T h e r o l e o f i n d i g e n o u s w o o d y s p e c i e s i n ' f a r m e r - l e d ' a g r i c u l t u r a l c h a n g e i n s o u t h e a s t N i g e r i a ,
W e s t A f r i c a .
T h e s i s i n f u l f i l m e n t o f PhD D e p a r t m e n t o f G e o g r a p h y
S c h o o l o f O r i e n t a l and A f r i c a n S t u d i e s (SOAS) U n i v e r s i t y o f London
J u s t i n e Dunn 1 9 9 6
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ABSTRACT
T h i s t h e s i s examines t h e r o l e o f in di g en ou s woody s pec ies i n ' f a r m e r - l e d ' a g r i c u l t u r a l change i n south east N i g e r i a . The s t u d y , c a r r i e d out i n p a r t s o f Cross Ri v e r S t a t e and Akwa Ibom S t a t e , i s s et i n t he c o n t e x t o f t h e r e c e nt t r e n d among development p r o f e s s i o n a l s t o s t r e s s t h e use o f in d ig e no us s p ec i e s and l o c a l knowledge i n f u t u r e development p r o j e c t s .
Emphasising t h r o u g h o u t t h e use o f both in di g en ou s knowledge and in d ig e no us woody s p e c i e s , as w e l l as p a r t i c i p a t o r y resear ch t e c h n i q u e s , t h e s t u d y comprised t h r e e main st ages.
The f i r s t st age was t h e s e l e c t i o n o f t h r e e st udy v i l l a g e s i n d i f f e r e n t a g r o e c o l o g i c a l zones, one i n a h e a v i l y f o r e s t e d area, one i n a d e r i v e d savanna area, and one i n an area w i t h l i t t l e n a t u r a l 'b u sh ' r e ma i ni n g.
S o c i a l sur veys were c a r r i e d out i n t h e s tudy v i l l a g e s t o c o l l e c t i n f o r m a t i o n c o nc e rn i n g a g r i c u l t u r a l methods and probl ems, and t h e l o c a l use o f woody s p e c i e s . The e t h n o b o t a n i c a l r e s u l t s from t h i s survey were documented and analysed, and t h e r e s u l t s were used i n an exami nat ion o f t h e impact o f p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y on t h e development o f l o c a l n a t u r a l r esour ce management systems and i n d ig enous a g r i c u l t u r a l i n n o v a t i o n .
Secondly, f o u r in d ig e no us woody s pec ies were s e l e c t e d i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e l o c a l communit ies, namely: A l b i z i a z y g i a , D i a l i u m guineense, R i c in odend ro n h e u d e l o t i i and Uv ari a chamae. A b o t a n i c a l s t u d y , i n c l u d i n g g e r m i n a t i o n and growth t r i a l s i n Calabar and p h e n o l o g i c a l o b s e r v a t i o n s
i n t h e f i e l d , was conducted i n r e l a t i o n t o these f o u r s p e c i e s .
F i n a l l y , u si n g t h e dat a c o l l e c t e d d u r i n g t h e s o c i a l s ur vey s, f i e l d t r i a l s and o b s e r v a t i o n s , an a t t e m p t was made t o work w i t h t h e v i l l a g e r s t o develop ways i n which some o f t h e most p r e s s i n g a g r i c u l t u r a l problems c ou l d be addressed us ing l o c a l knowledge and r e s o u r c e s . As a r e s u l t , a framework was developed f o r use i n f u t u r e r u r a l development p r o j e c t s i n t h e r e g i o n , i n an a t te mp t t o c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e c u r r e n t move by development p r o f e s s i o n a l s t owards f u l l e r community p a r t i c i p a t i o n .
K e y w o r d s : a g r o f o r e s t r y , i n d ig enous woody s p ec i e s, ' f a r m e r - l e d ' i n n o v a t i o n , g e r m i n a t i o n t r i a l s , phenol ogy, A l b i z i a z y g i a , D i a l i u m g u i neense, R i c i nodendron h e u d e l o t i i , Uv a ri a chamae, community p a r t i c i p a t i o n , south east N i g e r i a .
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ABSTRACT...2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS... 3
TABLE OF CONTENTS... 4
LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES... 9
LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS USED... .11
CHAPTER 1 A g r o f o r e s t r y and s u s t a i n a b l e r u r a l development i n t h e South. 1.1 I n t r o d u c t i o n ... 12
1.2 Aims o f t h e s t u d y ... 12
1.3 Technology development and t r a n s f e r ... 15
1.4 A g r o f o r e s t r y ... 22
1. 4. 1 Development o f a g r o f o r e s t r y ... 24
1 . 4 . 2 A g r o f o r e s t r y and e x t e n s i o n ... 32
1.5 I ndi g en ou s a g r o f o r e s t r y ... ...35
1.6 Moves towards i n di g e n o u s p a r t i c i p a t i o n ... 38
1.7 S t r u c t u r e o f t h e t h e s i s ... 40
1 .8 Concl usi o n s ... 41
CHAPTER 2 South e as t N i g e r i a n l a n d - u s e systems i n t h e West A f r i c a n c o n t e x t : t h e s t u d y area. 2.1 I n t r o d u c t i o n ... 43
2. 2 West A f r i c a n a g r i c u l t u r e ... 43
2. 2 . 1 Nature o f t r a d i t i o n a l f a r m s ... 44
2 . 2 . 2 Si ze o f f a r m s . . . ... 47
2 . 2 . 3 A g r i c u l t u r a l r e g i o n s i n West A f r i c a ... . 4 7 2 . 2 . 4 A g r i c u l t u r a l change i n West A f r i c a ... 48
2. 3 A g r i c u l t u r e i n N i g e r i a ...51
2 . 3 . 1 Common a g r i c u l t u r a l s y s t em s... 55
2 . 3 . 2 I n di genou s a g r o f o r e s t r y s ys tems ...58
2 . 3 . 3 C o n s t r a i n t s on a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n ... 64
2 .4 The s t u d y a r e a ... 65
2 . 4 . 1 S o i l s ... 68
2 . 4 . 2 C l i m a t e ... 70
2 . 4 . 3 V e g e t a t i o n ...72
2 . 4 . 4 Popul a t i o n ... ... 77 2 . 4 . 5 S e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n s ... . . . 7 8
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2. 5 Land-use systems i n t h e s t u d y a r e a ... 80
2. 5 . 1 For est ed a r e a s ... 80
2 . 5 . 2 Tree cr op p l a n t a t i o n s ... 82
2 . 5 . 3 Food c r o p s ... 83
2 . 5 . 4 L i v e s t o c k ...86
2 . 6 Land t e n u r e ... ...87
2 . 6 . 1 T r a d i t i o n a l land t e n u r e ... .87
2 . 6 . 2 Tree t e n u r e ... 89
2 . 6 . 3 Modern land t e n u r e ...91
2. 7 C o n c l u s i o n s ...93
CHAPTER 3 F i e l d r e s e ar c h methods and t h e s t u dy v i l l a g e s . 3.1 I n t r o d u c t i o n ...94
3. 2 P a r t i c i p a t o r y r e s e a r c h ...95
3 . 2 . 1 PRA t e c h n i q u e s ... 96
3 . 2 . 2 PRA i n t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y ... 98
3. 3 S e l e c t i o n o f t he s tudy v i l l a g e s ... 100
3 . 3 . 1 Study V i l l a g e 1: Abo Mkpang...104
3 . 3 . 2 Study V i l l a g e 2: I g o n i g o n i ...110
3 . 3 . 3 Study V i l l a g e 3: O b io kp o k... 115
3. 4 S o c i a l s u r v e y s ... 117
3 . 4 . 1 Background dat a c o l l e c t i o n ... 119
3 . 4 . 2 Development o f q u e s t i o n n a i r e s u r v e y s ... 121
3 . 4 . 3 C o l l e c t i o n o f a d d i t i o n a l d a t a ... 123
3 . 4 . 4 L o g i s t i c a l and s o c i a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s ... 124
3 . 4 . 5 S e l e c t i o n o f h o u s e h o l d s ... 126
3 . 4 . 6 V i l l a g e i n t e r v i e w s ... 129
3. 5 B i o l o g i c a l S t u d i e s ... 131
3 . 5 . 1 G er mi n at i on t r i a l s ...132
3 . 5 . 2 F i e l d o b s e r v a t i o n s ...136
3 . 6 C o n c l u s i o n s ... 143
CHAPTER 4 Trees as p r o v i d e r s : c hanging p a t t e r n s o f t r e e use w i t h d e c r e a s i n g f o r e s t c o ve r . 4.1 I n t r o d u c t i o n ...145
4. 2 Trees as p r o v i d e r s ... 145
4. 3 R e s u l t s o f t he s u r v e y s ...152
4. 3 .1 F r u i t t r e e s ...156
4 . 3 . 2 E d i b l e s e ed s ... 160
