CUSTOMARY LAW AID ADMINISTRATION OR
JUSTICE IN MALAWI l&HO - /? 3 ^
BY
E m ily Nyamazao MA1IWA
T h e s i s s u b m it te d f o r t h e D egree o f
M. PHIL*
LOEDOh UNIVERSITY, 1 9 6 5 .
ProQuest N um ber: 10731241
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CONTENTS
Customary law and th e A d m i n is t r a t i o n o f J u s t i c e i n Malawi 1890 - 1 9 3 3 .
Page
A b s t r a c t 1
P r e f a c e 4
PART I
C h ap ter One
haw o f P e r s o n s 13
Male A d u lt 13
Women 17
I n f a n t s 25
A l i e n s 32
S l a v e s - 34
L u n a t i c s 45
C h ap ter Two
The Law and C l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f Wrongs 47
Crim es 54
B u r g la r y 61
D runkenness 63
C a ses r e l a t i n g t o women 64
A d u lt e r y 64
O ther Crimes 69
P r o p e r ty law 71
C h ap ter Three
i ■■'ii i r 11 i i ii ---
P a m ily haw M a r r ia g e , D iv o r c e and I n h e r i t a n c e 78
O ther Porms o f M arriage 82
B r id e p r i c e 91
Polygamy 92
Widowhood 98
P o s i t i o n o f w iv e s 101
M arriage w ith s l a v e s 102
D iv o r c e 103
A d u lt e r y 104
P r o p e r ty a f t e r d i v o r c e 105
The p o s i t i o n o f c h i l d r e n a f t e r d i v o r c e 106
PAGE
I n h e r i t a n c e and S u c c e s s i o n 108
O hapter Pour
C ourts VIS 112
C o m p o s itio n o f C ou rts 116
The C h i e f 120
The V i l l a g e Headman 128
P ro ced u re 132
Mwavi T r i a l 134
D i v i n e r 137
W i t c h c r a f t 139
C rim in al c a s e s 141
A p p e a ls 147
S a n c t i o n s . . 149
PART I I C hapter P i v e
E s t a b lis h m e n t o f C o u rts o f J u s t i c e i n Malawi 151 D i s t r i c t ( N a t i v e ) A d m i n i s t r a t i o n 0 r d in a n c e ,1 9 1 2 181 The D i s t r i c t ( N a t i v e ) A d m i n i s t r a t i o n
O r d in a n ce , 1924 190
The d u t i e s o f P r i n c i p a l Headman 193 (a ) The N a t i v e A u t h o r it y O rd in an ce, 1933 201
(b) The N a t i v e C ou rts O rdinance, 1933 215
The P o s i t i o n o f H e r e d i t a i y C h ie f u n d er
V a r io u s O rd in an ces 228
C hapter S i x
The Law o f P e r s o n s 251
The R o le o f Male A d u lt 251
Women 273
I n f a n t s 278
A l i e n s 282
Lunat i c s 284
P r o p e r ty o f t h e l u n a t i c s 292
C h ap ter S ev en
C o u rts o f A ppeal 293
D i s t r i c t N a t i v e Court o f A p p eal 298
D i s t r i c t Court o f Appeal 299
The High Court o f N y a sa la n d 308
g a g e The Supreme Court o f Appeal f o r
H y a sa la n d a t Gape C olony 303
The E a st A f r ic a n Gourt of A ppeal 306
Powers o f C o u rts o f Appeal t o c a l l A s s e s s o r s . 309 The High Court P r a c t i c e and P ro c ed u r e
O r d in a n ce , 1906 312
O ther C ou rts o f A ppeal 314
C h ap ter E ig h t
i
Hew O f f e n c e s 315
T r i a l by Mwavi 315
O rd in a n ces t o r e g u l a t e th e I n t o x i c a t i n g Liquor. 323
R u le s r e g a r d in g h u n tin g 326
S e d i t i o u s p u b l i c a t i o n s 328
E p ilo g u e % 333
A b b r e v i a t i o n s 346
S o u r c e s 347
I n t e r v i e w s 355
ABSTRACT
The q u e s t i o n o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f j u s t i c e was one o f t h e p r o b l e m s f a c i n g t h e B r i t i s h A d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n Malawi d u r i n g i t s e a r l y d a y s , t h e r e a s o n s b e i n g t h a t t h e r e were many s o c i a l g r o u p s i n t h e c o u n t r y e a c h h a v i n g i t s
own d i f f e r e n t code o f l a w . To b r i n g t h e s e v a r i o u s s o c i a l g r o u p s u n d e r one a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , and t o h av e t h e i r laws a d m i n i s t e r e d by B r i t i s h o f f i c e r s a s t h e o n l y m a c h i n e r y o f j u s t i c e , i t was n e c e s s a r y t o e s t a b l i s h one c o m p r e h e n s i v e s y s t e m o f l a w .
