d r i f t , 1936-1976: grcwth of urban pop ulation 131 4.4 P o p u la tio n d r i f t , 1966-1976: d i f f e r e n t i a l g ro w th o f u rb a n 131
populations
4.5 Economic grow th, 1960-1974: e x p a n s io n of th e to u ris m i n d u s tr y 132 by v i s i t o r a r r iv a ls stay in g 24 hours or mere
4.6 Economic gro w th , 1950-1974: s t r u c t u r e o f G ro ss D o m estic 133 Product by percentage share, t o t a l G.D.P. and average annual
growth r a te s
4.7 L e g i s l a t i v e g row th, 1940-1974: m ajo r le g i s l a t i o n enacted, date 134 of enactment, and im pact on n a tiv e lan d management.
4.8 L e g i s l a t i v e g ro w th , 1968-1974: im p a c t of p r o v is io n s o f 136 le g is la tio n ; the A g ric u ltu ra l Landlord and Tenant Act, 1966,
refe re n c e s to th e A g ric u ltu ra l Tribunal i n i t i a t e d and disposed of 1/1/68 - 19/7/74
4.9 S t a f f , 1 9 4 5 -1 97 4 : s u m m a r y o f e x t e r n a l t r a i n i n g 147 3.4 S ectors o f a c tiv ity and impact on n atio n al development 118
Page
4.10 S ta f f , 1368: summary of examination passes 148
4.11 W orkload, 1951-1968: summary of casew o rk d e a l t w ith by th e 153 Board
4.12 Workload, 1945-1974: growth i n number of le a s e s and te n a n c ie s 154 granted by th e Board
4.13 Income and exp end iture, 1940-1974 1 56
4.14 Annual r e n t a l s and r o y a l t i e s , 19 46-197 4: am ounts c o l l e c t e d 158 and d i s t r i b u t e d , r e n t a l v a lu e o f th e n a t iv e e s t a t e , and
a rre a rs
4.15 W orkload, 1968-1971: th e A g r ic u lt u r a l L an d lo rd and T en an t 162 Ordinance up to 25th February 1971.
Chapter 5: The N ative Land Trust Board 1974-1985
5.1 P o p u la tio n g ro w th , 1974-1985: t o t a l s and g ro w th r a t e s based 175 upon decennial censi
5.2 Population d r i f t , 1977: average household weekly r e a l income 175 5 .3 P o p u la tio n d r i f t , 1 9 7 6 -1 9 8 6 : p r o j e c t e d p o p u l a t i o n s by 177
P ro v in ce OOOOs)
5.4 Economic growth, 1974-1984: expansion of th e t o u r i s t in d u stry 178 by v i s i t e r a r r iv a ls
5.6 Economic g ro w th , 1974-1985: s t r u c t u r e o f G ro ss D o m estic 179 Product, by percentage share, t o t a l G.D.P. and average annual
growth r a te s
5.7 L e g i s l a t i v e g r o w th , 1 978-1 9 8 4 : im p a c t o f p r o v is io n s o f 181 le g is la tio n ; th e A g ric u ltu ra l Landlord and Ttenant Act, 1966,
refe re n c e s to th e A g ric u ltu ra l Tribunal pending and disposed of
5.8 S ta f f , 1978-1985: sunmary of te c h n ic ia n le v e l tr a in in g 192 5.9 S ta ff, 1978-1985: sunmary of a d d itio n a l in house tr a in in g 192 5.10 S ta f f , 1978-198 5: l o c a lis a t io n of p ro fessio n al le v e l p o s itio n s 194 5.11 W o rk lo a d , 1 9 7 4 -1 9 8 5 : g r o w th i n n u m b e rs o f l e a s e s and 202
ten an cies granted by the Board
5.12 Income and expenditure, 1974-1985 203
5.13 Annual r e n t a l s and r o y a l t i e s , 1974-1985; am ounts c o l l e c t e d 204 and d i s t r i b u t e d , r e n t a l v a lu e o f th e n a t iv e e s t a t e , and
a rre a rs
7
Page 5 . 1 4 A g r i c u l t u r a l la n d . 1 9 7 4 - 1 9 8 5 : num bers o f l e a s e s , and a r e a 205
leased by th e Board
5 . 1 5 A g r ic u lt u r a l la n d , 1 9 8 1 - 1 9 8 5 : D evelopm ent P la n 8 , p r o je c te d 206 r e le a s e o f lan d fo r a g ric u ltu re
5 . 1 6 A g r i c u l t u r a l la n d , 197 4 - 1 9 8 5 : num bers o f l e a s e s , and a r e a 2 0 7 leased (reserv e land) by the Board
5 . 1 7 Urban la n d , 1 9 7 4 - 1 9 8 5 : num bers o f n o n - a g r i c u l t u r a l l e a s e s 2 0 9 granted by th e Board
L i s t o f F ig u r e s
Page
Chapter 2: P h ilosop h ical Approach
2.1 Approaches to planning: black box and w hite box 33
2 .2 Conceptual grcwth of hunan knowledge 36
2.3 The process of method refinem ent (A fter Rescher) 44
2.4 The m e ta p h y s ic a l and f a c t u a l e le m e n ts and t h e i r l i n k i n g 46 to g eth er i n s ta g e s i n an in q u iry procedure (A fter Rescher)
2.5 Modes of becoming and r e la te d o n to lo g ies (A fter Bunge) 58 2.6 E f f ic a c y of a number o f dev elo p m en t p la n s a t a g iv e n tim e 66
according t o th e method of planning
2.7 P e r c e p tio n s o f r e a l i t y o f a number o f i n d i v i d u a l s a t a g iv e n 66 tim e according t o th e ir perceptual a b i l i t y
2.8 Efficacy o f a nunber of development planning p ro cesses over time 67 2.9 E f fic a c y o f d ev elo p m en t p la n n in g p ro c e s s a g a i n s t a c c u ra c y o f 67
percep tion o f r e a l i t y over tim e
Chapter 3: T h eoretical Framework
3.1 Society in loco 74
3 .2 C ultural groups i n loco 75
3.3 Changes w ith in a c u ltu r a l group 76
3.4 Map f o r th e a n a l y s i s of p e r s o n a l i t y and p o l i t i c s ( A f te r 83 B rew ster-an ith )
3.5 Feedback i n a p o l i t i c a l system 85
3 .6 C ircu lar flow of income i n a s im p lis tic economy 95
3.7 Leakages i n th e c ir c u la r flow of income 95
3.8 Context and sources of change i n an economy 96
3.9 P rin cip al n e t f in a n c ia l flow s in F i j i (A fter Development Plan 7) 100 3.10 P e r c e p tio n o f th e p e r c e p tu a l m echanism o f th e i n d i v i d u a l 108
(A fter Lloyd and Dicken)
3.11 Behavioural m atrix (A fter Pred) 109
9
3.12 Conceptual sequence of n atio n al development 3.13 Generic sequence of n atio n al development
Page
115 116
Chapter 4: The N ative Land Trust Board 1940-1973
4.1 Population grcwth, 1936-1976 1 29
4.2 Economic growth, 1960-1974: expansion of the tou rism in d u stry 132 by v i s i t o r a r r i v a l s stay in g 24 hours or more
4.3 Growth of s t a f f and com position, 1946-1973 143
4.4 O rganisation c h a rt, 1962 1 44
4.5 P roposed o r g a n i s a t i o n c h a r t and s t a f f i n g o f th e B oard from 148 1968, showing a c tu a l 1968 s t a f f le v e ls b ra c k stte d where not a t
establishm ent
4.6 O rganisation c h a rt, 1973 1 50
4.7 W orkload, 1945-1974: in d e x of g ro w th i n t o t a l number o f 155 le a se s and te n a n c ie s managed by th e Board (1955 = 100)
4.8 .Tourism, 1946-1974: h o te l le a s e s granted by y ear 166
Chapter 5: The N ative Land Trust Board 1974-1985
5.1 Growth of s t a f f and com position, 1973-1985 189
5.2 S ta ff, 1973-1985: p ro p o rtio n follow ing tr a in in g co u rses 193 5.3 O r g a n is a tio n c h a r t , 1979-1985: D iv is io n a l E s t a t e O f f ic e 197
o rg a n isa tio n
5.4 O rganisation c h a rt, 1979-1985: Head O ffice o rg a n is a tio n 198 5.5 Workload, 1974-1985: co n tro l of work o v e ra ll and by D ivision . 201
G lossary of Terms
A note on F iji a n s p e llin g and p ro n u n ciatio n
Throughout t h i s th e s is th e accepted standard s p e llin g of F iji a n words i s used.