4 . 3 . 3 M e d i c i n a l t r e e s ...166
4 . 3 . 4 Timber t r e e s ... 168
4 . 3 . 5 Trees i n f a r m i n g ...170
4 . 3 . 6 Amenity t r e e s ... 175
4 . 3 . 7 Trees w i t h e d i b l e l e a v e s ... 177
4 . 3 . 8 M i s c e l l a n e o u s t r e e u s e s ... 178
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4. 4 Tree use i n Obi ok p ok ... 184
4. 5 Changing p a t t e r n s o f f o r e s t resour ce management w i t h d e c r e a si n g f o r e s t c o v e r ...186
4. 6 C o n c l u s i o n s ... 188
CHAPTER 5 Four i n d i g e n o u s woody s p e c i e s and t h e i r p o t e n t i a l r o l e i n a g r o f o r e s t r y . 5.1 I n t r o d u c t i o n ...190
5. 2 A l b i z i a z y g i a (Syn. A l b i z i a brownei 01 i v . ) ...190
5 . 2 . 1 D i s t r i b u t i o n ... 190
5 . 2 . 2 H a b i t ...191
5 . 2 . 3 B o t a n y ... 192
5 . 2 . 4 E c o p h y s i o l o g y ... 193
5 . 2 . 5 I ndi genou s knowledge... 195
5. 3 R i c i nodendron h e u d e l o t i i ... 196
5 . 3 . 1 D i s t r i b u t i o n ... 196
5 . 3 . 2 H a b i t ...197
5 . 3 . 3 B o t a n y ... 197
5 . 3 . 4 E c o p h y s i o l o g y ... 200
5 . 3 . 5 I ndi genou s knowledge... 201
5. 4 D i a l i u m g ui neense... 202
5 . 4 . 1 D i s t r i b u t i o n ... 202
5 . 4 . 2 H a b i t ...202
5 . 4 . 3 B o t a n y ...203
5 . 4 . 4 E c o p h y s i o l o g y ... 206
5 . 4 . 5 I ndi genou s knowledge... 207
5 .5 U v a r i a chamae... 209
5 . 5 . 1 D i s t r i b u t i o n ...209
5 . 5 . 2 H a b i t ... 210
5 . 5 . 3 B o t a n y ... 210
5 . 5 . 4 I ndi genou s knowledge ...211
5. 6 Uses o f t h e f o u r s p e c i e s . . . ... 213
5. 6 . 1 A l b i z i a z y g i a ... 213
5 . 6 . 2 R i c i nodendron h e u d e l o t i i ... 214
5 . 6 . 3 D i a l i u m gui neense... 215
5 . 6 . 4 U v a r i a chamae... 217
5. 7 G er mi n at i on t r i a l s ... 218
5. 8 F i e l d o b s e r v a t i o n s ... 228
5. 8 . 1 L o c a t i o n and h a b i t o f s tudy t r e e s ...228
5 . 8 . 2 Growth r a t e s o f s t u d y t r e e s ... 229
5 . 8 . 3 Phenology o f s tu dy t r e e s ... 232
5. 9 A g r o f o r e s t r y p o t e n t i a l o f t h e 4 s tu dy s p e c i e s ... . , . . 2 3 6 5.10 C o n c l u s i o n s ... 239
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PAGE CHAPTER 6 ' H e l p i n g f a r m er s t o h e l p t h e m s e l v e s ' : PRA and
o t h e r t e c h n i q u e s f o r r u r a l development.
6.1 I n t r o d u c t i o n ... 241
6 .2 PRA i n t h e s t u d y ... 241
6 . 2 . 1 P r e s e n t a t i o n o f r e s u l t s o f b i o l o g i c a l t r i a l s . . . ...242
6 . 2 . 2 Problem s o l v i n g ...244
6. 3 P a rt i c i p a t o r y meet ings i n Abo M k p a n g . . . . ...246
6. 4 P a r t i c i p a t o r y meetings i n I g o n i g o n i ...258
6. 5 Problems encount ered d u r i n g PRA m e e t i n g s ...266
6. 6 C o n c l u s i o n s ... 268
CHAPTER 7 A g r o f o r e s t r y , e x t e n s i o n and f o r e s t c o n s e r v a t i o n i n sout h e a s t N i g e r i a . 7.1 I n t r o d u c t i o n ... 270
7.2 The r e s u l t s o f t h e s t u d y ...271
7 . 2. 1 I n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f a g r i c u l t u r e ...271
7 . 2 . 2 Use o f i n d ig enous t e c h n i c a l k nowledge... 277
7 . 2 . 3 G er mi n at i on and e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t r e e s ...278
7 . 2 . 4 Development o f a framework f o r e x t e n s i o n w o r k e r s ...279
7.3 Changing r o l e s o f f o r e s t e r s ... 279
7. 4 Review o f c u r r e n t a g r i c u l t u r a l and f o r e s t r y e x t e n s i o n p r a c t i c e s i n Cross R i v e r S t a t e ... 289
7. 4. 1 Ex tens ion a c t i v i t i e s o f CRADP... 289
7 . 4 . 2 E xt ens ion a c t i v i t i e s o f CRSFP and t h e F o r e s t r y D epar tment ... 292
7 . 4 . 3 E xt ens ion a c t i v i t i e s o f CRNP... 296
7. 5 Which way f o r w a r d f o r more s u c c e s s f u l a g r i c u l t u r a l change and f o r e s t c o n s e r v a t i o n ? ... 298
7 . 6 C o n c l u s i o n s ... 300
CHAPTER 8 New ways f o r w a r d f o r r u r a l development and f o r e s t c o n s e r v a t i o n . 8.1 I n t r o d u c t i o n ... 302
8. 2 T h e o r e t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s ... 302
8 . 3 De vel opi ng a p a r t i c i p a t o r y framework f o r f i e l d s t a f f ... 310
8 . 3 . 1 D i s c u s s i o n o f some o f t h e resear ch ex p e r i e n c e s w i t h r e s p e c t t o p r o d u c i n g a more e a s i l y implemented framework f o r f i e l d s t a f f ...311
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8 . 3 . 2 I n t r o d u c t o r y comments f o r t h e f r a m e w o r k . . . . ...313
8 . 3 . 3 A framework f o r use by f i e l d s t a f f i n t he development o f a p p r o p r i a t e f a r m i n g t e c h n o l o g i e s w i t h r u r a l c o m m u n i t i e s ...317
8. 4 C o nc lu di ng r e ma r k s... 325
8 . 4 . 1 Co ncl us ions f o r t h i s c h a p t e r ... 325
8 . 4 . 2 F i n a l c o n c l u s i o n s ... 326
REFERENCES...329
APPENDICES...351
Appendix A L i s t o f s pec ies and a u t h o r i t i e s . ... 352
Appendix D Schedule o f f i e l d w o r k ...355
Appendix C C h e c k l i s t f o r v i l l a g e s u r v e y s ... . . . 3 5 7 Appendix D Data sheet f o r g e r m i n a t i o n t r i a l s ...359
Appendix E F i e l d data c o l l e c t i o n f o r m ... 360
Appendix F Uses, l o c a l names and b o t a n i c a l names o f spec ies mentioned i n v i l l a g e s u r v e y s ... 361
Appendix G Ranking o f s pe ci e s a c c o r d i n g t o number o f t i mes mentioned i n v i l l a g e s u r v e y s . . . ...364
Appendix H L o c a t i o n s o f t r e e s mentioned d u r i n g v i l l a g e s u r v e y s . . . ... 366
Appendix I Species i n Timber T a r i f f . Cl asses 1 & 2 ... 369
Appendix J Species p r e s e n t i n Obiokpok homegardens...370
Appendix K Mont hly f i e l d dat a r e co r d s h e e t ... 371
Appendix L L i s t o f s l i d e s shown d u r i n g p a r t i c i p a t o r y m e e t i n g s ... 372
Appendix M E x t r a c t s from S t r a t e g i c Management P l a n ...373
Appendix N Examples o f c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o P a n g o l i n , t h e CRNP magazi ne... 375
Appendix 0 Framework handbook f o r f i e l d s t a f f ( I n p oc k e t , s ep a r a t e from main t e x t ) Appendix P V i l l a g e t r e e t e n u r e in S.E. N i g e r i a ...381
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L I S T OF F I G U R E S
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F i g u r e 1.1 Components o f a g r o f o r e s t r y sys tems... 25
F i g ur e 2.1 N i g e r i a n a g r i c u l t u r a l zone s... 56
Fi g ur e 2.2 An i d e a l i s e d bush f a l l o w farm p l o t ... 59
F i gu r e 2. 3 Mango s a p l i n g bei ng used as a l i v e s t a k e ... 60
Fi g ur e 2. 4 Cocoa and bananas growing i n t he shade o f f o r e s t t r e e s . . . . 63
F i gu r e 2. 5 The st udy area as p a r t o f t he t r o p i c a l hi gh f o r e s t z o n e . . . 66
Fi g ur e 2. 6 S o i l s o f t h e s tudy a r e a . . . . ... 69
F i gu r e 2. 7 Cl i m a t e diagram f o r Calabar and Ikom...71
F i g u r e 2.8 A homegarden i n O b i o k p o k . . ... 73
Fi g ur e 2. 9 Common s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n s o f t he s tudy a r e a ... 79
Fi gur e 2.10 'Palm bush' i n Obiokpok, Akwa Ibom S t a t e . ...85
Fi gur e 3.1 L o c a t i o n o f t he t h r e e s tudy v i l l a g e s ...102