I t i s t o be e x p e c t e d t h a t w i t h t h e a d v e n t o f a new and a l i e n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , a c o n f l i c t o f laws b e tw e e n t h o s e b r o u g h t i n by t h e new a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and t h o s e t h a t were i n d i g e n o u s s h o u l d o c c u r . T h i s s t u d y s e e k s t o examine t h e s e c o n f l i c t s o
P a r t I o f t h i s work t r i e s t o examine t h e numerous -codes o f law p r a c t i s e d by v a r i o u s s o c i a l g r o u p s o f Malawi
a t t h e t i m e o f t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of B r i t i s h r u l e .
P a r t I I w i l l a t t e m p t t o examine why and how some o f t h e s e e x i s t i n g laws were a b o l i s h e d or m o d i f i e d by t h e o r d i n a n c e s p a s s e d by t h e B r i t i s h a d m i n i s t r a t i o n .
The f a c t t h a t c e r t a i n c u s t o m a r y la w s w e re a b o l i s h e d o r m o d i f i e d l e d t o t h e c r e a t i o n o f new o f f e n c e s su c h a s t h e la w s r e g a r d i n g h u n t i n g , w h ic h , b e f o r e t h e B r i t i s h came, was a s o u r c e o f p l e a s u r e a s w e l l a s s u s t e n a n c e f o r t h e p e o p l e ,
b u t w h ic h now, u n d e r t h e new r u l e , was made i l l e g a l .
S e c t i o n 20 o f t h e B r i t i s h C e n t r a l A f r i c a O rde r i n C o u n c i l 1902 l a i d down t h a t n a t i v e law and custom were to be a d h e r e d t o , i f and when r e q u i r e d , u n l e s s r e p u g n a n t t o j u s t i c e and m o r a l i t y . The s t a n d a r d s of j u s t i c e and m o r a l i t y ,
h o w e v e r, i n t h e s e c a s e s , w ere n o t t h o s e o f t h e p e o p l e o f M a la w i, b u t t h o s e o f t h e E n g l i s h . An a p p a r e n t c o n f l i c t
a r i s i n g f r o m t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f such s t a n d a r d s o f j u s t i c e and m o r a l i t y was s e e n i n t h e c a s e s o f a d u l t e r y , mwavi t r i a l s and m a r r i a g e s , as u n d e r s t o o d by t h e A f r i c a n p e o p l e .
I11 o r d e r t o e f f e c t m o d i f i c a t i o n s i n t h e p r a c t i c e o f c u s t o m a r y l a w , t h e B r i t i s h a d m i n i s t r a t i o n r e q u i r e d an a u t h o r i t y from Her M a j e s t y ’ s G overnm ent. The a u t h o r i t y t o i n t r o d u c e such a s y s t e m was c o n t a i n e d I n t h e A f r i c a O rder i n C o u n c i l o f 1889, which a u t h o r i s e d t h a t t h e Common Law, S t a t u t e s and r u l e s o f e q u i t y e n f o r c e d i n E n g la n d w ere t o be a p p l i e d i n t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f B r i t i s h and B r i t i s h
p r o t e c t e d s u b j e c t s . The 1893 A f r i c a O rd e r i n C o u n c i l a u t h o r i s e d t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f Malawi by B r i t i s h o f f i c e r s .