For p ro nu nciatio n th e eq u iv a le n ts a r e as fo llc w s :- b i s pronounced mb a s i n tim ber
c i s pronounced t h as i n t h i s d i s pronounced nd a s in band g i s pronounced ng a s i n king q i s pronounced ng as i n fin g e r G alala
M ataqali
Tokatoka Turaga
Yakavanua Tavusa
1 1
independent F iji a n farm er who paid a commutation r a te to be re le a s e d from communal se rv ic e s under the old F ijia n R egulations
a sub-clan; su b d iv isio n of a y a v u sa ; th e prim ary landowning u n it
fam ily group; su b d iv isio n of m ataq ali
c h i e f ; th u s , f o r in s ta n c e , t u r a g a - n i - q a l l i s c h i e f o f th e m ataq ali
i n th e manner of th e land; customary
w id e s t p a t r i l i n e a l k in s h ip group ; d escen d ed from a common an c e sto r.
For th e premise th a t bore f r u i t
"... I reg ard ev erything th a t i s sa id h ere as c o r r ig ib le p re c is e ly because I wish philosophy were alw ays done in a s c i e n t i f i c mood".
M. Bunge
•’The Hyth of S im p lic ity 11
13
CHAPTER 1 Introductory
' I t was a dark and stormy n ig ht;
The lig h tn in g flashed* th e thunder crashed.
And th e r a in came down in bucket a . . The Robber C aptain said ; "Antonio t e l l us a story.", And th i s i s the sto ry Antonio to ld :
'" I t was a dark and stormy night;
The lig h tn in g flashed, the thunder crashed, And th e r a in came down i n buckets.
Ihe Robber Captain said; "Antonio t e l l us a story.", And t h i s i s th e sto ry Antonio to ld :
'" " I t was a d a rk ... "«*••'
"A ntonio's T ale". T ra d itio n a l.
1 4
CHAPTER 1
Introductory
The sig n ific a n c e of th e re la tio n s h ip between receiv ed or ta u g h t 'knowledge1 and f i r s t hand p r a c tic a l experience i s remarkable. I t i s arguably one of th e f i r s t pieces of knowledge th a t an in d iv id u a l acquires, and i s p o ssib ly one of th e most im portant.
Take, fo r in stan ce, a c h ild standing a t a bus sto p w a itin g f o r the 8.30 am.
bus t o ta k e him t o s c h o o l; he does n o t g iv e up h i s v i g i l a t 8.30 am . j u s t becau se th e bus h as n o t p u lle d i n t o s i g h t , s in c e i n h i s e x p e rie n c e th e tim e ta b le i s very o fte n in a c c u ra te , and the bus fre q u e n tly l a t a
"Why do I say th i s ? " , and "How can t h i s be n arrow ed down i n t o a more meaningful statem ent?" w i l l be two very im p o rtan t q u e s tio n s running through th ese pages.
For the moment, however, a general c l a r i f i c a t i o n of the general statem en t w ill s u ffic e to in d ic a te th e intended d ire c tio n of tra v e l.
What i s "received or tau gh t 'knowledge'"? I t mey be taken a s being rep o rted exp lan atio n s of events or e n t i t i e s , of th e ir ex isten ce and behaviour both as reg ard s them selves a s in d iv id u a ls, and as reg ards them selves i n th e context i n which they have th e ir bein& The le v e l of in v e s tig a tio n and ex p lan atio n i s im po rtan t and i s , of course, defined i n th e f i r s t in sta n c e by fundamental q u e stio n s of s c a le and i n the second perhaps by conceptual capacity.
But what s ta tu s do th ese ex p lan atio n s have?
" F i r s t hand e x p e r ie n c e " , i n s o f a r a s i t r e l a t e s t o r e c e iv e d or ta u g h t 'k n o w led g e', may be in s ta n c e d i n two ways. On th e one hand, f i r s t hand experience re p re s e n ts the opp ortu nity to t e s t ex p lan atio n s a g a in s t the r e a l
1 5
world. On the o th er. I t g iv es the o pportunity to examine how ex p lan atio n s have been r e la te d i n th e p ast to d e sire d changes in th e even ts or e n t i t i e s and th e ir ex isten ce or behaviour.
E xplanations a re th e re fo re stro n g ly re la te d to exp ectatio n s, and i n th e l a t t e r sense, to p red ic tio n s.
I t i s im p ortant to be aware th a t none of the above makes any g r e a t dep artu re from anything th a t has been o ften s ta te d before, and indeed i t may be drawn from common sense. I t does, however, presen t a u sefu l o r ie n ta tio n e x e rc ise to f a c i l i t a t e th e i n t r o d u c t i o n of some o f th e m ost f u n d a m e n ta lly d i f f i c u l t problems not only facin g th e developing world, but also , i t may be added, u n d erw ritin g many of the d i f f i c u l t i e s of the developed world.