Fi g ur e 3. 2 Sketch map o f Abo Mkpang v i l l a g e . . . ... 105
Fi gur e 3.3 The c e n t r e o f Abo Mkpang w i t h t y p i c a l houses... 106
Fi gur e 3. 4 A food farm w i t h cassava and bananas near Abo Mkpang 107 F i g u r e 3. 5 Bananas a w a i t i n g c o l l e c t i o n by t r a d e r s i n Abo Mkpang 109 Fi g ur e 3. 6 Sketch map o f I g o n i g o n i v i l l a g e ... 111
F i g u r e 3. 7 Map from a e r i a l photos o f area s ur r o u n d i n g I g o n i g o n i 112 Fi gur e 3.8 Cassava on degraded s o i l s i n I g o n i g o n i ... 113
F i g ur e 3. 9 Map o f Obiokpok v i l l a g e ...116
F i g ur e 3.10 Sampling segments f o r Obiokpok v i l l a g e s u r v e y ... 128
F i g ur e 3.11 Layout o f g e r m i n a t i o n t r i a l s conducted i n C a l a b a r . . . 1 3 4 F i g u r e 3.12 L o c a t i o n o f t h e st udy t r e e s i n Abo Mkpang ...137
F i g u r e 3.13 L o ca t i o n o f t he s tudy t r e e s i n I g o n i g o n i . ...138
F i g u r e 3.14 Measuring a st udy t r e e near Abo Mkpang... 140
F i g u r e 3.15 Crown s t a t u s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n used d u r i n g f i e l d s t u d i e s . . . . 1 4 2 F i g ur e 4.1 The development o f l o c a l r esource management s ys tems . . . 150
Fi gur e 4.2 Occurrence o f t he speci es mentioned i n v i l l a g e s u r v e y s . . . 155
F i g u r e 4. 3 Dacryodes e d u l i s i n f r u i t , Abo Mkpang... . . . 1 5 7 Fi g ur e 4. 4 I r v i n g i a gabonensis t r e e i n Abo Mkpang... 161
F i g u r e 4. 5 Press f o r t h e e x t r a c t i o n o f B a i l l o n e l l a t ox is pe rma o i l . . . 164
F i g u r e 4. 6 Palm o i l p r oc e s s i n g i n I g o n i g o n i ... .166
Fi g ur e 4. 7 Musanga c e cr o po i d es a s o i l i m pr ov er , I g o n i g o n i ... 171
F i g u r e 4. 8 Young Ri c i nodendron h e u d e l o t i i used as a l i v e s t a k e 173 F i g u r e 4.9 Bamboo: a good source o f st akes and p o l e s , I g o n i g o n i 175 F i g u r e 4.10 The t hunde r t r e e ( Hura c r e p i t a n s ) , Abo Ogbugante . . . . 1 7 6 F i g u r e 4.11 C r e s c e n t i a c u j e t e , t h e calabash t r e e , I g o n i g o n i ...180
F i g ur e 4.12 Raphia h o o ke r i being tapped f o r palm w i n e ...181
F i gu r e 4.13 Leaves bei ng s t r i p p e d from Raphia h o o k e r i ... 182
Fi gur e 4.14 Raphia h o o k e r i leaves sewn t o g e t h e r t o make t h a t c h ... 183
Fi gur e 4.15 P a rt o f a homegarden i n O b i o k p o k . . . . ... . . . 1 8 5 Fi gur e 5.1 D i s t i n c t i v e a r c h i t e c t u r e o f A l b i z i a z y g i a ...192
Fi g ur e 5. 2 The l e a f s t r u c t u r e o f A l b i z i a z y g i a ...193
F i g ur e 5 . 3 The d i s t i n c t i v e shape o f A l b i z i a z y g i a l e a f l e t s ...194
Fi g ur e 5 . 4 D i s t i n c t i v e a r c h i t e c t u r e o f Ri c i nodendron h e u d e l o t i i 198 F i g u r e 5. 5 Mature l e a f l e t o f Ri ci nodendron h e u d e l o t i i ...199
F i g ur e 5 . 6 Young l e a f l e t o f R i c i nodendron h e u d e l o t i i ...199
F i g u r e 5. 7 F r u i t o f Ri ci nodend ro n h e u d e l o t i i ... 201
F i g u r e 5. 8 Mature, single-st emmed D i a l i u m guineense t r e e ...203
F i g ur e 5. 9 Bushy D i a l i u m gui neense shrub i n young f a l l o w ... 204
F i gu r e 5.10 S t r u c t u r e o f D i a l i u m guineense l e a v e s . . . ...205
F i g ur e 5.11 Se e dl i ng s o f D i a l i u m g ui nee ns e... 205
F i g u r e 5.12 The v e l v e t y f r u i t s o f D i a l i u m g ui n ee ns e ... 206
F i g u r e 5.13 F i r e damaged D i a l i u m gui neense t r e e ...208
F i g u r e 5.14 New coppi ce shoots o f c u t and burned D i a l i u m g u i n e e n s e . . .209
F i g ur e 5.15 A young, shrubby Uvari a chamae... 211
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F i g u r e 5.16 S t r u c t u r e o f Uva ri a chamae l e a v e s ... 212
F i g u r e 5.17 F r u i t s o f Uv a ri a chamae... 212
F i gu r e 5.18 R i ci n od en d ro n h e u d e l o t i i s e e d l i n g s i n g e r m i n a t i o n t r i a l s . 219 F i g u r e 5.19 Growth curves f o r Ri ci nodend ro n h e u d e l o t i i ... . . . 2 2 3 F i g u r e 5.20 E a r l y growth r a t e s f o r D i a l i u m g ui nee ns e...224
F i g u r e 5.21 E a r l y growth r a t e s f o r Uv ar i a chamae... 225
F i g ur e 5.22 Growth r a t e s f o r t h r e e s pec ies a f t e r p l a n t i n g o u t ... 226
F i g u r e 5.23 R i c i nodendron h e u d e l o t i i s e e d l i n g a f t e r p l a n t i n g o u t 227 F i g ur e 5.24 Phenology diagram f o r R i ci nodendron h e u d e l o t i i ...233
F i g u r e 5.25 D i a l i u m guineense i n f l o w e r on farm l a n d ... . .23 4 F i g u r e 5.26 F I o w e r i n g / f r u i t i n g p a t t e r n s o f D.gui neense and U. chamae. .235 F i g u r e 6.1 One o f t h e r a i n days c h a r t s produced i n Abo Mkpang. . . 2 4 7 F i g u r e 6.2 Average o f t h r e e r a i n days c h a r t s from Abo Mkpang... 248
F i g ur e 6. 3 Comparison o f f a r m e r s ' e st i m a t e s w i t h r a i n days d a t a 248 Fi g ur e 6. 4 Farming c al e n d a r produced by women i n Abo Mkpang... 250
F i g u r e 6. 5 Farming c a l e nd a r produced by men i n Abo Mkpang...251
F i g u r e 6. 6 A l b i z i a z y g i a i n f o r m a t i o n w a l l c h a r t ... . . . 2 5 2 F i g u r e 6. 7 R i c in odend ro n h e u d e l o t i i i n f o r m a t i o n w a l l c h a r t ...253
F i g u r e 6.8 I g o n i g o n i v i l l a g e r s c r e a t i n g a r a i n f a l l c h a r t ... 259
F i g u r e 6. 9 D i a l i u m gui neense i n f o r m a t i o n w a l l c h a r t . . . 260
F i g u r e 6.10 U v a r i a chamae i n f o r m a t i o n w a l l c h a r t . . . . ...261
F i g ur e 6.11 Cassava appears t o grow b e t t e r near D i a l i u m g u i n e e n s e . . . . 262
Fi g ur e 7.1 T r a d i t i o n a l l i n k s between r e s e a r c h / e x t e n s i o n and f a r m e r s . 285 F i g u r e 7. 2 Two-way channels between r es ear ch, e x t e n s i o n and f a r m e r s . 287 Fi g ur e 7.3 CRNP c o n t a c t p o i n t s ig n i n Abo M k p a n g . . . . ... . . 2 9 8 F i g u r e 8.1 Framework f o r use by f i e l d s t a f f w i t h l o c a l c om mu n i t i e s . .318 L I S T OF T A B L E S PAGE Table 1.1 P r e f e r r e d research approaches and methods...21
Table 2.1 Annual growth r a t e s i n t h e N i g e r i a n economy, 1960-1985... 51
Table 2. 2 Key food crops i n t h e st u dy a r e a ... 84
Table 4.1 F r u i t t r e e s o f Abo Mkpang... 158
Table 4.2 F r u i t t r e e s o f I g o n i g o n i ... 159
Table 4. 3 F r u i t p r i c e s i n markets around I g o n i g o n i . . . . ... 160
Table 4. 4 E d i b l e seeds o f Abo Mkpang... 163
Table 4. 5 E d i b l e seeds o f I g o n i g o n i ... 165
Table 4. 6 M e d i c i n a l t r e e s o f Abo Mkpang... ... 167
Table 4 . 7 M e d i c i n a l t r e e s o f I g o n i g o n i ... 168
Table 4. 8 Timber t r e e s o f Abo Mkpang... 169
Table 4. 9 Timber t r e e s o f I g o n i g o n i ... . . . . 1 7 0 Table 4.10 Trees i n f a rm i n g i n Abo M k p a n g . . ...172
Table 4.11 Trees i n f a r m in g i n I g o n i g o n i ... . .17 4 Table 4.12 Amenity t r e e s i n Abo Mkpang... 177
Table 4.13 Amenity t r e e s i n I g o n i g o n i ... .177
Table 4. 14 E d i b l e l eaves o f Abo Mkpang... . . . 1 7 8 Table 4.15 E d i b l e l eaves o f I g o n i g o n i ... 178
Table 4. 16 M i s c e l l a n e o u s t r e e s o f Abo Mkpang... 179
Table 4.17 M i s c e l l a n e o u s t r e e s o f I g o n i g o n i ... 180