The m a c h i n e r y t o p u t i n t o e f f e c t su ch a s y s t e m was g r a d u a l l y d e v e l o p e d . F i r s t were t h e C o n s u l a r and C o l
l e c t o r ’ s C o u r t s 'which were e s t a b l i s h e d i n many d i s t r i c t s o f t h e p r o t e c t o r a t e . They were t o p r e s i d e o v e r c a s e s w here E u r o p e a n s and A s i a n s o n l y were p a r t i e s or w here a E u ro p e an and an A f r i c a n were i n v o l v e d i n any d i s p u t e . Powers o f
3*
C o n s u l a r s a n d C o l l e c t o r s a s j u d i c i a l o f f i c e r s w e re e x t e n d e d t o d e a l w i t h c a s e s where A f r i c a n s o n l y were p a r t i e s .
D u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d , t h a t i s , 1$90~1902, when C o l l e c t o r s and C o n s u l a r C o u r t s were a b o l i s h e d , h e r e d i t a r y c h i e f s were e n c o u r a g e d t o t r y m in o r c a ses,,
A f u r t h e r a t t e m p t t o s y s t e m a t i z e t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of j u s t i c e and t h a t o f l o c a l g o v e r n m e n t was b r o u g h t a b o u t i n 19 1 2 , when G o v e r n o r W i l l i a m Manning, t h e G o v ern o r o f N y a s a l a n d , p r o p o s e d t o t h e C o l o n i a l O f f i c e t o p u t i n t o e f f e c t a s y s t e m o f P r i n c i p a l Headmanship, t h e r e b y i n d i r e c t l y r e s u l t i n g i n t h e r e p l a c e m e n t o f h e r e d i t a r y c h i e f s , a s t h e
Governor h a d power t o a p p o i n t any p e r s o n o r c h i e f t o a c t as t h e P r i n c i p a l Headman. T h i s i s d e a l t w i t h i n P a r t I I .
4 1 ®
PREFACE
As t h e main o b j e c t o f t h i s work i s t o d e a l w i t h two s y s t e m s o f l a w s , i t h a s , f o r t h e s a k e o f c o n v e n i e n c e , been d i v i d e d i n t o two p a r t s ; P a r t I d e a l s w i t h M alaw i*s
c u s t o m a r y la w and P a r t I I d e a l s w i t h t h e e f f e c t o f E n g l i s h la w on t h e form e r* O r d i n a n c e s were p a s s e d t o a b o l i s h o r m o d if y t h e c u s to m a ry laws* Hence, P a r t I d e a l s e n t i r e l y w i t h t h e c u s t o m a r y la w s as t h e y were b e f o r e t h e e s t a b l i s h ™ ment o f B r i t i s h R u l e i n M a l a w i „ Due t o l a c k o f w r i t t e n e v i d e n c e by A f r i c a n p e o p l e on t h e n a t u r e o f t h e i r law s and c u s t o m s , i t h a s bee n found n e c e s s a r y t o s u p p le m e n t t h i s d e f i c i e n c y w i t h i n t e r v i e w s w i t h e l d e r l y Malawi p e o p l e who h a v e v i s i t e d E n g la n d s i n c e t h i s work was s t a r t e d , e s p e c i a l l y a f t e r I n d e p e n d e n c e o f Malawi i n 1964 when more A f r i c a n s h a v e been t o London on o f f i c i a l v i s i t s 0 Among t h e s e p e o p l e were t h e c h i e f s whose o p i n i o n s and kn o w led g e h av e b e e n p u t t o c o n s t r u c t i v e u s e .