I t i s re le v a n t to ask to what ex ten t ex p lan atio n i s a v a lid procedure fo r th e a c c u r a te i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f e x p e c ta t io n s and p r e d i c t i o n s . Any q u e s ti o n providing in fo rm a tio n d efin in g th e s ta tu s of ex p lan atio n s i n th e above context i s valuable.
Such q u e stio n s a r e of c ru c ia l sig n ific a n c e In th e developing w orld because explanatory statem en ts are n e c e ssa rily p recu rso rs of d e c isio n s governing the u t i l i s a t i o n of reso u rces and t h e i r allo c a tio n . From a r a tio n a l p o in t of view i t i s im portant to secure the b e st a v a ila b le r e tu r n from sca rc e resou rces. How much more so fo r those p a r ts of th e w orld c h a ra c te rise d by la c k of reso u rces of a l l kinds!
T rav e llin g through a number of c o u n trie s a s u p e r f ic ia l aw areness o f th e im pact of th i s p o te n tia l problem was generated i n a wide v a r ie ty of f i e l d a The eco lo g ica l consequences of th e Aswan Dam; th e long term f in a n c ia l p ro sp ects of major i r r i g a t i o n development schem es; th e J o n g le i Canal and prop osed d r a in i n g o f th e Sudd; a n e x p e r im e n ta l sheep schem e i n K apoeta, S o u th e rn Sudan; th e long term consequences of land r e g i s t r a t i o n and c o n so lid a tio n
schemes in Kenya; and so on
This wide range of, a l b e i t s u p e r f ic ia l, f i r s t hand experience provided an im po rtan t f i r s t in d ic a tio n th a t exp lanation, i n term s of th e o r if ic a tio n , i s not an autom atic s o lu tio n to th e fu lfilm e n t of expect a tio n sa n d p re d ic tio n s.
(Although a t th a t stage, th e q u e s tio n was not form ulated In such a gen eral
16
manner; ifc was found i n a su ccessio n of "why?" and "how?" questio ns.) Why c o u ld n o t th e e c o l o g ic a l p ro b le m s o f d is p l a c i n g th e s i l t i n g p r o c e s s be fcreseen?^ How could a country l i k e Sudan undertake m ajor development schemes which o f f i c i a l s f e l t would never be fin a n c ia lly independent?2 How could th e f u t u r e im p a c t o f th e J o n g l e i Canal and th e d ra in a g e o f th e Sudd e v e r be assessed to th e s a ti s f a c tio n of th e whole reg io n affe c te d ? ^ How could th e p la n n e r s o f th e K apoeta sheep schem e not be aw are o f th e p o t e n t i a l d i f f i c u l t i e s c re a te d by ta k in g lan d w ithout n e g o tia tio n or com pensation fo r th e cu sto m ary ow ners?^ Why had n ot Kenya e n a c te d minimum and maximum la n d h o ld in g l e g i s l a t i o n t o t r y t o p re v e n t f u t u r e p ro b le m s o f e x c e s s iv e su b d iv isio n of land and the emergence of absentee landlordism?-^
And so on.
This unease found p a r a l le l ex pression i n w ritin g s on th e su bject. The keynote a d d r e s s of th e PTRC S em inar on " P la n n in g and D evelopm ent i n D ev elo ping Countries" i n 1981:
"Thus, a s u b s ta n tia l p ro p o rtio n of aid to developing c o u n trie s i n th e post war period was of the wrong kind and i t i s only i n th e p ast 10 y ears th a t a g re a te r understanding of th e is s u e s has begun to emerge w h i eh w ill r e s u l t in . m.cre re le v a n t and p o te n tia lly more h e lp fu l and
successful ap pro ach es.. . "
"In th e p la n n in g f i e l d , th e wrong, te rm s o f r e f e r e n c e i n e v i t a b l y re s u lte d i n th e wrong kind of p la n a No wonder th a t so many . plans
prepared la b o rio u s ly a t co nsiderable co st were never im plem en ted..."
"In in te r n a tio n a l funding agencies o v e r-s o p h is tic a te d academ ics w rote term s of referen c e fo r equally over^-sophisticated p r a c t iti o n e r s to provide o v e r-s o p h is tic a te d se rv ic e s fo r Third World c o u n trie s which did not have th e m a te ria l or s k ille d manpower reso u rces to implement the r e s u ltin g la rg e ly ir r e le v a n t p ro p o sala . Other m istaken approaches w ere aca d em ic f i n a l s t a t e m a s te r p la n s , w hich w ere i n v a r i a b l y overtaken by event a
C r itic a l awareness of t h i s problem from a p r a c tic a l p o in t of view was fo s te re d and perhaps matured by f u r th e r experience i n England, Planning, which may be taken fo r the p resen t as any in te rv e n tio n in an e x is tin g s e t of circum stan ces or procedures i n an a tte m p t to secure c e r ta in d esired ends on the b a s is of an a n a ly s is of the e x is tin g circum stances, seems to be i n an alm o st id e n tic a lly s im ila r and d i f f i c u l t s i t u a t i o n
17
The context of the problem thus widely observed, i n t u iti v e ly ta k e s on a more general aspect, and w ith th is , slow dawning of the r e a l i s a t i o n th a t perhaps th ese d i f f i c u l t i e s a re not the r e s u l t of shortcom ings i n the theory th a t i s being app lied ; t h a t po ssib ly they r e s u lt from th e n atu re of th e p re th e c r e tic a l environment i n which the theory i t s e l f i s a t p resen t stru c tu re d .
Such a w idely experienced problem seems to argue fo r a fundam ental e rro r in approach. There i s a su sp icio n th a t the s o c ia l scien c es a3 a whole, a t l e a s t in s o fa r as they a re ap p lied i n th e r e a l world, tend to o p erate on a s im ila r le v e l to "Antonio's Tale": t e l l i n g much the same sto ry , a l b e i t i n in c re a s in g d e ta il, w ith r e la tiv e ly l i t t l e v a r ia tio n over the years.
There i s no th e o re tic a l b a s is fo r o b je c tin g to th is , i n the same way th a t t h e r e i s no o b j e c t i o n t o th e t e l l i n g o f A n to n io 's T a le i n th e n u rs e ry , p a r t i c u l a r l y when th e l i g h t s a r e o u t and th e th u n d e r i s c r a s h in g and th e lig h tn in g i s fla sh in g . I t c re a te s a splendid environment which g iv es o f f an atmosphere of c r e d ib ility .
But what happens when we r e c i t e "Antonio's Tale" i n th e o u tsid e w orld and gather to g e th e r under a tr e e to s h e lte r from the stormy b la s t? I t t e l l s us nothing o f any p r a c tic a l use; although we may d eriv e some com fort from th e f a m ilia r words, th i s i s s w iftly d is p e lle d when lig h tn in g s trik e s ....
