THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
AT THE UNIVERSITY OF LONDON
BY
BASIL YOUNISE RASHEED AL-BAYATI
SCHO O L OF O R IE N TA L AND AFRICAN STUDIES DECEMBER 1985
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THE HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE DOME
IN FRONT OF THE MIHRflB
CHAPTER 1
General H is t o r ic a l Background
The dome was not incorporated in t o Isla m ic a r c h it e c t u r e u n t i l the Umayyad p e rio d , but a f t e r th a t i t became an e s s e n tia l fe a tu re in mosque and fu n e rary a r c h it e c t u r e .
I t is the purpose o f t h i s th e s is to e s ta b lis h the reasons f o r which the dome was incorporated in t o mosque a r c h it e c t u r e and e s p e c ia lly the dome in f r o n t o f the mihrffb.
I t w i l l be seen from the d e s c rip tio n s o f the ground plans o f the various mosques th a t the e a r ly mosques e i t h e r did not have a dome a t a l l or i f they d id , they were not p o s itio n e d d i r e c t l y in f r o n t o f the mihrab. But before
*
g iv in g a p recise d e f i n i t i o n o f what is understood by ' d i r e c t l y in f r o n t o f the mihrab' the h is t o r y and symbolic
in order to fo rm u la te a complete p ic t u r e .
The dome was used e x te n s iv e ly in the Parthian and l a t e r the Sasanian empire in palace and temple a r c h it e c t u r e . 1 The Sasanian domes were supported by a s tr u c tu r e which is c a lle d the squinch. The r o le o f the squinch was and is to convert a square base to an octagon in order to f a c i l i t a t e the s e t t in g o f a dome or cupola. I t seems th a t the use o f the squinch dome was confined to the eastern p a r t o f the empire, however, t h i s does not mean th a t domes were not erected in the western p a r t o f the Parthian empire. There is a reference to the existence o f a dome in Parthian Babylon, as mentioned by P h i lo s t r a t u s : "a room in the royal palace being roofed w ith a sapphire-coloured dome".2
I t is p o ssib le t h a t there was some C h r is tia n church a r c h it e c t u r e in the Parthian empire e s p e c ia lly in Armenia where some o f the e d if ic e s c o n s is t o f a square room which is covered by a dome on squinches. I t is p o ssib le th a t these developed from t h e i r Parthian predecessors.3
The dome was a fe a tu re which was also favoured by the Romans f o r covering t h e i r baths and temples. The development o f concrete to g e th e r w ith b r ic k made the c re a tio n o f the g re a t Roman v a u lts and domes p o s s ib le .
The e a r l i e s t concrete dome was constructed in the second century B.C. in Pompeii, where i t is found covering the Stabian baths. Roman a r c h it e c t u r e reached i t s peak w ith the c o n s tru c tio n o f the Pantheon in Rome c. 100-125 A .D .,
w ith a dome o f approximately 47m in diameter. The huge
t! > V(. V
dome covers a base and the height o f the w a lls is equal to the radius o f the dome.^
There was a c r u c ia l d iffe r e n c e between the c o n s tru c tio n o f the Roman domes and those o f the Parthian empire. The l a t t e r was already mentioned in connection w ith the squinch. Roman domes and as f a r as i t is known o th e r ancient domes a ls o , were c o n stru cte d , u s u a lly on a round base by reducing the radius o f each la y e r o f b r ic k u n t i l a hemisphere was formed.
In order to understand the various fa c to rs which may have in s p ire d the Muslims to inclu d e the dome in the mosque and e s p e c ia lly in f r o n t o f the m ihrab, the p r e - e x is tin g domes th a t may have given b i r t h to the concept, should be b r i e f l y examined, e s p e c ia lly those in the Eastern p a r t o f the empire.
One o f the most i n f l u e n t i a l areas in t h i s respect was the Byzantine empire. There were two types o f church forms in the f i f t h century Byzantium, the B a s ilic a and the M a r ty r ia . The l a t t e r one was b u i l t on the Greek cross plan and i t was covered w ith a dome. B u ild in g s w ith a square base and a dome e x is te d also in the old Parthian and Sasanian empire, however, i t s in tr o d u c tio n s i n t o C h r is tia n a r c h it e c t u r e was e ffe c te d by the Byzantines.
The most outstanding masterpiece o f Byzantine church a r c h it e c t u r e is the Hagia Sophia in C onstantinople, b u i l t in 532-7 A.D. (See i l l u s t r a t i o n s number la and l b . ) The in d iv id u a l m e rits o f the Hagia Sophia and the in flu e n c e i t
a r c h it e c t u r e in p a r t i c u l a r w i l l be evaluated under the a p pro p ria te chapter.
The Byzantines were w ell conversed in mathematics, in h e r ite d from the Greeks and applied t h i s knowledge to t h e i r a r c h it e c t u r e . By the time the n in th century a r r iv e d , symbolism in Byzantine a r c h it e c t u r a l form was q u ite accepted and w id e ly p r a c tis e d . The church was regarded as the u n it y o f earth and sky, the scene o f C h r i s t 's l i f e on earth and the image o f the l i t u r g i c a l y e a r. Symbolism was included in mosaic decoration and in painted d e c o ra tio n . They Byzantine Cross-in*-Square church plan proved to be an ideal s e ttin g f o r the mosaics and p a in tin g s , in s c rib e d in a square and covered by a dome.
As expected, Byzantinian a r c h it e c t u r e exerted i t s in flu e n c e in I t a l y as e a r ly as the f i f t h century A.D.
Between the seventh and the n in th century i t became more obscure, more e c l e c t i c , making i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f s t y le much more d i f f i c u l t . In the East even before the seventh century we f i n d t h a t some churches o f Armenia (S t.
Hrispime a t Etchmiadzin) and Georgia (Dzhvari a t M tskhetta) are more c lo s e ly r e la te d to the Near Eastern a r c h it e c t u r e o f S y ria , than th a t o f C onstantinople. 7 There is no d e f i n i t e e xplanation f o r t h i s p o la r iz in g
tendency, except th a t the t r a f f i c between Armenian and Georgian c u lt u r e on the one hand and Persian and Syrian on the o th e r was b e t t e r than w ith the i m p e r i a l i s t Byzantine c a p i t a l .
-SANTA SOPHIA CONSTANTINOPLE
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I l l u s t r a t i o n la Santa Sophia e le va tion .
GROUND FLOOR. rLAN OR PLAN
I l l u s t r a t i o n lb Santa Sophia Ground Plan.
By the time Islam conquered v i r t u a l l y the whole o f the M iddle-East, North A fr ic a and parts o f Europe, the a r t i s t s and a r c h ite c ts o f Islam had fa m ilia r iz e d themselves w ith the b u ild in g techniques, s ty le s and decorative t r a i t s . I t w i l l t r a n s p ir e , however, from the h is t o r ic a l e v a lu a tio n , th a t t h i s knowledge was not u n iv e r s a lly applied throughout the Islam ic empire, in f a c t , in some areas very few r e lig io u s e d if ic e s were constructed during the f i r s t c e n tu rie s . This was due to a large exte n t to the nature o f the conquerors, who were mostly nomadic Arabs, w ith d i f f e r e n t l i v i n g h abits from the sedentary peoples they overran. T h e ir h a b ita t was c o n s ta n tly changing, enjoying vast open spaces, g iv in g them u n lim ite d fe e lin g o f freedom and l i v i n g in te n ts . I t is d i f f i c u l t to imagine th e r e fo r e , th a t they could have had a conception o f what
Islam ic a r c h ite c tu r e should look l i k e o r, th a t they should have imagined praying anywhere e ls e , but under the most p e rfe c t dome o f them a l l , the open sky. The nature o f the conquerors was in d i r e c t c o n f l i c t w ith the demands o f form alised and i n s t i t u t i o n a l i s e d r e l i g i o n , which re q uire s centres o f a d m in is tra tio n and centres f o r the implementation o f the pragmatic aspect o f the r e l i g i o n , which was to become the mosque.