Table 5.1 Timber and n o n - t i m b e r uses o f A l b i z i a z y g i a ... . . . . 2 1 4 Table 5.2 Timber and n o n - t i m b e r uses o f Ri ci nodend ro n h e u d e l o t i i . . . .215
Table 5. 3 Timber and n o n - t i m b e r uses o f D i a l i u m g u i n e e ns e... . . . 2 1 6 Table 5 . 4 Non-t imber uses o f Uv ar i a chamae... 217
Table 5. 5 R e s u l t s o f s o i l a n a l y s i s from Abo Mkpang and I g o n i g o n i . . . . 2 3 1 Table 6.1 Common f a r m in g problems i n Abo Mkpang... 256
Table 6.2 Common f a r m i n g problems i n I g o n i g o n i ... 263
LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS USED
ADP A g r i c u l t u r a l Development P r o j e c t
AFNETA A l l e y Farming Network f o r T r o p i c a l A f r i c a AFRENA A g r o f o r e s t r y Research Network f o r A f r i c a
CAT IE Centro Agronomico T r o p i c a l de I n v e s t i g a c i o n y Ensenanza CRADP Cross R i v e r A g r i c u l t u r a l Development P r o j e c t
CRNP Cross R i v e r N a t i o n a l Park
CRSFP Cross R i v e r S t a t e F o r e s t r y P r o j e c t D&D Di a gn o si s and Design
DFRRI D i r e c t o r a t e o f Foods, Roads and Rural I n f r a s t r u c t u r e FAO Food and A g r i c u l t u r e O r g a n i s a t i o n
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GRP Green R e v o l u t i o n Programme HYV High Y i e l d i n g V a r i e t y
IADP I n t e g r a t e d A g r i c u l t u r a l Development P r o j e c t
ICRAF I n t e r n a t i o n a l Counci l f o r Research i n A g r o f o r e s t r y 11 ED I n t e r n a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e f o r Environment and Development I I T A I n t e r n a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e f o r T r o p i c a l A g r i c u l t u r e
IMF I n t e r n a t i o n a l Monetary Fund
IRDP I n t e g r a t e d Rural Development P r o j e c t IRRI I n t e r n a t i o n a l Rice Research I n s t i t u t e
LGA Local Government Area
MPTS M u l t i p u r p o s e Trees and Shrubs NGO Non-governmental O r g a n i s a t i o n
NNMC N i g e r i a n Newspaper M a n u f a c t u r i n g Company NTFP No n-t imber Fo r es t Product
ODA Overseas Development A d m i n i s t r a t i o n OFN O p er a ti o n Feed t h e Nati on
ODNRI Overseas Development N at ur al Resources I n s t i t u t e PAP P r o j e t A g r o p a s t o r a l de Nyabisi ndu
PRA P a r t i c i p a t o r y Rural A p p r a i s a l RBDA Ri v e r Basin Development A u t h o r i t y SAP S t r u c t u r a l Adjust ment Programme
SECAP S o i l Er osi on C ont rol and A g r o f o r e s t r y P r o j e c t SMP S t r a t e g i c Management Plan
T&V T r a i n i n g and V i s i t
WWF World Wide Fund f o r Nature
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CHAPTER 1
A g r o f o r e s t r y and s u s t a i n a b l e r u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t i n t h e S o u t h .
1.1 I n t r o d u c t i o n
The aim o f t h i s c h a p t e r i s t o o u t l i n e t h e way i n which t h e s t ud y was c a r r i e d o u t , and t o p r e s en t a summary o f r e l e v a n t r u r a l development c oncepts, i n o r d e r t h a t t h e r esear ch i s put i n t o c o n t e x t . I n i t i a l l y , i n S e c t i o n 1. 2, t h e r e i s a b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e s tudy l o c a t i o n and methods, and what t h e s tu dy aimed t o a chi ev e. F o l l o w i n g t h i s ( 1 . 3 ) i s a d i s c u s s i o n o f f o r e s t r y , a g r i c u l t u r a l and a g r o f o r e s t r y development i n t h e South over t h e l a s t t w e n t y - f i v e y ea r s, p r o v i d i n g a background a g a i n s t which t o s et t h e s tudy as a whole. In S e c t i o n 1. 4, concepts such as a g r o f o r e s t r y , t r a d i t i o n a l e x t e n s i o n methods and p a r t i c i p a t o r y development p r a c t i c e s are i n t r o d u c e d . F i n a l l y , i n S e c t i o n s 1.5 and 1. 6, t h e r e i s a summary o f r e c e n t t r e n d s i n r u r a l development t h i n k i n g and a d i s c u s s i o n o f how i t i s hoped t h i s s t u d y , and t h e e x t e n s i o n t o o l t h a t i s developed from i t , w i l l add t o t h e r a p i d l y expanding debate among development p r o f e s s i o n a l s i n t h i s f i e l d . The c h a p t e r ends w i t h a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e t h e s i s i n S e c t i o n 1.7.
1.2 The aims o f t h e s t u d y
I n r e ce nt years t h e r e has been a growing a p p r e c i a t i o n o f t h e a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f i n d ig enous methods o f c u l t i v a t i o n , s e l e c t i o n o f v a r i e t i e s , and knowledge o f t h e l o c a l envi ronment f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l research and development ( Di xon, 1990; H a v e rk o rt e t a l . , 1991). Duri ng t h e past decade more p r o f e s s i o n a l s have begun t o see t he v a l u e o f documenting t he e x i s t i n g systems, and o f wo rk ing w i t h and t hro ugh t h e
Ch.1 A g r o f o r e s t r y & s u s t a i n a b l e development l o c a l systems t o improve upon them (Warren e t a l . , 1995). As a c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h i s theme, t h e key aim o f t h i s s t u d y i s t o document some o f t h e l o c a l e t h n o b o t a n i c a l knowledge o f woody s peci es and, us ing t h i s dat a, t o examine t h e farm f o r e s t r y , o r a g r o f o r e s t r y , p o t e n t i a l o f f o u r t r e e s peci es i n d ig e no us t o south e a s t e r n N i g e r i a and used w i t h i n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l f a r m i n g systems o f t h e area. The s pe ci e s s t u d i e d i n d e t a i l were s e l e c t e d i n c o n s u l t a t i o n w i t h f ar mer s f o r t h e development o f more s u s t a i n a b l e f a r m i n g systems. Emphasis i s pl aced not o n l y on i ndig enous t r e e and shrub s p e c i e s , but a l s o on t h e use o f p a r t i c i p a t o r y r esear ch methods i n o r d e r t o u t i l i s e f u l l y l o c a l knowledge and i n n o v a t i v e a b i l i t y . I t i s argued t h a t t h e methods f o r a g r o f o r e s t r y i n g e n e r a l , and community-based a g r o f o r e s t r y r esear ch i n p a r t i c u l a r , s houl d begin t o c o n s t i t u t e a r a d i c a l d e p a r t u r e from t r a d i t i o n a l agronomy, and even from many o f t h e f a r m i n g systems r esear ch methods t h a t have become e s t a b l i s h e d i n f ormal ' s c i e n t i f i c ' c i r c l e s (Rocheleau e t a l . , 1989).
Quest ions, r a t h e r than hypotheses, were used t o c r e a t e t he r esear ch framework because i t was f e l t t h a t t h i s would a l l o w t h e development o f a more i t e r a t i v e approach, a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e n a t u r e o f t h i s s tu dy w i t h i t s use, as f a r as p o s s i b l e , o f c ommuni t y-l ed r e se a r c h . An at t e m pt i s made t o address t h e f o l l o w i n g q u e s t i o n s :
i ) I s t h e r e a need f o r t h e i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f a g r i c u l t u r e due t o r e c en t changes i n l a n d- u se p a t t e r n s and an i n c r e a s e i n t h e f a r m i n g p o p u l a t i o n ? I s t h i s need p e r c e i v e d by t h e l o c a l people? Can t h e need be p a r t l y addressed by making use o f i n d ig e no us t r e e speci es?