The p r e th e c re tic a l environm ent w ith which we must i n i t i a l l y be concerned, and which w ill have f i r s t claim on our tim e, w ill involve a clo se look a t th e theory of knowledge; the ph ilosop hical realm p e rc e p tiv e ly summed up by Hume i n th e mid eig h teen th century:
"Our problem belongs to th e theory of knowledge, or to epistem ology, rep uted to be the most a b s tr a c t and rem ote and a lto g e th e r ir r e le v a n t reg io n of pure philosophy."^
But t h i s i t s e l f re q u ire s a problem, a defined context i n which to be discussed and ap plied; i n a p h ilo so p h ical sense, i n a th e o re tic a l sense and u ltim a te ly i n a p ra c tic a l sense. How e lse may i t otherw ise be judged?
18
The p h ilo s o p h ic a l and t h e o r e t i c a l them es a re th u s p u rsu e d , and t e n t a t i v e suggestions made i n such a form as to f a c i l i t a t e exam ination i n th e context of th e r e a l world.
As to the choice of problem?
I t has already been in d ic a te d th a t a very s u b s ta n tia l problem area i s to be found i n a sse ssin g the consequences of v ario u s planned a c t i v i t i e s i n any given en v iro n m en t. W hether acknow ledged o r n o t i t i s a problem t h a t i s o f sig n ific a n c e to a l l people; but, i n term s of im pact i t i s arguable th a t the g r e a t e s t s i g n i f i c a n c e i s on th e p e o p le s o f th e d e v e lo p in g w o rld . Who i s u ltim a te ly most a ffe c te d by th ese consequences i s not, however, of p a r tic u la r r e le v a n c e (e x c e p t, o f c o u rs e , to th e in d iv id u a ls and s o c ie t ie s concerned) because th e p a r t i c u l a r "How?" and ’’Why?” q u e s ti o n s t h a t a r e exam ined a re probably capable of f a i r l y general ap p licatio n .
N o n e - th e - le s s , a s i s p e rh a p s I n e v i t a b l e , c irc u m s ta n c e s h av e i n d i c a t e d a c e r ta in d ire c tio n .
In th e present in sta n c e , background, tr a in in g and p r a c tic a l experience a l l com bine to s u g g e s t t h a t la n d , i t s p la c e i n th e schem e o f th in g s , and th e im pact of changes i n th e f a c to r s c o n tro llin g i t s use, a re most lik e ly to be reasonably e f f e c tiv e ly d e a lt w ith. Likewise op portu nity has d ic ta te d th a t the s p e c if ic context i n which th e r e s u ltin g pro po sals a r e d iscussed w i l l be drawn from the South P a c ific Region.
I t i s f o r th e s e , l a r g e l y chance r e a s o n s t h a t th e c e n t r a l t o p i c o f "Land Management c o n s i d e r a t i o n s i n th e D evelopm ent P la n n in g p ro c e s s " h a s been se le c te d ; and indeed th a t th e s p e c ific case study u t i l i s e d should be th a t of F i j i 's Native Land T rust Board and the n atu re and e f f e c ts of i t s changing r o le i n th e development planning process.
I t i s f o r t u n a t e t h a t such an exam ple i s t o hand i n s o f a r a s i t h a s had s u b s t a n t i a l im p a c ts n o t o n ly i n F i j i , b u t a ls o s p r e a d in g th ro u g h o u t th e Region.
CHAPTER 2
P h ilosophical Approach
n 'I w i l l read th e inven to ry 1, began Craven gravely, pick ing up one of the papers,, .'the inventory of what we found lo o se and unexplained i n th e c a s t l e . . .
' f i r s t item . ..A very co n sid erab le hoard o f precious sto nes, nearly a l l diam onds....
’Second item . Heaps and heaps o f lo ose snuff....
'T hird item . Here and .th ere about th e house cu rio u s l i t t l e heaps of minute p ieces of metal,..some lik e s te e l sprin gs and some in th e form of m icroscopic w heel a . . .
'F o u rth ite m . The wax c a n d le s ... By no s t r e t c h of fan cy c a n th e human mind connect to g e th e r sn u ff and diamonds and wax and lo ose
clockw ork.'
' I th in k I see th e connexion,' said , th e p rie s t. 'T his Glengyle was mad a g a i n s t th e F ren ch R ev o lu tio n . He was an e n t h u s i a s t f o r th e a n c ie n re g im e , and was tr y in g to re -e n a c t l i t e r a l l y th e fam ily l i f e of the l a s t Bourbons. He had snu ff because i t was the e ig h teen th - century luxury; wax candles because they were th e e ig h teen th -cen tu ry lig h tin g ; th e mechanical b i t s of ir o n re p re s e n t th e lo ck sm ith hobby o f L o u is XVI; t h e diam onds a r e f o r th e Diamond N ecklace o f M arie A n toinette.
Both th e o th e r men w ere s t a r i n g a t him w ith round ey es. ’ What a p e r f e c t l y e x t r a o r d in a r y n o tio n ! ' c r i e d Flam beau. 'Do you r e a l l y th in k th a t i s th e tru th ? '
' I am p e rfe c tly su re i t i s n 't , ’ answered F ather Brow a ...
Then he said : 'The l a t e Earl of Glengyle was a th ie f. He liv e d a second and d arker l i f e a s a desp erate house-breaker. He did not have any can d le stic k s because he only used these candles cut sh o rt in the la n te rn he carried . The sn u ff he employed as th e f i e r c e s t French c rim in a ls have used pepper: to f li n g i t suddenly i n dense masses i n th e face of a captor or pursuer. But th e f in a l proof i s th e curious coincidence of the diamonds and the sm all s te e l wheels. S urely th a t makes every th in g p la in to you? Diamonds and sm all s te e l w heels a re the only two in stru m e n ts w ith which you can cut out a pane of g la ss.' 'Diamonds and sm all w heels,' rep eated Craven, rum inating. 'I s th a t a l l th a t makes you th in k i t the tru e explanation?'
' I don't th in k i t th e tru e e x p la n a tio n ' re p lie d th e p r ie s t p la c id ly ; '... The t r u e t a l e , of c o u rs e , i s s o m e th in g much m ore humdrum.