By the time the Umayyads came to power, a d i s t i n c t i v e Isla m ic a r c h it e c t u r a l s t y le had evolved, which was a homogenous blend o f s ty le s in s p ire d by the i n t e r p r e ta t io n s o f the Q ur'anic te x ts and the Had ith s o f the Prophet and the elements borrowed from the a rc h ite c tu re already th e re .
d e s e rt, ra th e r than in the towns and they b u i l t large palace complexes there,such as the Qasr a l- H a ir 110-11/728-9; Mshatta, and Qasr al-Tuba in Southern Jordan. The plan o f these b u ild in g s were derived from Roman f r o n t i e r s t a t io n s . ^
During the Umayyad p e rio d , the mosque was given an a r c h it e c t u r a l form, which was d ic ta te d p a r t l y by the l i t u r g i c a l needs; the dome f i r s t appears in order to in d ic a te the importance o f the mihrab both i n t e r n a l l y and e x te r n a lly .
Types o f domes and methods o f e re c tio n
A v a u lt o f even curvature u s u a lly erected on a c i r c u l a r base is c a lle d a dome, however, i t can be also erected on a square base o r a polygonal base. The section can be segmental, s e m i- c ir c u la r , pointed or bulbous. I f i t is erected on a square base, then there has to be a phase o f t r a n s i t i o n between the square and the c i r c l e . This t r a n s i t i o n can be achieved by means o f pendentives or squinches. (See i l l u s t r a t i o n 2 .)
A pendentive is a spherical t r i a n g l e ; i t s curvature is th a t o f the dome, whose diameter is the diagonal o f the i n i t i a l square. The t r i a n g l e is c a rrie d to the h e ig h t, which allows the e re c tio n on i t s top h o riz o n ta l o f the dome proper. A squinch is e it h e r an arch, or arches o f increasing r a d i i p r o je c tin g one in f r o n t o f the o th e r, or h o riz o n ta l arches p r o je c tin g in the same manner. The dome w i l l have the diameter o f the length o f one side o f the square. I t can be placed on the c i r c u l a r b a s e lin e , o r a drum. I f the dome has no drum and is segmental, i t is c a lle d the saucer dome. Most o f the Ottoman domes o f Turkey belong to t h i s category. (See the a p propriate c h a p te r.) I f i t has no drum and i t is s e m i- c ir c u la r , i t is c a lle d a c a l o t t e , s t r i c t l y speaking, the h a l f domes o f the Ottoman mosques should be classed as such. Where the diagonal o f the square is the diameter o f the dome, the dome s t a r t s as i t does, when supported by pendentives, but t h e i r curvature is then continued w ith o u t any break, such domes are c a lle d s a il v a u l t s . (See I l l u s t r a t i o n 2)
A
B
I l l u s t r a t i o n 2a Types o f domes and methods o f c o n s tru c tio n .
Domes constructed on a c i r c u l a r base, but also divid e d in t o in d iv id u a l webs are c a lle d : u m brella, parachute or melon dome.^
Domes in the Sasanian era were constructed using squinches to transform the c i r c l e to a square; in the t h i r d century a t Firuzabad and in the fo u r th century a t S a r v i s t a n . ^
Domes in the Roman period were constructed out o f concrete on a c i r c u l a r base: in the Temple o f Vesta in 80 B.C. and the Temple o f Venus at Baalbek in 273 A .D .11
Domes in the Byzantine period were constructed on t r i a n g u l a r or on a c i r c u l a r base, using squinches ( t r i a n g u l a r b a l I s ) . ^
The e a r ly Isla m ic domes b u i l t by the Umayyads and the 'Abbasids in Syria and Palestine were o f the double wood dome typ e , (See i l l u s t r a t i o n 3) taken over from the C h ris tia n s . 13 At Kazimain in Ir a q , great teakwood domes crowned the shrines o f the Holy Imams Musa al-Muhammad.
These shrines were erected a f t e r 219/834.14
In l a t e r Is la m ic a r c h it e c t u r e , the method and s t y le o f dome c o n s tru c tio n becomes more i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c , although in c o rp o ra tin g a l l or some o f the methods already in e xistence, but adding something e x tr a , both in decorative and in design technique, to make i t t r u l y Is la m ic .
We have seen in the previous c i v i l i s a t i o n s , th a t the methods o f dome c o n s tru c tio n and the a v a ila b le m a te ria l
Islam had a r r iv e d , the various techniques were already w ell developed and the a r c h ite c ts o f Islam were able to combine t h e i r s k i l l s w ith the a v a ila b le m aterial a t t h e i r disposal to c o n s tru c t t r u l y m agnificent domes, which were to r e f l e c t the character o f Islam ic thought.
Domes in Isla m ic a r c h ite c tu r e
The mosques which were b u i l t during the RashldiTn Caliphate were simple c o n s tru c tio n s . They were e it h e r covered w ith a f l a t r o o f in order to s h e lt e r the congregation from the intense heat o f the sun or they were open to the sky.
There is no evidence which would p o in t to the presence o f the dome and there is no record o f any palaces th a t may have been b u i l t during t h is period.
There were palaces b u i l t by the Umayyads, however, and one o f the e a r l i e s t o f these is at Mshattcf, dated 127/744 may have had a domed chamber which was the c e n tra l throne room in the middle o f a B a s ilic a shaped b u ild in g . 15 The s ig n ific a n c e o f the dome covered throne room w i l l be one o f the c e n tra l themes o f the th e s is , being the most v i t a l p a rt o f the p r o p o s itio n , th a t the concept o f the mihrab dome had o r ig in a te d from th e re . This w i l l be expounded l a t e r , but f o r the time being a general d e s c r ip tio n is o ffe re d concerning the e a r ly domes.
The f i r s t Mosque o f the Prophet, the Mosques o f Basra and Kufa, b u i l t in 14/635 and 17/638 re s p e c tiv e ly and F u s ta t, in 21/641 a l l had f l a t r o o f s . ^ The f a c t , th a t these mosques had no domes, is a t le a s t as s i g n i f i c a n t to the i n t e r p r e t a t io n o f the im portant o f the mihrab dome, as the existence o f the dome i t s e l f .
ta n g ib le s u niversal and never changing. I t is in a s ta te o f f l u x , determined by so c ia l c o n d itio n s , philosophy and patronage.
B urial c u lt u r e , which was always a r e l i a b l e p o in te r to the nature o f a s o c ie ty could provide in t e r e s t in g data concerning e a r ly Muslim standards, by comparison w ith the p ra c tic e o f oth e r c u ltu r e s .
The funerary a r c h ite c tu r e o f other c i v i l i z a t i o n s included the domed Mausoleum and M a r ty r ia , which were grandiose c o n s tru c tio n s . Compared to these, the e a r ly Islam ic b u ria l places were q u ite i n s i g n i f i c a n t . The explanation fo r this may be found in the imperatives of the HadTths:
"hold s a la t in your own houses... s i t not upon graves, perform not s a la t upon them". 17 I t is a d i r e c t a tta c k upon the funerary c u ltu r e o f oth e r peoples; "When a pious man d ie s , they b u ild a masjid on his tomb".18
Later on, however, funerary a r c h ite c tu r e found i t s way in t o Islam ic a r c h ite c tu r e in a grant s t y le . Tomb-mosques, often r e fe r r e d to as gubba, which also means ' t e n t 1, but l a t e r took on the meaning o f 'dome1, were b u i l t . The name became a general term f o r the sanctuary and i t also means a l i t t l e chapel.1 g
The f i r s t shape o f the tomb was a square room, which was covered w ith a dome. The phase o f t r a n s i t i o n between the
square and the c i r c l e was octagonal. L a te r, squinches, pendentives and muqarnas were used f o r the purpose o f converting a square in to a c i r c l e . These s tr u c t u r a l developments w i l l be discussed together w ith the appropriate case-study.