I h a v e been c a r e f u l i n my i n t e r v i e w s t o s e l e c t p e o p l e who were i n Malawi d u r i n g a t l e a s t t h e l a t t e r p a r t
o f t h e p e r i o d o f t h i s w o rk , t h a t i s d u r i n g t h e 1920*3 and 1930*s . T h i s s e l e c t i o n was made b e a r i n g i n mind t h a t t h e y were i n c l o s e c o n t a c t w i t h t h o s e who were d i r e c t l y c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e c h i e f s who d e a l t w i t h t h e e a r l y B r i t i s h a d m i n i s t r a t i o n * On t h i s ground i t w i l l be n o t e d t h r o u g h o u t t h i s work t h a t t h e p r e s e n t c h i e f s i n Malawi h av e been q u o t e d w henever
5.
t h e i r i n f o r m a t i o n i n my i n t e r views w i t h them h a s bee n a p p r o p r i a t e ,
No i n t e r v i e i t f h a s been made w i t h anyone who may n o t h a v e h a d know ledge of t h e a f f a i r s d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d o f my w o r k .
I h a v e made u se o f many a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l works w h ic h c o n s t i t u t e some o f t h e w r i t t e n e v i d e n c e I have d e p ende d on i n d e a l i n g w i t h c u s t o m a r y law s o f Malawi, I t w i l l be n o t e d a l s o t h a t a l t h o u g h t h i s work i s m a i n l y h i s t o r i c a l i t h a s b e e n n e c e s s a r y t o make c o n s t a n t u s e o f
a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l works due t o t h e i r s u b s t a n t i a l c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e s t u d y o f Malawi s o c i e t i e s , I h a v e , h o w e v e r, u s e d t h e s e a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l works w i t h c a r e ; i t h a s bee n n e c e s s a r y t o c o r r o b o r a t e s u c h works w i t h h i s t o r i c a l e v i d e n c e a s w e l l a s t h e e v i d e n c e o f t h e p i o n e e r i n g m i s s i o n a r i e s who d i r e c t l y d e a l t w i t h A f r i c a n p e o p l e w i t h whom t h e y worked „ Thus i t can be n o t e d t h a t p i o n e e r s such a s David L i v i n g s t o n e ,
RoweleV, D u f f M a c d o n a ld , W.A, E l m s l i e and many o t h e r m i s s i o n a r i e s h a v e b e e n c o n s t a n t l y q u o t e d t h r o u g h o u t t h i s w o rk .
O t h e r works w hich have a l s o been u s e d e x t e n s i v e l y a r e t h e f o l l o w i n g : G a m i t t o ’ s King Kazembe, W e r n e r ’ s
N a t i v e s o f B r i t i s h C e n t r a l A f r i c a , S i r H a r r y J o h n s t o n ’ s
w o r k s , and p a r t i c u l a r l y h i s B r i t i s h C e n t r a l A f r i c a; i n a d d i t i o n C o u p l a n d ’ s K i r k on t h e Z a m b e z i, M i t c h e l l ’ s s t u d y o f
rt t h e Yao, S t e p p e r s on and P r i c e ’ s I n d e p e n d e n t A f r i c a ! , R D
6 „
O l i v e r 1 s S i r H a r r y J o h n s o n and t h e S c ra m b le f o r A f r i c a . ,
Harm a * s B e g i n n i n g s of N y a s a l a n d and N o r t h E a s t e r n R h o d e s i a * T h ese and many o t h e r s h a v e a l l p r o v i d e d me w i t h i n t e r e s t i n g m a t e r i a l f o r my work.