Glengyle had found, or thought he had found, precious sto n e s on h is e s ta te . Somebody had bamboozled him w ith those lo ose b r i l l i a n t s , saying they were found i n th e c a s tle caverns. The l i t t l e w heels a re some diam ond-cutting a f f a ir . He had to do the th in g very roughly and i n a sm all.w ay, w ith th e h elp of a few shepherds or rude fe llo w s on th ese h i l l a Snuff i s the one g re a t luxury of such Scotch shepherds;
i t s the one th in g w ith which you can bribe them They d id n 't have can d le stic k s because they d id n 't want them; they held th e candles in th e ir hands when they explored the caves.*
'I s th a t a l l ? ' asked Flambeau a f t e r a long pause. 'Have we got to the d u ll tr u th a t la s t ? '
'Oh no,' sa id F ather Brown
' I o n ly s u g g e s te d t h a t b ecau se you s a id one co u ld n o t p l a u s i b l y connect sn u ff w ith clockwork or candles w ith b rig h t stones. Ten f a ls e p h iloso ph ies .w i ll f i t th e universe; te n f a ls e th e o rie s w i l l f i t Glengyle Castle. But we want the r e a l ex p lan atio n of the c a s tle and th e un iv erse.' "
frcm 'The Honour of I s r a e l Gcw*
'3he Innocence of F ath er Brown' G. K. C hesterton.
21
CHAPTER 2
P h ilosop h ical Approach
Why are we prim arily concerned w ith philosophy?
Philosophy, philo so ph ers and works of philosophy cover a wide spectrum of i n t e r e s t and of a p p ro a c h e s. I n view of th e fu n d a m e n ta l n a tu r e of th e d i s c i p l i n e t h i s i s p e rh a p s s u r p r i s i n g , a s th e ty r o m ig h t be f o r g iv e n f o r presuming th a t a l l c o rre c tly analysed problems should p roperly reduce to some common b a s is of explanation, even though not n e c e ssa rily some common method of explanation.
A cursory e x p lo ra tio n o f l i b r a r i e s of philosophy w ill produce th e r e a l i s a t i o n th a t th is presum ption i s em phatically not the case. More d e ta ile d exam ination of th e s u b je c t m a t e r i a l p ro d u c e s an im p r e s s io n o f a f a s c i n a t i n g ran g e of competing ex p lan atio n s of exp lanation, and of the context u a lis a tio n , mode, method and approach th e re to . The fo rce w ith which such co m p etitio n i s argued, p a r tic u la r ly in c e r ta in key areas, i s in d ic a tiv e of the s tre n g th of the view s held and of the degree of commitment th e re to by th e p e r s o n a litie s involved.^
These are s ig n if ic a n t observatio ns, fo r a l l th e ir s u p e r f ic i a li ty , a s they serve to emphasise th a t v ir t u a ll y any pronouncements i n philosophy must be se e n on an, a s i t w ere, sub ju d i c e b a s is . There do n o t a p p e a r t o be any id e n tif ie d a b so lu te s i n th e study of th e abso lute, fo r th e p resen t a t le a s t.
Philosophy subdiv ides in to a number of id e n tif ia b le problem areas, commencing w ith lo g ic and sem antics, and ranging through to th e more m etaphysical area s of epistemology and ontology. Disagreem ents e x is t i n a l l a rea s; over, fo r in stan ce, many valued lo g ic s , and d e f in itio n s of tru th , but th e more vehement co n ten tio n s from the p resent p o in t of view appear i n th e a re a s of epistem ology and ontology. These may be defined re s p e c tiv e ly as fo llo w s; "the theory of th e m ethod or g ro u n d s of know ledge", and "th e th e o ry o f p u re b ein g o r r e a lity ." In essence th e "how?" and "what?" q u e stio n s of th e universe w r it la rg e .■p
I t I s w ith th ese q u e stio n s th a t th i s chap ter w ill be concerned, because the prime i n t e r e s t of a s o c ia l, a s of any, scien c e must be i n th ese "how?" and
"what?" form s of question. Geography i s no excep tion i n t h i s resp ect.
The s c ie n c e s are* o f c o u rs e , a ls o d epen dent upon th e o th e r a r e a s o f p hilo sop hical concern id e n tif ie d . Q uestions o f lo g ic and of sem antics are viewed as being r e la tiv e ly uncontentious i n the present co ntext and are thus not exam ined s p e c i f i c a l l y . B ro ad er q u e s ti o n s o f m e ta p h y s ic s , however*
p a r tic u la r ly i n a geographical context, re q u ire b r ie f c o n sid e ra tio n a s they may be a s ig n if ic a n t determ inant of th e p h ilo so p h ical approach adopted tow ards an id e n tif ie d problem.
Such in te r r e la tio n s h ip s as th e re may be between th e m etaphysical stand po in t and the w ider p h ilo so p h ical view p e r ta in to th e in d iv id u a l p ro b lem -so lv er's a ttitu d e s . In d iv id u al stan d p o in ts a re n e c e ssa rily unique and have an impact upon the i d e n tif i c a ti o n and s e le c tio n of, and the approaches to problem a I t i s re a s o n a b le to a rg u e t h a t th e a g g r e g a tio n o f such a p p ro a c h e s may be in stru m e n ta l i n the d e f in itio n of a problem and of i t s proposed so lu tio n . This may be p o te n tia lly of co n sid erab le relev ance to geographical problems, since d iv ergent re g io n s and c u ltu r a l groupings may favour c e r ta in m etaphysical and a c c o r d a n t p h il o s o p h i c a l a p p ro a c h e s t o stud y. Some form o f m e ta p h y s ic a l co n sid era tio n may th e re fo re be of s ig n ific a n c e p a r tic u la r ly where the problem i s o f such a n a tu re , and e s p e c i a l l y w here a p r o b le m - s o lv e r t r e a t s w ith problems o u ts id e h is own c u ltu r a l and re g io n a l fram es of referen ce.^
For the moment, however, concern i s w ith the approach to problems and t h e i r s e le c tio n :
"...and i t i s a p rim e co n cern , f o r j u s t a s g e o g r a p h ic a l stu d y in s o c i a l s c ie n c e can n o t p ro cee d w ith o u t a t l e a s t a p h il o s o p h i c a l v ie w p o in t (w h e th e r e x p l i c i t l y o r by im p l i c a t i o n ) , so p h ilo so p h y becomes b arren w ithout problema"^
I t has been s ta te d by Popper th a t th e le g itim a te a re a s of concern a re th e s e lf-e v id e n t "concrete e v i l s '1 of s o c ie ty :
"Work f o r th e e l i m i n a t i o n o f c o n c r e te e v i l s r a t h e r th a n f o r th e r e a l i s a t i o n of a b s tr a c t gooda Do not aim a t e s ta b lis h in g happiness by p o l i t i c a l , means. R ath er aim a t th e e l i m i n a t i o n o f c o n c r e te m iseries. Or, i n more p r a c tic a l term s: f ig h t fo r th e e lim in a tio n of poverty by d ir e c t means - fo r example, by making su re th a t everyone has a minimum incoma
" I t i s a fa c t, and not a very stran g e fa c t, th a t i t i s not so very d i f f i c u l t t o re a c h ag ree m en t by d i s c u s s i o n on w hat a r e th e m ost in to le r a b le e v i ls of our so ciety , and on what a re th e most urgent s o c ia l reform s. Such an agreement can be reached much mere e a s ily than an agreement concerning some id e a l form of s o c ia l l i f e . For th e
2 3
e v ils are w ith us h ere and now. T hey can be experienced, and are being experienced every day, by many people who have been and a re being made m iserab le by poverty, unemployment, n a tio n a l oppression, war and disease. Those of us who do not s u ffe r from these m ise rie s m eet ev ery day o t h e r s who can d e s c r ib e them to us. T h is i s w hat makes th e e v i l s c o n c re te . T h is i s why we can g e t som ew here by a rg u in g a b o u t them, why we can p r o f i t h e r e from th e a t t i t u d e o f reasonableness. We can le a rn by lis te n in g to concrete claim s, ty p a t i e n t l y t r y i n g t o a s s e s s them a s i m p a r t i a l l y a s we can,, and by considering ways o f meeting them w ithout c re a tin g worse e v il a
With id e a l goods i t i s d iff e r e n t. These we know only from our dreams and from th e d ream s o f our p o e ts and p r o p h e ta They can n o t be discussed, only proclaim ed from th e housetops, they do not c a l l fo r th e ra tio n a l a t tit u d e of th e im p a rtia l judge, but fo r th e em otional a t tit u d e of the im passioned preacher."^
The concrete analogy i s in s tr u c tiv e . Concrete comes i n a wide v a rie ty of d if f e r e n t types and mixes determ ined by the t e n s i le and o th e r requ irem ents of th e product. I t may re q u ire rein fo rc in g . I t may be an in a p p ro p ria te m a te ria l f o r some fo rm s o f c o n s tr u c t io n , m o reover, i f im p r o p e r ly u sed i t may be resp o n sib le fo r severe d e fe c ts in a s tru c tu re .