The most p e r tin e n t question a t t h i s stage i s , however, why was there no dome in mosque a rc h ite c tu r e u n t i l w ell a f t e r the death o f the Prophet, when there is a b s o lu te ly no evidence in the Qur'an, fo rb id d in g i t . On the c o n tra ry , i t should have been the ideal covering f o r the mosque, because i t is the nearest th in g to a ro o f w ith o u t a column, thus resembling the open sky.20
Like other s a n c tu a rie s , mosques were o fte n claimed to have been b u i l t as a r e s u lt o f r e v e la tio n , which u s u a lly occurred to the patron. He would have h is in d iv id u a l requirements implemented by the a r c h it e c t s , however, these had to conform to the basic requirements o f the mosque.
For every community in Islam, the mosque played a r o le resembling th a t o f the cathedral in the medieval commune.
From the beginning o f Islam, however, the mosque was not r e s t r i c t e d to being only a r e lig io u s c e n tre , i t was also a p o l i t i c a l i n s t i t u t i o n . R e lig io n , law and government was one, and the mosque was the obvious place f o r t h e i r p r a c tic a l implementation. I t was used also as a co u rt o f j u s t i c e and an educational i n s t i t u t i o n and in small
is o la te d communities i t was the c i t y , the centre o f a l l a c t i v i t y . The mosque had to provide f a c i l i t i e s , which had
i n f o r m a l i t y in the communal areas. O r i g i n a l l y , a t the time o f the Prophet, t h i s dichotomy did not e x is t as such.
As Islam spread, the communities increased in size and the
accommodation o f the various aspects became
a r c h i t e c t u r a l l y more complicated. Each area had to be marked se p arately in order to d is tin g u is h t h e i r in d iv id u a l fu n c tio n s , the method o f marking became s t y l i s e d , then d i v e r s i f i e d , and e v e n tu a lly performed a symbolic fu n c tio n .
The e a r l i e s t mosques were very simple, e it h e r square or re cta n gu la r in shape, w ith a s u b s ta n tia l co u rty a rd . The courtyard was the scene, where s o cia l a c t i v i t y was c a rrie d o u t, th e r e fo r e , i t was o f considerable importance. In s p ite o f i t s importance i t commanded s i m p l i c i t y . I t was separated from the external world by high w a lls , outwardly p r o je c tin g a u s t e r it y , a t the same time inw ardly p ro v id in g s e c u r ity and p riv a c y . During the h is t o r y o f the development o f the mosque, the dome, courtyard and minaret assumed a special s p a tia l r e la t io n s h ip , not n e c e s s a rily in symmetry, but in harmony. I t w i l l tr a n s p ir e from t h is th e s is , th a t t h i s r e la t io n s h ip was diverse and not universal throughout the Isla m ic empire, i t served the p a r t i c u l a r requirements o f the in d iv id u a l c o u n try , which were d ic ta te d by d i f f e r e n t parameters.
The o v e ra ll s i m p l i c i t y o f the mosque, which was the norm during the C aliphate, was transformed in t o a more e x te r n a lly s i g n i f i c a n t c o n s tru c tio n and a permanent
reminder to the conquered r e li g io n s , th a t Islam was there to sta y. During the reign o f the Umayyads the splendour o f Islam ic a r c h ite c tu r e begins to assert i t s e l f on a large scale not on ly in mosque, but also in palace a r c h it e c t u r e . According to al-MaqdTsT, 21 the Umayyad r u le r s were determined to surpass the excellence o f any previous c i v i l i s a t i o n regardless o f c o s t, commenced the tra n sfo rm a tion o f the e x is t in g C h ris tia n churches in t o mosques, such as the Jami1 al-Fatim a in Syria or the Jami1
I ^ ■* oo
i l - K h i d r a t B^sra in the 7th century or b u i l t them out o f the ru in s o f the pagan temples. The e x p e rtis e o f C h ris tia n and other s k i l l e d craftsmen were u t i l i s e d in the implementation o f t h e i r endeavour. B^sra and Kufa were im portant commercial and c u lt u r a l centres already in p re -Is la m ic times and they became s i g n i f i c a n t centres a f t e r the conquest a ls o . There had been a m a g nifice n t cathedral a t B^sra, b u i l t in the 6th c. A.D. w ith a large dome. The c i t y f e l l to the Muslims in 11/632 and there is evidence, which s u b s ta n tiates the cla im , th a t the cathedral provided some o f the b u ild in g m a te ria l f o r the c o n s tru c tio n o f the Mosque o f 'Umar, f o r one o f the columns bears an in s c r i p t i o n w ith the date 488 A.D. 24 There is no v e r i f i a b l e evidence f o r the assumption, th a t the dome o f the cathedral would have influ e n ce d the Islam ic a r c h it e c t s to include domes in t o mosques a t a l a t e r stage, however, i t is not unreasonable e it h e r to assume th a t i t had. The dome was in evidence to such an e x te n t, th a t i t would have been v i r t u a l l y im possible, to disregard i t s s ig n ific a n c e as a symbol o f the p a r t i c u l a r r e l i g i o n i t represented.
m m m
I l l u s t r a t i o n 3a Jerusalem, Dome o f the Rock, Section.
I l l u s t r a t i o n 3b Dome o f the Rock.
Egypt the Coptic churches such as the Rashida Mosque, which was p re v io u s ly an u n finish e d Jacobite church became mosques. 25 In Palermo, S i c i l y , the Synagogue was turned in t o the Masjid al-Banna and in Ir a n , near I§tal$*J the Masjid Salaiman used to be an o ld f i r e t e m p i e . ^
The biggest and most splendid achievement o f e a r ly Isla m ic a r c h ite c tu r e was the c o n s tru c tio n o f the Dome o f the Rock on the s i t e o f the ancient Temple and a lle g e d ly the stone o f Abraham, thus p u ttin g on the stamp o f supremacy over the Jewish r e l i g i o n and simultaneously to the C h ris tia n r e l i g i o n .
The Dome o f the Rock was erected in 72-73/691-2 by *Abd a l- M a lik , more than h a lf a century a f t e r the f a l l o f P alestine in 1 7 / 6 3 8 . ^ I t was alleged th a t i t was the s i t e o f the Dome o f the Rock from where the Prophet ascended to Heaven, i f t h i s were tr u e , then i t is lo g ic a l th a t a memorial should be raised on the s i t e , p re fe ra b ly in the s t y le o f a Martyrium, being the most s u ita b le inte rm e d iary between the tomb and other r e lig io u s e d if ic e s . I t was mentioned supra, th a t the Prophet warned against r a is in g to m b -lik e shrines in the memory o f the dead and t h i s probably is the reason why the Dome o f the Rock is not recognised as a shrine to the memory o f the Prophet.
A f t e r the e re c tio n o f the Dome o f the Rock, mosques were g e n e ra lly b u i l t w ith domes. The symbolic meaning o f the dome in o ther r e lig io n s was b r i e f l y expounded supra, i t s
meaning in Islam in general and the various c o u ntrie s in p a r t i c u l a r w i l l be d e a lt w ith under the a p pro p ria te s e c tio n s .