As can he s e e n from t h e n a t u r e o f t h e work i n P a r t I I s i t w i l l be a p p r o p r i a t e t o s t a t e t h a t t h e b u l k of i t s s o u r c e s h a s come from t h e f o l l o w i n g :
i ) O r d i n a n c e s p a s s e d by t h e t h e n N y a s a l a n d L e g i s l a t i v e C o u n c i l , i n c l u d i n g some of t h e m i n u t e s o f t h e L e g i s l a t i v e C o u n c i l ;
i i ) C e r t a i n U.K. S t a t u t e s e x p r e s s l y a p p l i c a b l e t o M alaw i;
i i i ) O c c a s i o n a l l y Common Law o f E n g l a n d , R u l e s of E q u i t y and S t a t u t e s ;
i v ) R e l i g i o u s la w s e x i s t i n g i n Malawi su ch as I s l a m . w h i c h i s p r a c t i s e d and g o v e r n e d t h e i r d o m e s t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p s ;
v) C ustom ary law s o f v a r i o u s s o c i a l g r o u p s , w h en e v er t h e s e a r e a p p l i c a b l e t o P a r t I I ; v i ) F i n a l l y and o c c a s i o n a l l y , a c t s p a s s e d by t h e
Malawi Government s i n c e t h e I n d e p e n d e n c e of Malawi i n 1964*
The f o l l o w i n g c o r r e s p o n d e n c e h a s a l s o b e e n u s e d : c o r r e s p o ndenc e o f t h e C o l o n i a l O f f i c e i n C.0„ 525 and F o r e i g n O f f i c e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e i n F .O , 2 and F .O . &4 s e r i e s . But
7 , most o f t h i s c o r r e s p o n d e n c e as fo u n d i n t h e d i s p a t c h e s of t h e C o m m is s io n e rs a n d C o n s u l s G e n e r a l was l a t e r e n a c t e d
as o r d i n a n c e s once a p p r o v e d „ So i t h a s b e e n fo u n d i n some c a s e s t h a t t h e r e a s o n s g i v e n i n t h e d i s p a t c h e s w ere l a t e r d i s c u s s e d i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l i n t h e N y a s a l a n d L e g i s l a t i v e C o u n c i l , once su c h p r o p o s a l s were a p p r o v e d by t h e F o r e i g n O f f i c e . Hence I h av e f o u n d t h e d i s c u s s i o n s o f t h e L e g i s l a t i v e C o u n c i l more h e l p f u l t o my w ork, b e c a u s e s u c h L e g i s l a t i v e C o u n c i l p r o c e e d i n g s i n c l u d e d t h e v ie w s of n o n -
Government o f f i c i a l s i n t h e L e g i s l a t i v e C o u n c i l s u c h a s t h e R e v e r e n d D o c t o r H e t h e r w i c k , who o f t e n sp o k e f o r t h e n e e d s o f t h e A f r i c a n community. T h e i r v ie w s a r e of i m p o r t
ance b e c a u s e t h e r e were no A f r i c a n members i n t h e L e g i s l a t i v e c o u n c i l d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d and t h e g r i e v a n c e s o f t h e A f r i c a n s were made known by t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s whom t h e A f r i c a n s c o u l d c o n t a c t p e r s o n a l l y .
A n o th e r s o u r c e which I h a v e e x t e n s i v e l y u s e d i s t h e r e p o r t s o f C o m m is s io n e rs a p p o i n t e d t o i n q u i r e i n t o vax^ious c a u s e s o f c e r t a i n p r o b le m s i n t h e P r o t e c t o r a t e . Among them a r e t h e Commission a p p o i n t e d t o i n q u i r e i n t o v a r i o u s c a u s e s f o r t h e 1915 TIN a t i v e R i s i n g ” .
A n o t h e r r e p o r t w hich I have c o n s t a n t l y r e f e r r e d t o i s t h e Commission o f E n q u i r y A p p o i n t e d t o E n q u i r e i n t o t h e F i n a n c i a l P o s i t i o n and F u r t h e r D evelopment o f N y a s a l a n d .
More r e p o r t s w hich I have u s e d w i l l be f o u n d
8.
l i s t e d u n d e r t h e S e l e c t e d B i b l i o g r a p h y .