14
Ch.1 A g r o f o r e s t r y & s u s t a i n a b l e development i i ) Can f a r m e r s ' e x i s t i n g knowledge about s e l e c t e d in di g en ou s t r e e s pe ci e s make a s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e m o d i f i c a t i o n o f f a r m i n g systems?
i i i ) I s g e r m i n a t i o n and e a r l y e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e s e l e c t e d sp ec i es easy enough t o enable t h e i r use a t v i l l a g e l e v e l ? I s g e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e s e l e c t e d s pec ies by f armer s a l r e a d y t a k i n g pl ace?
i v ) I s i t p o s s i b l e t o develop a framework t h a t can be used t o g ui d e an i n t e r a c t i v e development process between f armer s and e x t e n s i o n agents?
The two main v i l l a g e s were s e l e c t e d from d i f f e r e n t a g r o - e c o l o g i c a l zones w i t h i n t h e s t u d y area so t h a t comparisons and c o n t r a s t s c ou l d be made between f a r m in g methods and uses o f i n d ig enous m u l t i p u r p o s e t r e e s and shrubs (MPTS) found i n bot h. Data c on ce rn ing t h e use o f woody s pec ies i n f a r m i n g systems i n both areas were used i n c l o s e c o n s u l t a t i o n w i t h f a rm er s t o s e l e c t t h e f o u r t r e e or shrub s pec ies t o be s t u d i e d i n d e t a i l . Surveys were a l s o conducted a t l o c a l markets w i t h i n t h e s t ud y area i n o r d e r t o gauge t h e oc cur rence and market v a l u e o f some o f t h e p r o d u c t s from s e l e c t e d i n d ig enous MPTS s peci es and, f o r comparison, a sur vey was c a r r i e d out i n one v i l l a g e i n a n e i g h b o u r i n g S t a t e where t he p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y i s h i g h e r than i n Cross Ri v e r S t a t e .
The examinat ion o f t h e f o u r s e l e c t e d s p e ci e s , namely A l b i z i a z y g i a (DC.) J . F . M a c b r . , D i a l i u m guineense W i l l d . , Uvari a chamae P.Beauv. and Ri ci nodend ro n h e u d e l o t i i ( B a i l l . ) Heckel^, i n v o l v e d : d i s c u s s i o n s w i t h farmer s from t h e s t u d y v i l l a g e s ; p h e n o l o g i c a l and growth o b s e r v a t i o n s o f
1A11 t a x a r e c i e v e t h e i r f u l l n a m e n c l a t u r a l a u t h o r i t y on t h e i r f i r s t a p p e a r a n c e i n t h e t e x t , a n d i n A p p e n d i x A.
Ch.1 A g r o f o r e s t r y & s u s t a i n a b l e development s e l e c t e d t r e e s i n t h e f i e l d ; g e r m i n a t i o n and growth t r i a l s ; and, p a r t i c i p a t o r y methods o f d e v e l o p i n g a p p r o p r i a t e f a r m in g systems i n c o r p o r a t i n g t h e s e l e c t e d s p e c i e s .
The r e s u l t s from t h e s ur veys and g e r m i n a t i o n and growth t r i a l s were then used i n p a r t i c i p a t o r y meetings w i t h l o c a l people t o t r y and address some o f t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l problems e x pe ri enc ed i n t h e r e g i o n and o u t l i n e d d u r i n g t he q u e s t i o n n a i r e s ur v ey s . I n t h i s f i n a l s tage o f the s tudy a resear ch framework a p p r o p r i a t e f o r use by f ar mer s and l o c a l f o r e s t r y and a g r i c u l t u r a l o f f i c e r s w i t h i n t h e s t u d y area was a l s o developed. I t i s hoped t h a t t h i s framework, f o r m u l a t e d s p e c i f i c a l l y f o r south e a s t e r n N i g e r i a , can be used by c u r r e n t and f u t u r e f o r e s t r y and a g r i c u l t u r a l development and c o n s e r v a t i o n p r o j e c t s i n t h e r e g i o n .
1 . 3 Technology development and t r a n s f e r
For about t h e l a s t f i f t y y e a r s , Western p r o f e s s i o n a l s and t e c h n o l o g y have been t h e b a s i s o f many development programmes i n t h e South. T hi s t e c h n o l o g y and personnel t r a n s f e r has o c cu r r e d i n both t he i n d u s t r i a l and t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l s e c t o r s and l a r g e l y comprises machinery, c he m ic a l s, f i n a n c i a l r esour ces and t h e p r o v i s i o n o f f o r e i g n ' e x p e r t s ' , a l l o f which aim t o achi eve r a p i d economic gr owt h. Shaw (1987) s t a t e s t h a t t h i s t y p e o f approach r e p r e s e n t s a q u i c k t e c h n i c a l s o l u t i o n t o reduci ng t he ' g ap' between r i c h and poor c o u n t r i e s .
From t he mid-1970s, i n t e r n a t i o n a l a i d programmes began t o f ocus t h e i r a t t e n t i o n on r u r a l development r a t h e r than on urban-based i n d u s t r i a l development ( R i c h a r d s , 1985) w i t h a f ocus on t h e problem o f f e e d i n g r a p i d l y i n c r e a s i n g p o p u l a t i o n s (Conway & B a r b i e r , 1990). These p r o j e c t s
16
Ch.1 A g r o f o r e s t r y & s u s t a i n a b l e development were aimed a t small f a rm e r s, i n t h e form o f ' b i o l o g i c a l packages' , which
at tempt ed t o i n t r o d u c e s e d e n t a r y , i n t e n s i v e f a r m i n g systems so t h a t f a rm er s were a b l e t o get h i g h e r y i e l d s w i t h reduced or no f a l l o w p e r i o d s . Thi s was t o be achi eved by d e v e l o p i n g High Y i e l d i n g V a r i e t i e s (HYVs) and e a r l y r i p e n i n g s t r a i n s o f many s t a p l e c rops i n c l u d i n g r i c e , maize and cassava. In o r d e r f o r t he se crops t o t h r i v e on t he same land area over many seasons, c a r e f u l management and l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s o f chemical f e r t i l i z e r s and p e s t i c i d e s ar e r e q u i r e d . I n o t h e r cases t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f an e x o t i c cr op t o o k p l a c e , a s u c c e s s f u l example o f t h i s bei ng soybean which i s now c u l t i v a t e d i n n i n e A f r i c a n c o u n t r i e s (Shannon
& K a l a l a , 1994). The p r o j e c t s , known as I n t e g r a t e d A g r i c u l t u r a l ( o r R u r a l ) Development P r o j e c t s (IADPs o r IRDPs), g e n e r a l l y supply f armer s o f small p l o t s w i t h seed o r s e e d l i n g s , f e r t i l i z e r , c r e d i t t o purchase t h e i n p u t package and e x t e n s i o n a d v i c e . Many IRDPs a l s o at te mpt t o s o l v e some o f t h e b a s i c i n f r a s t r u c t u r e and w e l f a r e c o n s t r a i n t s i n t h e areas concerned ( R i c h a r d s , 1985).
I n 1960, t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Rice Research I n s t i t u t e ( I R RI ) was s et up a t Los Banos i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s ( Gl a e s e r , 1987). The f i r s t r e l e a s e o f HYV r i c e , IR 8, t o o k pl ac e i n 1966 and y i e l d s o f up t o 6,400 kg ha“ ^ were o b t a i n e d under i d e a l c o n d i t i o n s a t a t i me when t h e P h i l i p p i n e average was 1,300 kg ha“ ^. The success o f t h e newly developed s t r a i n s appeared l i m i t l e s s and by 1970 P ak is tan ceased t o be dependent on wheat i m po r t s from t he Un it ed S t a t e s , w h i l e o t h e r c o u n t r i e s , such as S r i Lanka and t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , achi eved r ec or d h a r v e s t s . Y i e l d s o f HYVs o f r i c e i n I n d i a ov er t he decade between 1968-78 averaged about t w i c e t h a t o f non-HYVs ( D al r ym pl e, 1986). In western Kenya, t h e K i t a l e h y b r i d s o f maize were adopted by a l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n o f f a rm er s i n two out o f t h r e e d i s t r i c t s (Bates & L o f c h i e , 1980). Per c a p i t a food p r o d u c t i o n i n t he South has
17
Ch.1 A g r o f o r e s t r y & s u s t a i n a b l e development r i s e n by 7% s i n c e t h e mid 1960s, w i t h an i n c r e a s e o f over 27% i n Asi a and o n l y i n A f r i c a has t h e r e been a d e c l i n e (Conway & B a r b i e r , 1990).