When we t a l k about domes in the mosque, f o r the sake o f c l a r i t y and constancy, some d e f i n i t i o n s must be o ffe re d . The t i t l e o f t h i s th e s is i s : The h is t o r y and development o f the dome in f r o n t o f the mihrab. I t is not completely c le a r from e xta n t l i t e r a t u r e , however, what i t means to say th a t a dome is in f r o n t o f the mihrab or t h a t i t is not. Books have been published on various d e s c rip tio n s o f the dome, in most cases, in v a r ia b ly re fe rre d to as the dome in f r o n t o f the mihrSb, however, f o r the purpose o f t h i s th e s is , the dome in f r o n t o f the mihrSb is defined as, the one and only one, which marks the area in the sanctuary d i r e c t l y in f r o n t o f the mihrab and is adjacent to the g i b l a . A l l other domes which are p o sitio n e d in f r o n t o f the m ihrab, but are not adjacent to the g ib la are r e fe rre d to as the mihrab dome. I t w i l l tr a n s p ir e th a t the date o f c o n s tru c tio n in some cases plays a c r u c ia l p a rt f o r supporting the hypothesis concerning the development o f the dome. Where there is c o n f l i c t i n g evidence about the date o f c o n s tru c tio n o f the dome, such as in the case o f the Medina Mosque 28 the relevance o f t h a t evidence is weighed up.
The various hypotheses concerning the meaning, the s h i f t in meaning o f the dome in f r o n t o f the mihrab s h a ll be o u tlin e d b r i e f l y here and t h e i r possible in flu e n c e on i t s development s h a ll be discussed in d e t a i l , when a p pro p ria te.
o f the mihrab in order to stress i t s s a n c t i t y , to symbolise the i n v i s i b l e present o f the Prophet, th a t i t was adopted from Sasanian tim es, when i t was considered to be a symbol o f power. Coins p r i o r to the re fo rm a tion implemented by 'Abd a l- N a li k in 76/695, d e p ic t the Zoroastrian f i r e temple on one side and the head o f the Sasanian monarch on the o th e r, a t the same time invoking A lla h 's name.29
The l a t t e r in fo rm a tio n allows the assumption to be made, t h a t at the beginning o f Islam there was an amount o f to le ran ce on b e ha lf o f the Caliphs and the r e li g io u s i n s t i t u t i o n s towards the various symbolisms o f other r e l i g i o n s , they were not considered to be a th r e a t to Islam in any form, th e r e fo r e , there was no need to dispense w ith them.
Another p o s s i b i l i t y has to be borne in mind when considering the o r ig i n o f the dome in f r o n t o f the mihrab, the f a c t th a t the nomad t r ib e s used t h e i r te n ts to perform t h e i r r e l i g i o u s , c i v i c and other duties in the d e s e rt, s i m i l a r l y to the c i t y d w e lle rs ' use o f the mosques.
30 ^ < y
Landberg quotes a verse from the PTwan o f Qais b.
al-KhatTm, which describes: "un magasin a coupole tout pres du c i e l , dans son mihrab i l a kubbatin duwaina '1-sama' i bi 'm ih ra b i- h a 111, rendered: a 't e n t w ith i t s m ihrab' . The Bedouin te n ts are in f a c t dome shaped.
Other fa c to rs may have been c o n tr ib u to r y fa c to r s to the in c o rp o ra tio n o f the dome in to mosques, such as l i g h t i n g and v e n t i l a t i n g . A e s th e tic considerations may also have
played an im portant p a r t , f o r the dome is an outstanding fe a tu re over and above the f l a t roofed town d w e llin g s . Each o f these p o s s i b i l i t i e s w i l l be weighed up and evaluated on i t s in d iv id u a l m erits during the course o f t h i s th e s is . I t w i l l be argued, th a t the a r c h ite c tu r e o f the palace-complexes played a special p a rt in the symbolic meaning o f the dome, th e re fo re some time w i l l be spent on discussing t h i s aspect.
The su b je ct m atter w i l l be d e a lt w ith under d i f f e r e n t headings. The Isla m ic world is d ivided up in t o fo u r areas: Saudi A ra b ia , P a le s tin e , Syria and Iraq in Chapter two, North A fr ic a and Egypt in Chapter th re e , Ir a n , Central A sia, In d ia and Pakistan in Chapter f o u r , Turkey and A n a to lia in Chapter f i v e and Summary and Conclusion in Chapter s ix .
The drawings and photographs w i l l be incorporated in the t e x t .
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE DOME IN FRONT OF THE MIHRAB
At the centre o f Islam, both ge og ra p hica lly and s p i r i t u a l l y stands the Ka'ba. The mihrab o f every mosque is aligned w ith i t and the worshippers o f the Islam ic world tu rn towards i t during the s a la t.
• *
There are two axes in the mosque, a h o riz o n ta l and a v e r t i c a l , the l a t t e r one represents the s p i r i t , which moves through time and space upwards to reach God.
I t is a t the Ka'ba th a t the two axes i n t e r s e c t , the h o riz o n ta l axis defines the plane o f h o rizo n ta l existence.
The axes are mentioned in the Holy Qur'an:
"We have seen the tu rn in g o f your face towards the heavens ( f o r guidance '0 Muhammad)
And now we tu rn you indeed towards the g ib !a which sh a ll please you.
So tu rn tu rn your face ( i n prayer) toward the S a n c tifie d Mosque, and ye (O' Muslims) wheresoever ye f in d yourselves, tu rn your faces (lik e w is e ) towards i t . " 31
Prayer takes place on the h o riz o n ta l a x is , by which one re la te s oneself to the v e r t i c a l axis as represented by the Ka1ba.
The l i t u r g y can be considered to be r a d i a l , since a l l Muslims tu rn towards the Ka'aba, thereby forming c i r c l e s , which converge onto a ce n tra l p o in t.
This f a c to r always played a very important p a rt in mosque design, the pragmatic aspect o f how to accommodate the maximum number o f people a t the c lo s e s t p ro x im ity to the v e r t i c a l a x is .
I t is believed th a t there is an i n v i s i b l e psychic f l u i d , which emanates from sacral o b je c ts , th e re fo re the aim is to secure maximum exposure to i t .
The Dome o f the Rock is designed w ith t h i s b e l i e f in mind, on an octagonal plan w ith ambulatories to f a c i l i t a t e the movement o f p ilg r im s .
Where i t is not necessary to enclose the mosque w it h in the boundaries o f w a lls , there is only a wall on the g ib !a axis and a m ihrab, where the population o f the whole c i t y can assemble, p a r a lle l to the q ib la f o r prayer. This type o f mosque provides the maximum exposure to the psychic f l u i d .
For the same reason, the f i r s t row o f the enclosed mosque is the most im portant one, and which creates the g re a te s t d i f f i c u l t y f o r the a r c h it e c t .
In order to cope w ith the problem, mosques were b u i l t on a re cta n gu la r plan w ith the emphasis on the sanctuary area.
n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n i y y Q
Q Q Q Q Q Q Q o q q q q q q q q q q q q q r ~ ^ .
I l l u s t r a t i o n 4 Dome o f the Rock, Ground Plan and Section.
On e n te rin g the mosque, e s p e c ia lly the c o u rty a rd , one is drawn alongside the payer h a l l , along the width o f the c o u rtya rd. This is o fte n a t r i g h t angles to the tru e metaphysical d ir e c t io n which is in d ic a te by the q i bla and accentuated by the mihrab.
Normally, Is la m ic b u ild in g s , w ith the exception o f domed b u ild in g s do not have an inherent a x ia l aspect.