As t h i s s t u d y i s d e a l i n g w i t h t h e c u s t o m a r y law s of Malawi s o c i e t i e s i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o d i s c u s s i n o u t l i n e t h e s o c i a l g r o u p s d e a l t w i t h ,
Mien N y a s a l a n d was f i r s t d e c l a r e d a B r i t i s h P r o t e c t o r a t e i n 1891, by t h e A f r i c a O r d e r i n C o u n c i l o f
1 8 3 9 j i t was s t a t e d t h a t t h e A.C.ojurtss i n Malawi w ere t o a p p l y n a t i v e law and custom i n s e t t l i n g Afhic’an d i s p u t e s , u n l e s s t h o s e c u s t o m a r y la w s were r e p u g n a n t t o common la w , s t a t u t e s and t h e r u l e s o f e q u i t y i n f o r c e i n E n g l a n d , 1
The n a t i v e custom and laws r e f e r r e d t o i n t h e O r d i n a n c e were o f t h e t r i b e s t h e n i n M a la w i, t h e main ones b e i n g s -
The N y a n ja who by t h e t i m e t h e P r o t e c t o r a t e was e s t a b l i s h e d o c c u p i e d most o f t h e s o u t h e r n p a r t of t h e
c o u n t r y , N y a n ja a r e a b r a n c h o f t h e M a r a v i p e o p l e . 2
The Lomwe, m a i n l y f o u n d i n t h e M l a n j e , C h i r a d z u l u and Zomba d i s t r i c t s . They e m i g r a t e d from P o r t u g u e s e E a s t A f r i c a d u r i n g t h e l a t t e r p a r t o f t h e 1 9 t h c e n t u r y . 3
The Yao, o c c u p y i n g a l a r g e p a r t o f Zomba, K asupe , 1 , S. S. M u r r a y , The Handbook o f N y a s a l a n d , The Government
P r i n t e r s , p . 1577“
2, L i v i n g s t o n e , D. and C . , The Zambezi and i t s T r i b u t a r i e s , op, c i t . , p p . 105 and 1177“”
3 , Lord H a i l e y , N a t i v e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n t h e B r i t i s h A f r i c a n T e r r i t o r i e s , 7 ? a r t I I , London, His M a j e s t y 1s S t a t i o n e r y O f f i c e , p.* 24. But a l s o s e e G a m i t t o on t h e N guru, a n o t h e r name f o r Lomwe, b e i n g f o u n d on t h e b a n k s o f Lake N y a s a .
9*
F o r t J o h n s t o n and B l a n t y r e <> I n t h e e a r l y d a y s o f B r i t i s h a d m i n i s t r a t i o n t h e y w ere engaged i n s l a v e t r a d e and gave much t r o u b l e when t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n was t r y i n g t o s u p p r e s s t h e s l a v e t r a d e ^ The Yao c o n t i n u e d t o engage i n s l a v e t r a d e u n t i l i t was f i n a l l y a b o l i s h e d . I t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e Arab s l a v e t r a d e r s d i d n o t a f f e c t t h e l e g a l s y s t e m o f m a r r i a g e o f t h e Yao p e o p l e i n s p i t e o f
h a v i n g b e e n i n c l o s e c o n t a c t w i t h them f o r a l o n g t i m e . 2
The N g o n i, o c c u p y in g b o t h p a r t s o f C e n t r a l and N o r t h e r n P r o v i n c e s , They a r r i v e d i n Malawi d u r i n g t h e
e a r l y 1 9 t h c e n t u r y « D u rin g t h e i r e a r l y d a y s i n M alaw i, t h e y t r i e d t o s u p p r e s s o t h e r t r i b e s w i t h i n t h e c o u n t r y ,
and a l t h o u g h s u c c e s s f u l b e f o r e t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f B r i t i s h Government i n d e f e a t i n g t h e Tonga, t h e Tumbuka and o t h e r s m a l l e r g r o u p s i n t h e N o r t h e r n P r o v i n c e , t h e y were b i t t e r l y d e f e a t e d i n 1395 u n d e r t h e l e a d e r s h i p o f S i r H a r r y J o h n s t o n who was t h e n t h e C o u n c i l l o r o f t h e B r i t i s h Government i n M a l a w i ,