The i n i t i a l success o f t h e HYV s t r a i n s soon encountered problems, such as l i t t l e d i seas e r e s i s t a n c e , s e n s i t i v i t y t o env ir onment al and wa ter c o n d i t i o n s , and poor p r o t e i n c o n t e n t i n t h e g r a i n ( D al r ym pl e , 1986), and r e c e i v e d c r i t i c i s m due t o t h e r e l i a n c e on chemical i n p u t s and r e l i a b l e i r r i g a t i o n systems (Egger & G laese r, 1984). The i n t r o d u c t i o n and use o f HYVs a l so s u f f e r e d from problems o f e q u i t y . For example, resowing o f r i c e from t he har v es t ed g r a i n r e s u l t e d i n a r a p i d l o s s o f HYV q u a l i t i e s , and t h e r e f o r e t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n by s u b s i s t e n c e f a rmer s i n t h e 'Green R e v o l u t i o n ' was l i m i t e d ( Di xo n, 1990). Al th ough p r o gr e s s was made and o v e r a l l food p r o d u c t i o n was i n cr e a s e d i n some areas, t h i s d i d not seem t o be a bl e t o s o l v e , o r even keep pace w i t h , t h e enormous envi ronment al problems f a c i n g t h e p l a n e t (Leakey, 1994). D i f f i c u l t i e s were encountered i n s ev er a l areas w i t h t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n , and a d o p t i o n , o f high y i e l d i n g s t a p l e s . I n Ghana, f o r example, a survey conducted i n 1988 di sc ov er e d t h a t a l t h o ug h t en d i f f e r e n t s t r a i n s o f HYVs o f cassava had been developed by I I T A and i n t r o d u c e d t o t h e area, f armer s were r e t u r n i n g t o l o c a l v a r i e t i e s a f t e r one o r two seasons due t o t h e p a l a t a b i l i t y and cooki ng problems encount ered w i t h t h e new t y pe s ( I I T A conf er enc e, Cape Coast, Ghana, 1989). In south wester n N i g e r i a a do pt i on r a t e s o f improved cassava v a r i e t i e s were e x t r e m e l y v a r i a b l e , and t h i s has been p a r t i a l l y e x p l a i n e d by Poison and Spencer (1991) as bei ng due t o soci o-economi c and demographic f a c t o r s not accounted f o r d u r i n g e xt e n s i o n programmes.
A t t e (1989) s t a t e s t h a t c o n d i t i o n s o f r u r a l people have o f t e n worsened as a l i e n r u r a l development s t r a t e g i e s impor ted from t h e North have
18
Ch.1 A g r o f o r e s t r y & s u s t a i n a b l e development f a i l e d t o f i t i n t o t h e l o c a l e nvi r onment . World Bank A f r i c a n l i v e s t o c k p r o j e c t s reviewed i n 1985 had n e g a t i v e economic r e t u r n s av er ag ing minus 2%, a g a i n s t an average gai n o f 11% f o r t h e r e g i o n s not i n v o l v e d i n t h e p r o j e c t s ( H a r r i s o n , 1987). Conway and B a r b i e r (1990) p o i n t t o growi ng evi dence o f d i m i n i s h i n g r e t u r n s f rom i n t e n s i v e p r o d u c t i o n w i t h HYVs.
Where t e c h n o l o g i e s have been imposed and have f a i l e d t o improve t h e s i t u a t i o n o f t h e r u r a l peo p le , i t has become e v i d e n t t h a t i n t r o d u c e d f a r m i n g methods are o f t e n n e i t h e r e c o n o m i c a l l y nor e c o l o g i c a l l y s u s t a i n a b l e and ar e t h e r e f o r e o n l y a s h o r t - t e r m answer t o t he problem o f s u s t a i n a b l e a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n . P a r t i c u l a r l y i n a g r i c u l t u r e , t h e c om bi n at i on o f massive e x t e r n a l i n p u t s o f c o s t l y f e r t i l i z e r s , h e r b i c i d e s , f u n g i c i d e s and p e s t i c i d e s has not o n l y been unable t o m a i n t a i n adequate p r o d u c t i o n l e v e l s , but has c r e a t e d an a l a r m i n g s i t u a t i o n o f n e a r - b a n k r u p t c y and p o l l u t i o n i n both t h e economic and e c o l o g i c a l s e c t o r s o f d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s ( S I i k k e r v e e r , 1995). F u j i s a k a (1994) s t a t e s t h a t s i x reasons why f a rmer s i n sout h east As ia do not adopt i n n o v a t i o n s in t en d ed t o improve t h e s u s t a i n a b i l i t y o f upl and a g r i c u l t u r e ar e t h a t t h e i n n o v a t i o n addresses t h e wrong problem; f a r m er p r a c t i c e i s equal t o or b e t t e r than t h e i n n o v a t i o n ; t h e i n n o v a t i o n does not work; e x t e n s i o n f a i l s ; t h e i n n o v a t i o n i s t o o c o s t l y ; and s o c i a l f a c t o r s , such as i n s e c u r e t e n u r e o f l a n d . I n c o n t r a s t , t he f a i l u r e o f many such p r o j e c t s has, i n t h e p a s t , f r e q u e n t l y been blamed on t h e f armer s themselves who have come t o be known as ' c o n s e r v a t i v e ' and ' u n w i l l i n g ' t o adopt new t e c h n i q u e s , seeds, f e r t i l i z e r s and p e s t i c i d e s . In an example f rom Peru, where f ar mer s were gi ven a much h i g h e r y i e l d i n g maize than t h e l o c a l v a r i e t y , a f t e r good uptake o f t h e seed i n t h e f i r s t y e a r , f armer s went back t o p l a n t i n g l ower y i e l d i n g l o c a l v a r i e t i e s i n f o l l o w i n g y ea r s. When t h e f armer s were asked why t h i s had o c cu r r e d i t was p o i n t e d out t h a t , a l th o u g h t h e r e were el even t r a d i t i o n a l ways o f
19
Ch.1 A g r o f o r e s t r y & s u s t a i n a b l e development cooki ng maize i n t h e area, t h e r e was not one method s u i t a b l e f o r t h e new v a r i e t y which was v e r y hard ( A t t e , p e r s . c o m . , 1993). In many cases, crops have v i t a l secondary f u n c t i o n s which are i g n or e d d u r i n g HYV development. Ti m be r l ak e (1988) g i v e s an example from E t h i o p i a where peasants were o f f e r e d a sorghum which matured i n t h r e e months, but t h e y would not p l a n t i t . I n t h e h i g h l a n d s , f armer s use sorghum s t a l k s as a r o o f i n g m a t e r i a l , and both t h e l eaves and s t a l k s as f o d de r f o r l i v e s t o c k . The f a s t - g r o w i n g sorghum d i d not have t h e r i g h t k i n d o f s t a l k s and l e a v es .
The high f r e q u e n c y o f i n t r o d u c t i o n o f i n a p p r o p r i a t e a g r i c u l t u r a l packages (Osborn, 1995) can be argued t o be l a r g e l y due t o t h e r es ea r ch and development bei ng c o n t r o l l e d al most e n t i r e l y by o u t s i d e r s . H a v e r k o r t e t a 7. (1991) argue t h a t i n many cases, agencies which were e s t a b l i s h e d t o s up p or t a g r i c u l t u r a l t e c h n o l o g y development have t r i e d t o t a k e t h i s a c t i v i t y away f rom t h e l o c a l people and reduce f a rmer s t o s i m p l e ado pt ers o f t e c h n o l o g i e s developed by o t h e r s . Local people were r a r e l y asked t o d e f i n e t h e i r problems, and l i t t l e a t te mp t was made t o d i s c o v e r how t h e i n d i g e n e s themselves were t r y i n g t o a l l e v i a t e t hese problems.