Concrete, th e re fo re , re q u ir e s to be ap p ro p ria te t o the ta s k i n hand, and to be ap p ro p ria tely used. I t can be no l e s s th e case w ith th e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of th e
"concrete e v ils " in so ciety . The d e f in itio n i s not an easy, nor an ab so lu te t a s k a s i s s u g g e s te d ; s t i l l l e s s so i s ag ree m en t on p r o p o s a ls f o r t h e i r re s o lu tio n .
W h ils t s y m p a th e tic t o th e g e n e r a l p o in t b e in g made by Popper, i t i s n o t f e a s ib le i n r e a l i t y to r e s t r i c t e f f o r ts to those designed to e lim in a te such au to d efin in g e v i l s a s may ex ist. L i t t l e credence would be given to such a s im p lis tic view in p ra c tic e i n any case.
I t i s p referred w ith in reaso n to follow th e s p i r i t of Harvey:
own o b je c tiv e has been to give the geographer f r e e r e ig n i n h is choice of o b je ctiv e , in th e b e lie f th a t g e o g r a p h y always has been and always w ill be what those who c a ll them selves geographers choose to do. »5
a) The aims o f research
The aim s o f r e s e a r c h a r e m a n ifo ld and a r e a t base th e r e s u l t of p e rs o n a l i n c l i n a t i o n s o f th e in d i v i d u a l r e s e a r c h e r . I t i s t h i s p e r s o n a l i t y o f p ercep tio n th a t th e p resent approach attem pts, i f not to e ra d ic a te , a t le a s t
to d e fu s e by m aking i t e x p l i c i t . Such p e rs o n a l i n c l i n a t i o n s a r e bound, w ittin g ly or not, in to a s e t of common bundles of philosophy. These bundles can g en erally be gathered in to a meta-aim, independent of philosophy, which i s t o attem pt to solve problems.
Im portant research i s norm ally to be found by s o rtin g out from th e mass of co m p etin g p ro b lem s th o s e p ro b lem s w h ich m a tte r . The r e s o l v i n g of su ch p ro b le m s o c c u rs a t th e p o in t w here s u b je c t iv e o p in io n i s c o n v e rte d i n t o o b je c tiv e knowledge. This i s , i n i t s e l f , the su b ject of co n sid erab le heated debate both as reg ard s th e a re a s of le g itim a te in t e r e s t i n r e a l i t y and a s reg ard s how o b je c tiv e knowledge i s procured and defined.
For th e p resen t purposes i t i s p o ssib le to put forw ard a general view th a t the bare minimum requirem ent to be aimed f o r i n a piece of r e s e a rc h i s th a t the proposed s o lu tio n must be in te r n a lly and e x te rn a lly c o n s is te n t and th a t i t must be dem onstrably sex I t must be in te r n a lly c o n s is te n t in s o fa r a s the lo g ic o f th e reasoning i n th e s o lu tio n must conform to a r a ti o n a l norm. I t must be e x te rn a lly o o n siste n t because the devised conceptual scheme must be capable of f i t t i n g and, by v ir tu e of the form er q u a lity , of ex p lain in g th e s itu a tio n in some way.
Research th e re fo re a tte m p ts to provide n o n - tr iv ia l and r a tio n a l ex p lan atio n s o f observed events, independent of personal, and id e a lly of tem poral and lo c a tio n a l co n sid era tio n s.
T h is c h a p te r w i l l a tte m p t t o i d e n t i f y th e ap p ro ach to be a d o p te d i n th e p resen t th e s is a s re g a rd s both in te r n a l and ex te rn a l consistency.
b) The disadvantages o f not d efin in g an appropriate p h ilosop h ical approach
Whether or not an in d iv id u a l i s aware of i t , he must, of n e c e ssity , adopt some ph ilo so p h ical stance i n h is a tte m p ts to reso lv e problems i n r e a l i t y .
Returning to the previously id e n tif ie d schodboy a t the bus stop ; he stay s w a itin g th e re because:
i ) He knows th a t th e 8.30 am. bus has not gone past th e stop,
i i ) He knows th a t a bus norm ally le a v e s and i s tim e ta b le d t o leav e the bus depot to reach th e stop ty 8.30 am.
i i i ) He knows from p ast experience th a t t r a f f i c and passenger boarding in buses can le ad t o delays.
2 5
iv) He reasons th a t under normal conditions, and th e re was n e ith e r snow nor f r o s t th a t morning, he can a n tic ip a te th e b is to a r r iv e a t some tim e in the near fu tu re , and w ait a
v) He c o n s id e r s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y , as tim e g o es on, o f w a lk in g , or of b icy clin g sin ce h is school i s not f a r away,
v i) He may n o t, how ever, c o n s id e r th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a t a x i , o r o f c h a rte rin g a h e lic o p te r, or of r e tu rn in g home to take a l i f t from h is parents, since they may not have the necessary resources.