Frequently, i f i t has a physical d i r e c t io n , i t is d i f f e r e n t from i t s fu n c tio n a l d ir e c t io n . This f l u i d i t y gives the a r c h it e c t a c e r ta in amount o f freedom f o r imagination and a r c h it e c t u r a l v a r i a b i l i t y .
The size and shape o f the courtyard can be manipulated u n t i l maximum e f f e c t is reached, the courtyard being the f i r s t step in t o the mosque area, th e re fo re i t s r o le is
important and should be emphasised.
Isla m ic a r c h ite c ts employed various means and media in order to convey Islam ic thought in a symbolic manner. For example, the p o s itio n o f the fo u n ta in , or the pool in the courtyard o f the mosque or the royal palace is not a c c id e n ta l. The pool r e f l e c t s the dome and a l l oth e r features and th e re fo re i t recreates the concept o f Paradise, which is the m ir r o r image o f the w o rld , th e r e fo r e , e ve rything which is b e a u t if u l , should appear upside down, in order to appear the r i g h t way up in Paradise.
The dome is the cosmic symbol in almost every r e l i g i o n . In Islam i t represents the v a u lt o f the heaven and has the
e a r ly uncovered mosque i t would have been a superfluous exercise to introduce a dome, because i t was the v a u lt o f heaven, the open sky i t s e l f to which the congregation turned and which represented the v e r t i c a l a x is .
The sky, when viewed from w it h i n , gives the impression o f being curved as a v a u lt or hemisphere. The dome is the c lo s e s t and the most s u ita b le shape which can recreate the i l l u s i o n o f the heavenly b o l t , th e r e fo r e , i t is lo g ic a l th a t i t should be incorporated in t o covered mosques and to serve as a r e lig io u s symbol.
E a r li e r i t was proposed, th a t the dome was f i r s t incorporated in t o the mosque when there was not an adjacent palace w ith a domed throne room, which was the seat o f power. This p ro p o s itio n is not in c o n tr a d ic tio n w ith the r e li g io u s i n t e r p r e t a t io n o f the dome, because the two aspects are equal and inh e re n t in the nature o f Islam.
I t is noteworthy and s i g n i f i c a n t , th a t in the e a r ly domed mosques, the dome was not covering the area d i r e c t l y in f r o n t o f the mihrab and adjacent to the g i b ! a .
Once the two fu n c tio n s , the aspect o f power and r e l i g i o n were re c o n c ile d , the dome became i t s m a n ife s ta tio n and took up i t s place in f r o n t o f the most im portant p a rt o f the sanctuary, the area in f r o n t o f the mihrab.
The dome, however, was not u n iv e r s a lly and homogenously adapted in the Islam ic w orld. Considerable amount o f
d i v e r s i t y e x is te d in decora tive s t y l e , size and shape throughout h is t o r y .
A t the beginning o f the th e s is two premises were set up on the basis o f which the theory o f the dome in f r o n t o f the mihrab is developed. The f i r s t premise, th a t the dome symbolised the power o f the r u le r s was expounded in the f i r s t p a r t o f Chapter one.
The second premise, th a t i t also symbolises the r e lig io u s power and th a t in Islam i t is the marriage o f the two aspects which is being represented by i t , is the m atter f o r e v a lu a tio n in the second h a l f o f Chapter one.
I f the second premise is tr u e , then the r e lig io u s aspect o f the dome should have equal weight w ith the power aspect and should be the i n t e r p r e t e r o f the r e lig io u s imperatives o f Islam.
I t was mentioned supra, th a t the s p i r i t u a l aspect o f Islam is concentrated on the v e r t i c a l dimension. The s p i r i t u a l involves both in tro s p e c tio n and the e x te r n a lis a tio n o f the r e s u lt o f th a t in tr o s p e c tio n . Through in tr o s p e c tio n the way is found to God which is then e x te rn a lis e d . The former is a s t a t i c s ta te , which leads to the transcendental s ta te . These two, seemingly c o n tra d ic to ry aspects o f worship have to be resolved in an a r c h it e c t u r a l form, which is the mosque, where both states are p ra c tis e d and are achieved.
a r c h ite c tu r e and serve the s t a t i c s ta te , y e t , e q u a lly im portant i t is to transcend and negate the enclosure and to create lim itle s s n e s s , in order to comply w ith the demands o f the dynamic s ta te .
On the h o riz o n ta l l e v e l , the mihrab niche symbolises the transcendental dimension towards the Ka'ba, w h ile the dome does p re c is e ly the same, but towards God.
The l i m i t i n g side w a lls ensure th a t t r a n q u i l l i t y resides w it h i n , which enables the worshipper to achieve s p i r i t u a l
in tro s p e c tio n which is the tru e path to God.
*Abd a l- M a l ik ' s coin o f 66-86/685-705 d isplays a niche w it h in which there is an arrow standing u p r ig h t, as i f i t were the l i t u r g i c a l in d i c a t o r , 32 the p o in te r to the path o f God.
The e a r l i e s t domes were sm all, e x te r n a lly ra th e r i n s i g n i f i c a n t . I n t e r n a l l y they were more elaborate and in most cases provided some i llu m in a t io n f o r the sp o t, where the imam stood.
I t w i l l tr a n s p ir e from the fo llo w in g chapters, th a t in d i f f e r e n t c o u n tr ie s , a t d i f f e r e n t tim es, the problem o f l i g h t i n g was solved d i f f e r e n t l y , w ith o u t d e stroying the inner solem nity.
As c i t i e s grew in s iz e , the size o f the dome was also increased in order to tower over the f l a t roofs o f the secular b u ild in g s , to transcend over them towards heaven.
The external shape was influenced by local t r a d i t i o n s , f o r example the bulbous domes are more frequent in In d ia , than in the West. An im portant external m a n ife s ta tio n is the H i l a l , which appears a t the pinnacle o f the dome and in most cases the m inaret. The H ila l is the symbol o f the Islam ic calendar, which is based on the lunar month. The crescent expresses the emergence o f Islam which put an end to the dark ages o f r e lig io u s ignorance and to polytheism:
"A.L.R. a book
Which we have revealed Unto thee, in order th a t Thou m ightest lead mankind Out o f the depths o f darkness In to l i g h t - by the leave Of t h e i r Lord - to the way Of (Him) the Exalted in Power
Worthy o f a l l P ra is e ." Holy Qur'an, Sura XVI, I n t e r n a l l y , the dome provides l i g h t , p a r t l y in order to illu m in a te the imam, p a r t l y to d is p la y and play w ith the v e r s a t i l i t y o f the nature o f l i g h t and to create c o n tra s tin g p a tte rn s .
The shape and decoration o f the dome was o fte n influenced by themes taken from na tu re, but the most e f f e c t iv e in s p ir a t io n came from the Qur'an:
"God is He who raised
the heavens w ith o u t any p i l l a r s
He has subjected the Sun And the moon (to h is Law);
Each one runs ( i t s course) For a term appointed
He doth re g ula te a l l a f f a i r s Explaining the signs in d e ta il
That ye meeting w ith your Lord" Sura X I I I
"He created the heavens
Without p i l l a r s th a t ye can see" Sura XXX
Both Suras s t a r t w ith the emphasis on the f a c t th a t God created the heavens w ith o u t p i l l a r s . I t is possible th a t the a r c h ite c ts held these Suras in mind when the r e lig io u s dimension o f the mosque came under co n s id e ra tio n .
I f i t is to be accepted, th a t the dome is the symbol o f heaven, then the p o s tu la te , th a t i t should be supported w ith o u t p i l l a r s , as re fe rre d to in the Qur'an, could also be accepted.