,r. . . t h e r u r a l people are o b j e c t s t o be s t u d i e d , not c o n s u l t e d . They ar e t a r g e t s f o r t h e o u t s i d e r s ' ideas and i n i t i a t i v e s ; persons t o be mani pul at ed i n accordance w i t h t h e i r
b e n e f a c t o r s ' views o f what i s best f o r them, not what i s best t o t h e m s e l v e s . "
(Hatch, 1976:6) In 1986, Chambers suggested t h a t t h i s problem i s caused by t h e dominance o f what he terms 'normal p r o f e s s i o n a l i s m 1, where t h e t h i n k i n g , v a l u e s , methods, and b e h a v i o u r i n a p r o f e s s i o n o r d i s c i p l i n e are s t a b l e o r c o n s e r v a t i v e . T h i s i s l i n k e d w i t h c o r e - p e r i p h e r y s t r u c t u r e s o f power and knowledge, r eproduced t h r o u gh t e a c h i n g and defended by s p e c i a l i s a t i o n . The maintenance o f t h i s s t r u c t u r e i s e v i d e n t i n t h e T r a i n i n g and V i s i t
Ch.1 A g r o f o r e s t r y & s u s t a i n a b l e development System, pi o neered i n t h e 1970s by t h e World Bank (Adams, 1982), and adopted by t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l e x t e n s i o n departments o f many d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s . In t h i s system, e x t e n s i o n agents r e c e i v e f o r t n i g h t l y t r a i n i n g i n which t h e y are t a u g h t a new t e c h n i q u e or idea t o extend t o t h e farmer s i n t h e f o l l o w i n g two weeks. D e ci s i o n s about what s k i l l s are t a u g h t are g e n e r a l l y taken by s e n i o r o f f i c i a l s , and e x t e n s i o n agents merely act as a l i n k i n t h e c ha i n moving i deas from t h e t o p t o t h e v i l l a g e s , r a t h e r than r esponding t o f a r m e r s ' problems. The t r a i t s common t o such development i n i t i a t i v e s were d e s c r i b e d by Hatch ( 1 9 7 6 : 7 ) :
"The development p r o f e s s i o n s u f f e r s from an entrenched
s u p e r i o r i t y complex w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e small s c al e f a r m e r . We b e l i e v e t h a t our modern t e c h n o l o g y i s i n f i n i t e l y s u p e r i o r t o h i s . We conduct our r esear ch and a s s i s t a n c e e f f o r t s as i f we know e v e r y t h i n g and our c l i e n t s n o t h i n g . "
In c o n t r a s t Chambers d e s c r i b e s 'new p r o f e s s i o n a l i s m ' as r e v e r s i n g t h e v al u es , r esear ch methods, r o l e s and power r e l a t i o n s o f ' n o r m a l ' p r o f e s s i o n a l i s m . I t uses t h e ' l a s t - f i r s t ' paradigm which i n c l u d e s l e a r n i n g from t h e poo r, d e c e n t r a l i s a t i o n , empowerment, l o c a l i n i t i a t i v e and d i v e r s i t y . The c o n t r a s t s between ' n o r m a l ' and 'new' p r o f e s s i o n a l i s m are o u t l i n e d i n Table 1. 1.
Al though i t i s an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f human-environment i n t e r a c t i o n , much w r i t i n g on s u s t a i n a b l e development i s c u r i o u s l y devoid o f p o l i t i c s ( B r y a n t , 1991). Chambers (1991) has at tempt ed i n p a r t t o address t h i s s h o r t f a l l by emphasising t h e dominance o f t he e l i t e i n t h e ' n o r m a l ' p r o f e s s i o n a l s t r u c t u r e o f government and development agenci es, and t h e s i m p l i f i e d ' br oad b r u s h ' approaches which g e n e r a l l y emerge from them.
J u s t because a s t a t e o r agency has access t o f a c t s and i s o v e r t l y s e n s i t i v e t o development and e c o l o g i c a l i s s u e s , i t does not
21
Ch.1 A g r o f o r e s t r y & s u s t a i n a b l e development a u t o m a t i c a l l y f o l l o w t h a t i t s development p o l i c i e s and programmes w i l l a c t t o make best use o f t h e i n f o r m a t i o n ( B r y a n t , 1991), e s p e c i a l l y i f such a c t i o n s t h r e a t e n t h e s t a t u s quo o f i t s w i d e r , o f t e n s e l f p r e s e r v a t i o n i s t , p o l i c i e s . Thus, u n t i l i t i s t h e r u r a l people themselves who are a b l e t o d e v i s e and implement t h e i r own development p r o j e c t s , w i t h i n a framework o f 'new' p r o f e s s i o n a l i s m , t h e l e v e l o f success o f such p r o j e c t s i s u n l i k e l y t o improve.
Table 1.1 P r e f e r r e d resear ch approaches and methods ( A f t e r Chambers, 1986).
Normal, c or e New, p e r i p h e r a l
o r f i r s t o r l a s t
b a s i c l o g i c r e d u c t i oni s t h o i i s t i c l e a r n i n g mode dat a col l e c t i o n
' o b j e c t i v e ' a n a l y s i s
g a i n i n g exp e ri e nc e ' s u b j e c t i v e ' judgement i n f o r m a t i o n
accepted and a d m i t t e d
' h a r d ' , q u a n t i f i e d , p r e c i s e , v i s i b l e
' s o f t ' , q u a l i t a t i v e , i m p r e c i s e , i n v i s i b l e
methods used p r e c i s e measurement, f ormal sur veys, f ormal q u e s t i o n n a i r e s
v i s u a l assessment, RRAs, semi-
s t r u c t u r e d i n t e r v i e w s e x pe ri me nt al
c o n d i t i o n s
few v a r i a b l e s
c o n t r o l l e d l a b o r a t o r y c o n d i t i o n s , h o l d i n g much c o n s t a n t
many v a r i a b l e s u n c o n t r o l l e d , r e a l c o n d i t i o n s a l l o w i n g much t o v a r y
l o c a t i o n o n - s t a t i o n , i n - 1 a b o r a t o r y , i n - o f f i ce
i n f i e l d
p r i o r i t i e s det er mi ned by
p r o f e s s i onal s u s e r - c l i ent s
e v a l u a t i o n by peers, r esearch sponsors
u s e r - c l i ent s
Ch.1 A g r o f o r e s t r y & s u s t a i n a b l e development Development pr ocesses i n i t i a t e d by e x t e r n a l agencies o f t e n s t a g n a t e or even c o l l a p s e a f t e r t h e d e p a r t u r e o f t h e e x t e n s i o n agent. I t i s t h e r e f o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a t emphasis i s p l ac ed , not on t e c h n o l o g y t r a n s f e r , bu t on g u a r a n t e e i n g a l e v e l o f s k i l l i n t h e t a r g e t group which w i l l be ab l e t o i d e n t i f y problems i n t h e f u t u r e and f i n d a p p r o p r i a t e s o l u t i o n s (Ho, 1992). Rhoades (1988) argues t h a t a g r i c u l t u r a l r e s e ar c h e r s should not r e j e c t p r e v i o u s r esearch and development methods w i t h t h e advent o f new ones, but s houl d use t h e past ex pe r ie nc e t o gai n a deeper u n d e r s t a n d i n g and more comprehensive view o f a g r i c u l t u r a l r esearch as a whole, e n a b l i n g them t o develop approaches a p p r o p r i a t e t o each s o c i o economic and e nv i ro nm ent al s i t u a t i o n .
1 . 4 A g r o f o r e s t r y
At t emp ts t o d e f i n e and g i v e meaning t o t h e concept o f a g r o f o r e s t r y s t a r t e d between 1977 and 1979, and Combe and Budowski (1979) noted t h e i mpor tance o f t h e i n c l u s i o n o f t h e t r e e element i n any d e f i n i t i o n . T hi s was assumed, i n many cases, t o be t i m b e r , o r some o t h e r f o r e s t r y use, but l a t e r t h e t erm 'woody p e r e n n i a l ' was i n t r o d u c e d by Lundgren and R a i n t r e e (1982) t o remedy t h i s . Sombarriba (1992) p r e s e n t s an a n a l y s i s o f many o f t h e o t h e r d e f i n i t i o n s o f a g r o f o r e s t r y t h a t have been at tempt ed ( K in g , 1979; Huxley, 1983; N a i r , 1985). A common d e f i n i t i o n o f a g r o f o r e s t r y , now w i d e l y accepted and used by t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Counci l f o r Research i n A g r o f o r e s t r y (ICRAF) i n Kenya, i s :
" A g r o f o r e s t r y i s a c o l l e c t i v e name f o r l a n d- u s e systems and t e c h n o l o g i e s where woody p e r e n n i a l s ( t r e e s , shr ubs, palms,
bamboos, e t c . ) are d e l i b e r a t e l y used on t h e same 1and-management u n i t s as a g r i c u l t u r a l cr ops a n d / o r a ni ma l s, i n some form o f
s p a t i a l arrangement or temporal sequence. In a g r o f o r e s t r y systems t h e r e are both e c o l o g i c a l and economical i n t e r a c t i o n s between t h e d i f f e r e n t components."
(Lundgren & R a i n t r e e , 1982:39)
23
Ch.1 A g r o f o r e s t r y & s u s t a i n a b l e development A g r o f o r e s t r y , t h e r e f o r e , uses woody p e r e n n i a l s w i t h i n f a r m i n g systems t o enable them t o be more p r o d u c t i v e and s u s t a i n a b l e . E c o l o g i c a l s u s t a i n a b i l i t y i s achieved by a c a r e f u l l y planned r o t a t i o n o f c r op s and t h e use o f f o l i a g e from t h e t r e e s o r shrubs as mulch and green manure.
The mulch he l ps t o r e t a i n s o i l m o i s t u r e and pr ev en t s o i l e r o s i o n , and t h e green manure aims t o add humus and n u t r i e n t s t o t h e s o i l . N i t r o g e n - f i x i n g t r e e s o r c r o p s , which are a b l e t o f i x a t mo spher ic n i t r o g e n and make i t a v a i l a b l e f o r use by p l a n t s , can a l s o be used w i t h i n t h e system.