Now, the schoolboy w i l l not consider the philo so ph ical im p lic a tio n s of these reasoning p ro cessea There are, however, im plied sta te m e n ts reg arding th e nature of lo g ic, the ep istem o lo g ical c o n sid era tio n s of how the problem should be app ro ached , and a n o n to l o g ic a l s ta te m e n t r e g a r d in g t h e n a t u r e of th e r e a l i t y in which the problem of g e ttin g to school ta k es place.
A ch ild i n th e same s itu a tio n from a more a f f lu e n t background could see th e problem d if f e r e n tly , a s he may w ell be able to affo rd a ta x i, or to take a l i f t from horna
Likewise, th e c h ild who reaso ns th a t i f the 8.30 am. bus does not a rr iv e by t h a t tim e th e n i t i s th e a c t o f a b e n e v o le n t God w hich h e i n t e r p r e t s a s in d ic a tin g th e n ece ssity fo r takin g th e day o ff as a tru an t.
And so on, ad in fin itu m .^
The p h ilo s o p h ic a l o u tlo o k i s th u s i n e v i t a b l y p r e s e n t. Under e x i s t i n g con ditio ns in th e United Kingdom i t i s thought th a t th e most l i k e ly schoolboy o p tio n scen ario s would be contained w ith in th e f i r s t two p o s s i b ili ti e s . Such a l i k e l i h o o d i s , how ever, d e te rm in e d a t t h a t l e v e l o f problem s o lv in g by c u r r e n t s o c i a l and econom ic c r i t e r i a , and i s p ro b a b ly n o t a te m p o ra l and lo c a tio n independent observation.
The v i t a l point i s th a t th e philosop hical outlook d e fin e s th e way in which the problem i s seen, and th e way i n w hich a s o l u t i o n i s so u g h t. In s h o r t, philoso ph ical outlook has a d efin in g im pact upon th e way in which a problem so lv e r tr e a t s w ith h is m a te ria l.
In order to f u l f i l l th e b asic aim of research, which i s o b je c tiv ity , and since i t i s im p o s s ib le t o ap p ro ach a problem w ith o u t some p h ilo s o p h ic a l
p re c o n c e p tio n s , i t s h o u ld th e r e f o r e be a fu n d a m e n ta l du ty of th e problem so lv er to s ta te what stance he proposes taking, This i s im p o rtan t for two reasons.
F ir s tly , an a p r io r i attem pt to re so lv e such approach problems should have a b e n e fic ia l im pact upon the q u a lity of the s o lu tio n s being proposed I t w ill norm ally impose a s trin g e n t mode of s e l f c r itic is m p a r tic u la r ly in th e f ie l d of the in te r n a l consistency but also i n term s of the e x te rn a l consistency of th e approach to a problem. Moreover, as i t extends th e re s p o n s ib ility of the problem so lv er back to the borders of m etaphysics, I t e x p l ic it ly opens up th e maximum spectrum of th e su b ject m a tter of th e problem and of th e adopted approach to close scru tin y .
Hence th e second a rea of im portance; not only does t h i s approach open th e m a te ria l to s e l f c r itic is m , but by making i t e x p lic it, i t also opens i t to the re fin in g or r e f u tin g c r itic is m of other problem -solver a
This i s of p a r tic u la r im portance, not simply because i t I s seen a s a m a tter o f in t e ll e c tu a l honesty, but because the philo sop hical v a ria b le should u ltim a te ly be a s trin g e n tly d e fin a b le v a ria b le i n the approach to problem a As such the attem p t should be made to Id e n tify i t c le a rly , as even lim ite d a l te r a t io n s in t h i s v a ria b le may have a profound impact upon r e s u l t s and thus upon proposed s o lu tio n s to problems.
The un stated presum ptions of th e f l a t e a r t h e r s may henceforth be avoided
What are th e o p tio n s a s reg ard s d if f e r e n t ph iloso ph ies?
I t h a s been o b s e rv e d t h a t t h e r e e x i s t s a w ide ran g e and v a r i e t y of philosophies, and i t has been argued th a t i t i s im p o rtan t when undertaking research to make the p a r tic u la r philosophy adopted e x p l ic it in s o fa r as th a t i s p o ssible. There must e x is t, th e re fo re , an apparent choice fo r the in d iv id u a l r e s e a r c h e r . The c h o ic e i t s e l f and th e r a t i o n a l e f o r th e d e c i s i o n making process of choosing w i l l vary from person to person fo r a number of reasons w hich r e v o lv e aro un d p e r s o n a l i t y , and around e x p e rie n c e . T here i s an in te r r e la tio n s h ip between these two which seems to compound the divergence of c o n flic tin g p h ilo so p h ies: an a l b e i t lim ite d reading of philosophy does not in d ic a te any tendancy tow ards the c la s s ic d ia le c t ic approach to problems.
P e r s o n a li ty , In a n o n - s p e c if i c and g e n e r a l se n se , i s th u s o f c r i t i c a l
27
im portance i n the d e c isio n as to the ap p ro p ria te p h ilo so p h ical approach to a problem . T his i n d i c a t e s two im p o r ta n t p o in t s ; f i r s t l y , q u e s ti o n s o f p e r s o n a l i t y demand f u r t h e r d e t a i l e d i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n t h i s c h a p te r , and secondly, from here on th e su b ject m a tte r i s o v e rtly personal, a l b e i t tre a te d i n an o b je c tiv e fashion.
a) Do we have any option?
I t i s u n r e a l i s t i c , to suppose t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s , g ro u p s o f i n d i v i d u a l s , s o c ie tie s , and groups of s o c ie tie s , w ill ever agree upon a b a sic philosophy of l i f e . This makes i t unproductive i n view of the s ta te d aim s of research, to attem p t to s e le c t a p a r tic u la r view point favoured by p a r tic u la r p a r tie s a t a p a r t i c u l a r tim e w ith a view to e s t a b l i s h i n g i t i n p e r p e t u ity . The m ost a p p r o p r ia te a p p ro ac h , even i f o n ly from a p ra g m a tic p o in t o f v ie w , i s to u t i l i s e the o n to lo g ical and ep istem o lo g ical schemes th a t appear to present th e n e a re st to ab so lu te given the re s e a rc h e r’s p ercep tio n of the c u rre n t s ta te of knowledge. I t i s in trig u in g to propose th a t those of d if f e r e n t philo sop hical p e r s u a s io n s may u l t i m a t e l y be a b le t o i d e n t i f y and e x t r a c t v a lu a b le i n f o r m a tio n from such an a n a l y s i s i n th e a b s o lu t e by s e l e c t i n g from and i n t e r p r e t i n g th e v ie w s p re s e n te d a c c o r d in g t o t h e i r l e v e l and mode of understanding.