I t is in f a c t tr u e , th a t in the e a r ly mosques the dome is not supported by p i l l a r s . Various other means, f a r more complicated than p i l l a r s were introduced in to the zone o f t r a n s i t i o n f o r support, such as squinches, pendentives, drums and beams.
The l a s t l i n e o f Sura XXX may have provided in s p i r a t i o n f o r some a r c h it e c t u r a l elements to be created in p a ir s , such as double domes, coupled arches and m inarets:
"On the earth every kind w 35 Of noble creature in p a ir s " . Sura XXX
There are several th e o rie s concerning the dome. According to one o f these, the dome serves only one purpose, th a t i s , to mark the spot in the mosque, where the Prophet
* ^ 36 stood.
During the Greek, Roman and Byzantine era, the dome or cupola was used in order to confirm s a n c tity upon the person standing under i t .
Another theory f o r the four-square geometry o f the mosque w ith a dome is th a t both the nomadic and sedentary members o f the Islam ic community are represented. The four-square geometry represents the fo undation-constant amongst the sedentary peoples, w hile the r a d ia l and conical forms predominate amongst the nomadic t r i b e s . The square provides the fo u n d atio n , the hemisphere crowns i t and the t r i a n g l e makes i t possible to u n ite the two.37
These in t e r p r e t a t io n s c o n tr ib u te to the whole t r u t h , however, s in g ly not one o f them is a real re p re s e n ta tiv e o f i t . I t must be taken in t o account, when considering the o r ig i n o f the dome in f r o n t o f the mihrab, th a t there is no d i r e c t mention o f the dome as such in the Qur'an or in the HSdvths, and w h ile C h ris tia n l i t e r a t u r e contains
9
numerous references to the symbolic value o f the dome, Arab and Persian theologians did not attach any symbolic i n t e r p r e t a t io n to i t . I t is possible th e re fo re th a t the dome in Islam assumed i t s sacred character o n ly , when i t was used to denote the sacredness o f the s tr u c tu r e i t was to cover.
dome had a pragmatic purpose in Islam before i t assumed a symbolic purpose, is not unreasonable.
One o f the p r a c tic a l reasons f o r the in c lu s io n o f the dome may have been to provide e xtra height f o r the maqsura and p o s s ib ly f o r the minbar. I f t h i s were the sole purpose, however, then an o rd in a ry raised r o o f would have s u ffic e d .
A l l considerations seem to p o in t to the f a c t , th a t the dome must have had a combined symbolic meaning.
In order to understand t h i s combined symbolism, or indeed the reason why there is no o v e rt d ir e c t iv e f o r the dome in the Qur'an, c e r ta in events during the time o f the Caliphate in the e a r ly years o f Islam are proposed f o r c lo s e r examination. Following t h i s , a t a l a t e r stage in the h is t o r y o f Islam, the various p h ilo sop h ica l schools th a t were occupied w ith deciphering the various a llu s io n s , the hidden meanings in the Qur'an, should also be taken in to c o n s id e ra tio n .
Islam is a complex establishment and in order to understand a l l aspects o f i t , each and every component should be examined, however, in t h i s study there is no scope f o r t h i s and th e re fo re only those events and elements which are d i r e c t l y responsible f o r the in c lu s io n o f the dome in f r o n t o f the mihrab are being considered.
A f t e r the assassination o f ' A l l in 41/661, the centre of a c t i v i t y o f the Isla m ic world s h if te d to Damascus.38
Islam was in the process o f developing a dual aspects which was to dominate i t s subsequent h is t o r y . There is the r e lig io u s aspect on the one hand which has i t s roots in the p rophetic mission o f Muhammad in Mecca, and on the o th e r hand the p o l i t i c a l f a c t o r , which has i t s roots in the re o rg a n is a tio n o f the Medinan s o c ie ty by Muhammad. By c re a tin g a p o l i t i c a l r e a l i t y , the Islam ic s ta te , p o l i t i c a l power became a t t r a c t i v e f o r such a heterogeneous s o c ie ty .
In any s o c ie ty , r e lig io u s b e l i e f and p ra c tic e w i l l in e v i t a b ly in flu e n c e and be influenced by the economic and p o l i t i c a l s tr u c tu r e o f th a t s o c ie ty .
In Islam, the two are d e lib e r a t e ly combined under the same i n s t i t u t i o n , th e r e fo r e , t h i s d u a l i t y , w ith i t s r e s u lt a n t dichotomy must be taken in t o co nsideration in i t s a r c h it e c t u r a l re p re s e n ta tio n .
During the r u le o f the Umayyad mosque/palace complexes were to become the product o f t h i s inherent d u a l i t y o f Islam. Greater emphasis was put on the p o l i t i c a l than the r e lig io u s aspect, which manifested i t s e l f in the a r c h it e c t u r a l approach a lso .
This was to change during the reign o f the 'Abbasids, when the r e lig io u s and c u lt u r a l aspects o f Islam became as im portant as the p o l i t i c a l one. The d iffe r e n c e was discernable in a r c h ite c tu r e a lso .
in chapter fo u r , here only the most e sse ntia l elements deserve a b r i e f mention,
Is la m ic c i v i l i s a t i o n under the 'Abbasids was a combination o f three elements: the ancient c u ltu r e o f P ersia, the philosophy and science o f the Greeks and the stim ulus f o r the c u l t i v a t i o n o f both was provided by the s p i r i t o f Islam. Baghdad became the meeting place f o r philosophers, mathematicians, astronomers and other s c h o la rs. The mosques and madrasas o f Baghdad, Cairo and Cordoba were great centres o f scholarship in the 9 th , 10th and 11th c e n tu r ie s .39
From the eighth century onwards, the Qur'an was studied w ith the aim to discover possible ways to i n t e r p r e t and r e in t e r p r e t those passages, which seemed to contain hidden messages.
A group o f the new school c a lle d the Mu^azi1i t e s , maintained th a t the d e s c rip tio n s in the Qur'an should be in te rp re te d a l l e g o r i c a l l y , such d e s c rip tio n s as the b e a u tifu l names o f God, one o f which is the seventh a t t r i b u t e , Speech or Word. 40 The Word is equated w ith the Qur'an i t s e l f . This in t e r p r e t a t io n may e xp la in the extensive use o f the Q ur'anic t e x t in c a ll i g r a p h i c decorative form in mosques and in holy s h rin e s.
C a llig ra p h y , more o fte n than n o t, appears a t the base o f the dome, around the entrance p o rta l and in some cases on columns.
Another d o c trin e o f the M u la z ilit e s emphasises the j u s t i c e o f God; man's d e s tin y depends upon his a c tio n s ; God has shown man how to l i v e in order to deserve Paradise.
Therefore i t is man's duty to heed God's word. Here is a d ir e c t r e la t io n s h ip between the execution o f the imperatives as l a i d down in the Word and i t s necessary consequence, which is Paradise. In vis u a l terms, t h i s r e la t io n s h ip is represented by means o f c a ll i g r a p h i c quotations from the Qur'an around the drum, which is then crowned by the dome.
The M u 'ta z ilite s were in great favour f o r a considerable time w ith the 'Abbasid r u le r s and probably t h e i r a lle g o r ic a l in t e r p r e t a t io n o f the Qur'an served as i n s p ir a t io n f o r the Islam ic a r c h it e c t s .