The Tumbuka, Ngonde, Tonga and Henga a l l o c c u p y - i n g most o f t h e d i s t r i c t s i n t h e N o r t h e r n P r o v i n c e , With 1, H.H. J o h n s t o n , B r i t i s h C e n t r a l A f r i c a , London, 1397,
Po 3 3 7 . _
_____
2, H e t h e r w i c k , A ., f,I s l a m and C h r i s t i a n i t y i n N y a s a l a n d Tf, The Muslim World, V o l . 17, 1927, p p . 1 8 4 - 6 ,
3 , L a n c a s t e r , D. Gordon, !,T e n t a t i v e C h r o n o l o g y o f t h e
N g o n i ” , The J o u r n a l o f t h e R oyal A n t h r o p o l o g i c a l I n s t i t u t e , V o l . L X V I II, p p . 7 8 - 9 & 85, 1 9 3 7 /
1 0 O
t h e e x c e p t i o n o f t h e Ngonde who have a d i s t i n c t s y s te m of law™, t h e o t h e r t r i b e s i n t h e N o r t h e r n P r o v i n c e seem t o *1 have somewhat s i m i l a r s y s t e m s o f law* T h e i r s i m i l a r i t y w i l l b e n o t e d i n t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e i r law s i n t h i s t h e s i s «
The Acewa \ a r e found i n t h e c e n t r a l p r o v i n c e o f Malawi 2 and s t i l l i n h a b i t t h a t a r e a . As i s t h e c a s e w i t h t h e N y a n ja p e o p l e , t h e y a l s o b e l o n g t o t h e Malawi s t o c k o
The o b j e c t o f t h i s t h e s i s i s t o s e e k t o examine how t h e c u s to m s and law s o f t h e s e p e o p l e w e re a d m i n i s t e r e d
u n d e r f o r e i g n r u l e . Looking a t t h e c o n s t a n t movements o f t h e t r i b e s e n u m e r a t e d above i t would seem t h a t t h e i r c u s toms must h a v e bee n u n c e r t a i n i n most c a s e s u n l e s s t h e e n t i r e v i l l a g e o r t r i b e moved t o g e t h e r . But a s t h e i r u n i t y b e g a n t o grow t h r o u g h t h e r i s e o f n a t i o n a l i s m t h e i r custom s and l a w s a p p e a r e d t o h a v e n a r r o w e d down and m erge d, e s p e c i a l l y a f t e r t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f E n g l i s h l a w t h r o u g h t h e o r d i n a n c e s o I n a d d i t i o n , t h e g ro w th o f n a t i o n a l i s m seems t o h a v e b r o u g h t a b o u t i n t e r - m a r r i a g e s among d i f f e r e n t t r i b e s , t h e r e b y n a r r o w i n g t h e i r c u s t o m a r y d i f f e r e n c e s .
However, i t w i l l be s e e n i n t h e t h e s i s t h a t c e r t a i n d i f f e r - 1 . W i l s o n , G . , 1fThe C o n s t i t u t i o n o f t h e Ngonde” , R hodes-
L i v i n g s t o n P a p e r s , Volumes 1 - 8 , 1939, p . 4$°
2o J o h n s t o n , H.H. , B r i t i s h C e n t r a l A f r i c a , o p . c i t . ,
p p. 175~177o See a l s o G a i n i t t o , A. C . P , King Kazembe , V o l . 1, p . 141 •
1 1 o
e n c e s i n t h e i r cu sto m s c o u ld n o t be c h a n g e d , h a v i n g b e e n w e l l d e v e l o p e d b e f o r e t h e r i s e of n a t i o n a l i s m , or i n t r o d u c t i o n o f C h r i s t i a n i t y , n o r was t h e B r i t i s h Government a b l e t o change some o f t h e s e w e l l - d e v e l o p e d c u s to m s * Among s u c h c u stom s t o b e s e e n even t o d a y i n Malawi a r e t h o s e o f m a r r i a g e . Thus a l t h o u g h C h r i s t i a n M a r r i a g e O r d i n a n c e s w e re p a s s e d t o r e g u l a t e some o f t h e s y s t e m s of m a r r i a g e s i n t h e c o u n t r y t h e y d i d n o t change c e r t a i n p r a c t i c e s i n m a r r i a g e s . Thus b r i d e p r i c e i s s t i l l p r a c t i s e d among c e r t a i n t r i b e s i n M alaw i, w h i l e polygamy i s an a c c e p t e d s y ste m d e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t i t i s c o n t r a r y t o E n g l i s h r u l e s of law and C h r i s t i a n b e l i e f s .