Economic s u s t a i n a b i l i t y i s achi eved due t o t h e reduced need f o r expensive chemical i n p u t s once t h e a g r o f o r e s t r y system i s e s t a b l i s h e d . The t r e e s o r shrubs i n an a g r o f o r e s t r y system can a l s o be p r e s e n t f o r o t h e r reasons such as t he p r o d u c t i o n o f f r u i t o r f uel wood , or t o p r o v i d e shade f o r g r a z i n g ani ma ls . A g r o f o r e s t r y i s t h e r e f o r e a range o f o p t i o n s and t h e s e l e c t i o n o f a p a r t i c u l a r s e t o f o p t i o n s r e f l e c t s a range o f reasons f o r a d o p t i n g or d e v e l o p i n g t h e systems.
In h i s d i s c u s s i o n o f ' n o r m a l ' and 'new' p r o f e s s i o n a l i s m , Chambers (1986) uses a g r o f o r e s t r y as an example o f a d i s c i p l i n e which can f i t i n t o t h e new p r o f e s s i o n a l o u t l o o k . A g r o f o r e s t r y i s a major component i n t h e f a rm i n g systems o f hundreds o f m i l l i o n s o f poor f a rm e r s , but which t h e normal p r o f e s s i o n s f i n d d i f f i c u l t t o i n c l u d e i n any s i n g l e d i s c i p l i n e . P r o f e s s i o n a l f o r e s t r y i s concerned w i t h t r e e s i n f o r e s t s , a g r i c u l t u r a l sc ie n ce s w i t h c r o p s , and animal s ci e nc es w i t h a ni ma ls . In most c o u n t r i e s f o r e s t r y and a g r i c u l t u r e are s t i l l housed i n s epa ra te m i n i s t r i e s or depar tment s, which n a t u r a l l y c r e a t e s b a r r i e r s t o communication and co
o p e r a t i o n (Budleman, 1991). A g r o f o r e s t r y i s o f t e n seen as a low s t a t u s a c t i v i t y , t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f a j u n i o r f o r e s t e r i s o l a t e d i n a M i n i s t r y o f A g r i c u l t u r e , o r o f a j u n i o r a g r i c u l t u r a l s c i e n t i s t i n a M i n i s t r y o f F o r e s t s , or o f no one a t a l l (Chambers, 1986). In t h e Annual Reports o f
Ch.1 A g r o f o r e s t r y & s u s t a i n a b l e development t h e Cross R i v e r S t a t e F o r e s t r y D i v i s i o n from 1988 - 1992, f o r example, t h e r e i s no mention made o f any a g r o f o r e s t r y a c t i v i t i e s .
1. 4.1 Development o f a g r o f o r e s t r y
The low p r o f e s s i o n a l s t a t u s o f a g r o f o r e s t r y was indeed t h e case i n 1986, but i t can now be argued t h a t t h e d i s c i p l i n e i s s t e a d i l y t a k i n g on a l l t h e t r a i t s o f ' n o r m a l ' p r o f e s s i o n a l i s m w i t h t h e development o f resear ch c e n t r e s , common methodol ogi es and t e c h n i q u e s , t he use o f a few e x o t i c t r e e speci es and t h e acceptance o f a g r o f o r e s t r y as a s ci ence i n i t s own r i g h t . Work began on f o r m a l , i n s t i t u t i o n a l i s e d a g r o f o r e s t r y development i n t h e l a t e 1970s, and r esear ch c e n t r e s were s et up i n many r e g i o n s o f t h e w o r l d . I n N a i r o b i , Kenya, ICRAF was e s t a b l i s h e d and much o f t h e e a r l y s c i e n t i f i c research i n t o a g r o f o r e s t r y systems t o o k pl ac e t h e r e . A g r o f o r e s t r y resear ch programmes were a l s o i n i t i a t e d at Centro Agronomico T r o p i c a l de I n v e s t i g a c i o n y Ensenanza (CATIE) i n Costa Rica and at the I n t e r n a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e o f T r o p i c a l A g r i c u l t u r e ( I I T A ) i n Ibadan, N i g e r i a . Va r io us systems were developed us ing a number o f mai nl y e x o t i c t r e e and shrub s p e c i e s . The most common o f t hese was a l l e y f a r m i n g , where t h e woody components, known as m u l t i - p u r p o s e t r e e s and shrubs (MPTS), are grown i n t he form o f hedges, and crops are p l a n t e d i n t h e a l l e y s formed between t h e hedges. The p r un i n g s from t h e hedges are used as mulch/ green manure and i n some cases a l s o p r o v i d e s m a l l - s i z e d f uelwood and some f o d d e r . The o r i g i n and concept o f a l l e y c r o p p i n g are d es c r i b e d by Kang and Wil son (1987 ). Examples o f MPTS spec ies used i n t h e development o f these systems ar e Cajanus c aj a n ( L . ) Mi l i s p . , G 1 i r i c i d i a sepium ( J a c q . ) Wal p. , Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) De W i t , and Sesbania g r a n d i f l o r a ( L . ) Pers. (Rachi e, 1983; Ngambeki, 1985 and
Ch.1 A g r o f o r e s t r y & s u s t a i n a b l e development Duguma e t a 7., 1988; Palada e t a l . , 1992; Karim e t a / . , 1993; Lar bi e t a / . , 1993).
A - A g r o s i 1v o p a s t o r a l systems B - Si 1v o p a s t o r a l systems C - A g r i s i 1v i c u l t u r a l systems D - Other a g r o f o r e s t r y systems
F i g u r e 1.1 The c om b i n a t i o n s o f d i f f e r e n t components which are t h e b as i s o f t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f a g r o f o r e s t r y systems.
Other t ypes o f a g r o f o r e s t r y system were a l s o developed which emphasise d i f f e r e n t aspects o f p r o d u c t i o n and use d i f f e r e n t components and management t e c h n i q u e s . The v a r i o u s a g r o f o r e s t r y systems can be s eparated i n t o groups e n t i t l e d a g r o s i 1v o p a s t o r a l systems, s i 1v o p a s t o r a l systems, a g r i s i 1v i c u l t u r a l systems, and o t h e r s , such as t h e c ombi nat i on o f a q u a c u l t u r e w i t h MPTS. The d i s t r i b u t i o n o f components w i t h i n these groups o f a g r o f o r e s t r y systems i s shown i n F i g ur e 1 . 1. Each o f these groups have t h e same components i n common w i t h i n t h e group, but t h e r e
2 6
Ch.1 A g r o f o r e s t r y & s u s t a i n a b l e development ar e many d i f f e r e n t management systems and c r o p /M P TS / 1i v e st o ck c ombi nat i ons which form s p e c i f i c examples o f each t y p e o f system.
A g r o s i 1v o p a s t o r a l systems a r e t h o s e i n which MPTS, c rops and l i v e s t o c k are combined. Oft en i n t h es e systems t h e MPTS and c rops are grown t o g e t h e r on t h e same land area and t h e l i v e s t o c k ar e kept i n pens or s t a l l s and f e d w i t h f o d d e r f rom t h e hedgerows o r bou ndar ies i n a ' c u t and c a r r y 1 system (Jabbar e t a h , 1992). The l i v e s t o c k may a l s o be l e t i n t o t h e f i e l d a f t e r t h e c rops have been h a r v es t e d t o graze on t h e cr op r e s id u e s and f e r t i l i z e t h e s o i l w i t h t h e i r manure as shown i n a system developed f o r Amazonian small f a rm er s ( L o k e r , 1994).
Si 1v o p a s t o r a l systems combine MPTS and l i v e s t o c k i n t h e same land management u n i t . T h i s i s o f t e n achi eved by growing t r e e s which produce a cr op such as coconuts ( Cocos n u c i f e r a L . ) o r o i l palm k e r n e l s ( E l a e i s g u i n e e n s i s J a c q . ) , w h i l e g r a z i n g l i v e s t o c k underneath o r between them.
I n B r a z i l work has been c a r r i e d o u t which i n d i c a t e s t h a t g r a z i n g c a t t l e and sheep i n e u c a l y p t p l a n t a t i o n s can h e l p c o n t r o l grass c o m p e t i t i o n and reduce stand e s t a b l i s h m e n t c o s t s w i t h o u t a f f e c t i n g e u c a l y p t s u r v i v a l and growth (Couto e t a h , 1994). An other example o f si 1 v o p a s t o r a l i s m i s t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f f uelwood by growi ng t r e e s on rangel and o r p a s t u r e areas.
A g r i s i I v i c u l t u r a l systems combine MPTS and c r op s. The most common, and t h e r e f o r e t h e most h i g h l y developed example, i s a l l e y c r o p p i n g as d e sc r i b ed above and many examples e x i s t (eg. Ruhigwa e t a h , 1994;
Schrot h e t a h , 1995). However, MPTS can be combined w i t h crops i n o t h e r ways, as when p l a n t e d as a boundary, which a l s o produces mulch, green manure a n d / o r f r u i t , or when p l a n t e d w i t h i n t h e f i e l d a t random f o r