The th e o lo g ic a l l i t e r a t u r e was in Arabic and i t was spread by t r a v e l l i n g scholars a l l over the Islam ic world tog e th e r w ith the d i f f e r e n t i n t e r p r e ta t io n s o f the te x t s . In t h i s case, there are several d ir e c t iv e s in the Qur'an concerning the design and decoration o f the mosque:
"God is the L ig h t o f the heavens and the earth the likeness o f his L ig h t is as a niche
wherein is a lamp (a lamp in a g la s s ,
the glass as i t were a g l i t t e r i n g s ta r)
L ig h t upon L ig h t;
(God guides to His L ig h t whom He w i l l ) .
in temples God has allowed to be raised up, and His Name to be commemorated th e r e in ;
Sura XXIV41
There are a number o f key words in t h is q u o ta tio n : 'th e n ic h e 1, the ' l i g h t upon l i g h t ' , ‘ His Name to be commemorated i n ' .
I t is reasonable to assume, th a t the niche re fe rre d to is the mihrab niche or a dome l i k e s tr u c tu r e , which provides the l i g h t to where God leads His chosen.
The complete f i r s t l i n e “ God is the L ig h t o f heaven and e a rth " p o in ts to two interdependent dimensions: the h o r i z o n t a l i t y o f earth and the v e r t i c a l i t y o f heaven.
The two dimensions can be re co nciled a r c h i t e c t u r a l l y by employing features which are symbolic, such as the mihrSb f o r h o riz o n ta l i t y , the p o in te r to the Ka'ba and the dome f o r v e r t i c a l i t y , the p o in te r to the heavenly plane.
Other lin e s from the Qur'an give guidance as to the d ecorative elements, which were subsequently employed f o r the dome and the mihrab niche: "the glass as i t were a g l i t t e r i n g s t a r " . Glass mosaics were fre q u e n tly employed.
S tar shapes are abundant in decoration and so f a r the r a d ia tin g l i n e s , which represent the r a d ia tin g s ta rs or j u s t simply the emitted rays from a heavenly body.
God's name is commemorated by the a t t e s t a t io n : "There is no God, but God", which forms a p a rt o f the decorative elements.
Further on in the same Sura: " t h a t God recompense them f o r t h e i r f a i r e s t work" is an im pe ra tiv e , to produce something th a t is b e a u tifu l and e v e r la s tin g , which w i l l be rewarded by God, By fo llo w in g the d ir e c t iv e s as l a i d down in the Qur'an and combining i t w ith the te chnical e x p e rtis e which was acquired from p r e -e x is te n t c u lt u r e s , the Isla m ic a r c h ite c ts produced such m a gnificent and impressive domes in the 9 th , 10th and 11th c e n tu rie s as those o f the Great Mosque o f Qayrawan and the Great Mosque o f Cordoba, to mention but two.
I t was mentioned supra, th a t another v i t a l component o f Islam ic palace and mosque a r c h ite c tu r e was the water tank in the c o u rtya rd. I t s s ig n ific a n c e is o u tlin e d in the Qur'an:
"And as f o r the u n be lie v e rs ,
t h e i r works are as a mirage in a spacious p la in which the man at f i r s t supposes to be water,
t i l l , when he comes to i t , he fin d s i t is nothing;
there indeed he fin d s God".
R e fle c tio n can be a mirage, and the pool o r tank is positio n e d in such a way, th a t i t r e f l e c t s not only the b u ild in g , but the sky above a ls o , thereby y i e l d i n g a p e rfe c t upside down p ic t u r e , which is ready f o r Paradise.
At the same time i t gives an e x tra dimension to the
Islam ic a r c h it e c t .
In conclusion o f the r e lig io u s and symbolic i n t e r p r e t a t io n o f the dome a quota tion from the Pearl o f Al-KabTr w i l l be discussed:
"Seven heavens God made;...
And each and every one
Sphere above sphere, the treasure over tre a s u re , The great decree o f God made f o r regard and pleasure.
Saith the perspicious Book: 'Look up to heaven! Look!
Dost thou see f a u l t or flo w , in th a t vast v a u lt , Spangled w ith s i l v e r y lamps o f n ig h t,
Or g ild e d w ith glad l i g h t
Of s u n ris e , or sunset, or warm noon?
Rounded He w ell the moon?
Eyesight is drowned in yon abyss o f blue Ye see the g lo r y but ye see not through".
The l a s t two lin e s may be im portant clues as to why there is such a l o t o f blue used in Islam ic decoration. "Sphere above sphere" could be d e sc rib ing the dome, i t s shape, i t s decoration and i t s r o l e , in oth e r words, i t should be s p h e r ic a l, high enough to look up t o , r i c h l y decorated w ith l o t s o f blue and i t must not be tra n sp are n t.
I f i t were to be accepted, th a t the in c lu s io n o f the dome in to the mosque was God in s p ir e d , then i t should also be accepted, th a t i t is also an in d ic a tio n o f the u n it y o f the Muslim community, the Ummah, o f f a i t h and the u n it y o f mankind.
Universal order can be achieved only on the basis o f a u niversal f a i t h and not on the basis o f commitment to gods o f race, c o lo u r o r r e l i g i o n .
The ideal man's brotherhood seeks r e a li s a t i o n in Islam , which incorporated the symbols o f previous c u ltu re s in order to u n ite them. In order to mark the place o f the h o ly , as alluded to a l l e g o r i c a l l y in the Qur'an, the dome was chosen. The dome also acts as a marker and v isua l guide to the Right Path, to the house o f the one God, in order to u n ite in prayer and submission to the one God.
Guiding to the 'R ig h t Path1 involves e ntering through the p o r t a l, which is in several cases covered by a dome.
Along the path to the mihrab which is the 'R ig h t P a th ', on i t s a x is , domes o r v a u lts appear a t c e il i n g le v e l . The dome in f r o n t o f the mihrab is God's guidance in i t s f i n a l form and is preserved f o r a l l time and is enshrined in the Holy Qur'an.
I t is also a burning to r c h , which is aided by the towering minarets to draw man's a tte n tio n to the w i l l o f God, to strengthen man's commitment to God, through the s p i r i t u a l d i s c i p l in e he needs to l i v e as God wishes and to enable him to reach Paradise.
1) V. Pope and P. Ackerman, SOPA I . , p. 428.
2) I b i d . , l o c . c i t . ; Jairazbhoy R .A., An O u tlin e o f Isla m ic A r c h it e c tu r e , p. 16.
3) I b i d . , l o c . c i t .
4) The Penguin D ic tio n a ry o f A r c h it e c tu r e , ed. 0.
Fleming et a l . 1982, p. 265.
5) I b i d . , p. 59.
6) The Anatomy o f A r c h it e c t u r e , p. 47; Akurgal E, H is to ry o f the A r t and A rc h ite c tu re o f Turkey, pp.
51-3.
7) The Penguin D ic tio n a r y , op. c i t . 8) Jairazbhoy R.A., 0£. c i t . , p. 96.
10; Pope U, Persian A r c h it e c tu r e , pp. 59-60.
SOPA I , op. c i t . , pp. 550-5.
12) The Penguin D ic t io n a r y , op. c i t . , p. 265; W ilber D.
N., Ir a n , Past and Present, pp. 34-5.
13) I b i d . , p. 240.
14) W ilber D.N., The A rc h ite c tu re o f Islam ic I r a n , p. 61.
15) Oj). c i t . , l o c . c i t .
16) Creswel1 K. A. C, EMA I , pp. 1-26.
17) The Encyclopaedia o f Islam I I I . , 1st ed. p. 379.
18) I b i d . 19) I b i d .
20) The Holy Q ur'an, Sura X I I I . 2.
21) JRAS, 9. V I I . p. 384.
22) B u tle r , H.C., Ancient A rc h ite c tu re in S y r i a , d iv . I I I . , Sect. A.S. S y ria , Part 4. p. 220.