In order to achieve such an id e a l s itu a tio n th e u ltim a te requirem ent would be to be able to p resen t the p h ilo so p h ical approach i n axdcm atised fash ion , a s a s e r i e s o f axiom s none o f w hich i s e i t h e r s u b je c t d e p e n d e n t o r problem d ep en d en t w hich w ould prod uce a p h il o s o p h i c a l re g im e t o w h ich a l l o th e r lo g ic a lly v a lid regim es would reduce.®
In answ er to th e q u e s t i o n a s t o w h e th e r t h e r e e x i s t s any r e a l c h o ic e i n philosophy the answer must th e re fo re be a ffirm a tiv e . I t i s w orthw hile b r ie f ly i l l u s t r a t i n g t h i s by looking a t p a r tic u la r areas of philosophy in o rd er to try to id e n tify the d if f e r e n t im pact of d if f e r e n t ph iloso ph ies upon a b i l i t y to achieve the aims of research,
b) What op tion s do we have?
Lau Tsu w ritin g i n th e six th century B. C. :
"In the p u rs u it of le arn in g , every day something i s aoquired.
In th e p u rs u it of Tao, every day something i s dropped.
Less and le s s i s done
U ntil no n-actio n i s achieved.
When nothing i s done, nothing i s l e f t undone.
The world i s ru led by l e t t i n g th in g s take th e ir course.
I t cannot be ru led by in te r f e r in g . " ^ Dhirendra M D atta w ritin g i n 1961:
"P h ilo so p h y , o f even th e m ost c a t h o l i c k in d , i f c o n fin e d t o mere i n t e ll e c tu a l d iscu ssio n , w ill rem ain a h e lp le s s s p e c ta to r o f war, in trig u e and d e v a s ta tio n rep ea ted ly c a rrie d on by persons w ith narrow outlooks and u n co n tro lled passions."
Karl Marx w ritin g i n 1845:
"Thephilosophers have only in te rp re te d th e w orld i n v a rio u s ways;
the point i s to change i t ." ^
J . S. M ill in h is essay "On L ib erty " w rote i n 1859:
"The o b j e c t o f t h i s E s s a y i s t o a s s e r t o n e v e r y s im p l e p r i n c i p l e . . . t h a t th e s o le end f o r w hich mankind a r e w a rra n te d , in d iv id u a lly or c o lle c tiv e ly , i n i n t e r f e r i n g w ith th e l i b e r t y o f a c tio n o f . any of t h e i r number i s s e lf - p r o te c tio n ., to prevent harm to o th e r s ... The o n ly freed o m w hich d e s e r v e s th e name i s t h a t of pursuing our own good in„our own way, so long as we do not a tte m p t to deprive o th e rs of t h e i r a "
K. R. Popper w ritin g i n 1969:
"...the main t a s k o f th e s o c i a l s c ie n c e s . I t i s t o t r a c e th e unintended s o c ia l repercussions o f in ten tio n a l human actions." 1 ?
Five d if f e r e n t philosophers, f iv e d if f e r e n t p hilosop hies and f i v e d if f e r e n t approaches to problems.
There i s no n ece ssity fo r th e p resen t purposes to attem p t to o u tlin e the range of o ptio ns in philosophy, fo r th a t would border upon an i n f i n i t e ta sk ; nor i s th e re a n ece ssity to review th e general areas of agreement and disagreem ent, fo r th i s i s not a p h ilo so p h ical tr e a tis e .
The principle^ p resen t concern I s to id e n tif y those approaches which most \ clo sely r e l a t e to the o p tio n s itu a tio n p referred abova The approach to be adopted fo r th e p resen t purposes may then be id e n tif ie d . W hilst t h i s im p lie s a general knowledge le v e l of background in fo rm atio n on a range of philoso ph ies i n o rd e r to p ro v id e c o n te x tu a l in d e x in g , i t d oes n o t demand d e t a i l e d c o n s id e r a tio n of o th e r th a n th o s e id e a s t h a t a r e to be s p e c i f i c a l l y in co rp orated.
V a rio u s e le m e n ts and id e a s put fo rw a rd by w o rk e rs i n r e l e v a n t a r e a s o f
&
2 9
philosophy th e re fo re re q u ire to be examined and pieced to g e th e r to form an i n t e g r a t e d s t r u c t u r e . Such a s t r u c t u r e m ust n o t o n ly s a t i s f y th o s e requirem ents s p e c ifie d above which r e la te predominantly to th e academic and th e o re tic a l sph eres; i t must a lso r e l a t e stro n g ly to the sphere of praxis.
The so cial sciences, geography, and t h e i r a p p lic a tio n in th e development, or any, p la n n in g p ro c e s s m ust n e c e s s a r i l y be f i r m l y f i x e d i n th e p r a c t i c a l world. Unless m a te ria l r e s u l t s th a t can be m eaningfully ap p lied i n such an area of o p eratio n , a tte m p ts to solve ou tstan ding problems a re i n v a in
I t i s t h e r e f o r e im p o r ta n t, b e f o re d e t a i l i n g t h e o r i e s o f know ledge and o f r e a l i t y , to look more c lo se ly a t the p r a c tic a l req u irem en ts th a t r e q u ire to be f u l f i l l e d by ary proposed s o lu tio n s to problems i n th e development planning
process. At th i s p r e th e o r e tic a l stag e a general overview may be adopted in t h e know ledge t h a t m ore d e t a i l e d r e q u ir e m e n ts w i l l be f u l f i l l e d i n th e th e o re tic a l d isc u ssio n below.
What i s required o f our philosophy in praxis?
In th i s f i r s t in sta n c e , i t may be s ta te d th a t what i s re q u ire d i n r e l a t i o n to any given problem i s i t s so lu tio n .
The development planning process may be taken as being a process imposed upon a fu n ctio n in g qystem covering a defined geographical a re a w ith a view to achieving c e rta in , norm ally s ta te d a irn s .^
The prim e o b j e c t i v e of t h i s p r o c e s s m ust be t o e n a b le th e p r o v is io n of a s o l u t i o n o r s e t of s o l u t i o n s t h a t w i l l r e s u l t i n t h e f u l f i l l m e n t of th e req u ire d aims, w ithout sid e e f f e c t a I t must, in o th e r words, enable the im plem entation of a unique d ire c te d s e t of events and a c t i v i t i e s to produce a unique p red ic ted s e t of r e s u l t a
In sh o rt, i t must work.
This requirem ent pioses a l l s o r ts of problems fo r th e philosophy to be adopted, and w ill p erforce demand f u r th e r a t t e n t i o a