X
9) Penguin Dictionary o f A rchitecture, ed. J . Fleming et a l . t London, p.97«
23 24 25 26 27 28
29 30
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38
39
40
41 42
I b i d . , p. 217.
I b i d . , p. 286.
Encyclopaedia o f Is la m , I I I . , 0£. c i t . , l o c . c i t . I b i d .
Rogers M., The Spread o f Is la m , P. 84.
Papadopoulo A, I s lam and Muslim A r t , t r a n s l . by Wolf R .E., pp. 227-8; C resw e ll, EMA I , op. c i t . pp. 142.
Jairazbhoy, o£. c i_ t ., p. 38.
Sarjeant R .B., ’ M ih ra b ', Bull, o f SPAS X X II, 1959, p.
450.
Holy Q ur'an, op. c i t . , Sura I I .
M ichel! G. A r c h ite c tu r e o f the Islam ic World, p. 15.
Holy Q ur'an, op. c r t . , Sura XVI.
I b i d , Sura X I I I . I b i d , Sura XXX.
Papadopoulo, o£. c i t . , p. 224-6.
C ritc h lo w K, Islam ic P a tte rn s , p. 102.
Gibb E.J. W, Memorial Volume IV, Umayyads and 'Abbasids, pp. 77-80.
H i l l D and Grabar 0, Isla m ic A rc h ite c tu re and i t s D ecoration, pp. 32-3.
The Concise Encyclopaedia o f L iv in g F a ith s , ed. R.C.
Zaehner, pp. 184-5.
Holy Q ur'an, op. c i t . , Sura XXIV.
Man's R eligious Quest, ed. W. Foy, p. 505.
SAUDI ARABIA, PALESTINE, SYRIA AND IRAQ
In tro d u c tio n
I t is a w ell e sta b lish e d f a c t , th a t Islam o rig in a te d in Saudi A rabia, perpetuated by Muhammad in the name o f A lla h .
The Prophet prayed and gave audience in his own d o m ic ile , o f which the most im portant p a rt was the c o u rty a rd , where p r a c t i c a l l y a l l s o cia l and r e lig io u s a c t i v i t y was c a rrie d o ut. With the spread o f the r e l i g i o n , the frequency o f audience increased, the area was extended, covered and a special throne l i k e seat was i n s t a ll e d which l a t e r was to become the maqsura. The covering o f the 'audience chamber1 was simply palm leaves, which provided s h e lt e r from the intense heat o f the sun and from heavy rain.'®'
During the l i f e t i m e o f the Prophet several mosques were b u i l t , however, there i s not much info rm a tio n a v a ila b le concerning these. The study o f mosque a r c h ite c tu r e should commence w ith th a t o f the Medina Mosque which was b u i l t on the s i t e o f the o r ig in a l Prophet's Mosque and was reconstructed under the Umayyads. The s ig n ific a n c e o f t h i s mosque cannot be stressed enough, as i t was the one to set the precedent f o r fu tu r e mosques.
The Medina Mosque is discussed in conjunction w ith the Damascus Mosque and the Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem, because these are the e a r l i e s t mosques possess domes. In conjunction w ith these, the mosque-palace complexes in t h i s area w i l l receive a tte n tio n a ls o , together w ith the ground plans and t h e i r r e la t io n s h ip to the p o s itio n o f the dome.
The mosque-palace complex played a very im portant p a rt in the development o f the dome in f r o n t o f the mihrab as did the concept o f symmetry and the awareness o f space.
The r e la t io n s h ip o f the dome to the ground-plan o f the mosque
When an a n alysis o f the r e la t io n s h ip between the dome and the ground plan is attempted, the type o f mosque in question must be taken in t o c o n s id e ra tio n , otherwise one might f a l l v ic tim to g e n e ra lis a tio n s . I t is im portant to d i f f e r e n t i a t e between a Congregational or a Friday Mosque, Mosque Madrasa or i g d h a l; place o f pra yer, Mosque Khanaqah, or M a s jid .
The e a r ly Congregational Mosques had e it h e r no r o o fin g , or very simple co vering, pu rely f o r u t i l i t a r i a n reasons; to s h e lte r from the intense heat o f the sun or the heavy r a in . In the time o f the Prophet, as mentioned supra, the shape and size o f the mosque did not present an a r c h it e c t u r a l problem, i t remained a simple c o n s tru c tio n . Under the C aliphates, the p ra c tic e was adopted, th a t the place, where the r u l e r s a t, was cordoned o f f by high
c a lle d the maqsura. The he ig h t and p o s itio n o f the maqsDra must have played a p a rt in determining where the dome was to be included.
The Prophet's mosque was the basic model, on which l a t e r mosques were designed and developed, namely the Congregational mosque. The courtyard was not covered a l l around, and t h i s gave i t a more informal c haracter and t h i s is where r e lig io u s and c i v i c l i f e were u n ite d .
In a d d itio n to the Friday mosques there were several sm aller mosques in towns, mainly f o r p r iv a te p rayer, ra th e r than f o r p u b lic gathering and d is p la y . The d iffe re n c e in the various ro le s is one o f the determining fa c to rs f o r choosing a p a r t i c u l a r ground pla n , th e re fo re no g e n e r a lis a tio n can be made concerning these. The c lim a t ic fa c to r s are also i n f l u e n t i a l in mosque c o n s tru c tio n , uncovered courtyards are more s u ita b le in warm c l im a t i c c o n d itio n s .
I f the courtyard is clim a te dependent, then, from th is fo llo w s , th a t the in te r n a l components o f the mosque w i l l have to o f f e r replacement o r complementary fe a tu re s in tu r n . In p r a c tic a l terms t h i s means th a t the shape and size o f the area in the sanctuary in r e la t io n to the r e s t o f the mosque w i l l in p ro p o rtio n be d i f f e r e n t and interdependent. This in tu rn w i l l determine the size and p o s itio n o f the dome.
Another fa c t o r also should be considered, th a t i s , the entrance to the holy area. In the case o f mosques w ith c o u rtya rds, the congregation enter from the unholy area, which should be marked in order to d i f f e r e n t i a t e i t from the holy sanctuary. In the case o f mosques w ith o u t courtyards the worshippers have d ir e c t access to the holy area. I t is p e r tin e n t to assume, th a t the place o f e n try in both cases w i l l be marked d i f f e r e n t l y . The distance from the p o in t o f e n try to the g ib !a in the sanctuary is also re le v a n t to the p o s itio n in g o f the dome, or domes, whichever is a p p lic a b le .
The f i r s t mosque to be discussed in d e t a i l , is the Medina Mosque and p a r a lle l w ith i t the Damascus Mosque. During the period when these were constructed, there were numerous others erected, but w ith o u t domes. I t is p e r tin e n t and a t the same time in e v it a b le , th a t the reason f o r t h i s should be examined. I t is a known f a c t and w ell documented, th a t the o r ig in a l mosque o f the Prophet was not only a mosque but also a d w e llin g place and a place o f p o l i t i c a l power. I f the f a c t , th a t the Medina Mosque encompassed under the same ro o f a l l the aspects o f Islam is accepted, then, i t is lo g ic a l to assume, th a t because i t was the p ro to ty p e , i t must have set the precedent f o r a l l fu tu r e mosques. At t h i s p o in t, what t h is e n t a il s in terms o f c o n s tr u c tio n , symbolism and lo c a t io n , warrants c lo s e r examination. F i r s t l y , the question, who would be in a p o s itio n to occupy a mosque - cum d w e llin g place has to be asked. Secondly, where is such a complex located and t h i r d l y , is i t required o f such a complex th a t i t should p r o je c t an external image.
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I l l u s t r a t i o n 5 Medina Mosque, Ground Plan.