F i n a l l y I must s t a t e t h a t I am n o t a b l e t o f i n d a d e q u a t e words t o e x p r e s s my s i n c e r e g r a t i t u d e t o my j o i n t s u p e r v i s o r s , n a m e ly P r o f e s s o r A.N. A l l o t t and P r o f e s s o r R o lan d O l i v e r , whose p a t i e n c e and g u i d a n c e made i t p o s s i b l e f o r me t o a c q u a i n t m y s e l f w i t h t h e s y s t e m o f r e s e a r c h w o rk I was t o embark on, a s y s t e m so new t o me a f t e r h a v i n g b e e n u n d e r American s y s te m o f r e s e a r c h w hich I d i d f o r my M.A.
T h i s s t u d y would h av e t a k e n l o n g e r t h a n i t h a s a c t u a l l y t a k e n had I n o t been u n d e r t h e c o n s t a n t s u p e r v i s i o n o f my l a t e r s u p e r v i s o r Dr. J . R i c h a r d Gray, b u t f o r whose o b j e c t i v e c r i t i c i s m and g u i d a n c e t h i s work would h av e bee n deemed somewhat p a r t i a l , c o n s i d e r i n g t h a t I am a Malawi
1 2 .
c i t i z e n by b i r t h , and t h e r e f o r e p r e s u m a b l y u n a b l e t o r i s e above o n e Ts own n a t i o n a l c o n c e p t s , b e l i e f s and p r e j u d i c e s *
My t h a n k s a r e a l s o due t o members of t h e Common
w e a l t h S o c i e t y L i b r a r y f o r h a v i n g a l l t h e n e c e s s a r y Malawi g a z e t t e s and o t h e r r e p o r t s a t my d i s p o s a l w hene ver I r e q u i r e d th e m . I a l s o t h a n k members o f t h e B r i t i s h Museum
I i i t
S t a t e P a p e r s D e p a r t m e n t , P u b l i c ' O f f i c e , t h e S c h o o l o f
r
O r i e n t a l and A f r i c a n S t u d i e s , e t c .
To D r , M. D o u g las ( f o r m e r l y Mary Tew) and P r o f e s s o r M a r g a r e t Read I owe h e a r t f e l t t h a n k s f o r t h e i r comment and
e n c o u r a g e m e n t i n my work, and f o r l e t t i n g me make u s e o f t h e i r p e r s o n a l p a p e r s *
And t o t h e p e o p l e o f my c o u n t r y who gave me t h e o p p o r t u n i t y o f i n t e r v i e w i n g them w h e n e v e r t h e y came t o E n g l a n d .
I a l s o owe my g r a t i t u d e t o M rs, N# W a t e r s o n , A d v i s e r t o Women S t u d e n t s a t t h e S c h o o l o f O r i e n t a l and A f r i c a n S t u d i e s , f o r t h e c o n t a c t s s h e made on my b e h a l f t o p e o p l e whose h e l p h a s e x p e d i t e d t h e c o m p l e t i o n of my w ork.
F i n a l l y I t h a n k a l l t h e e x - D i s t r i c t C o m m issioners and P r o v i s i o n a l C o m m is s io n e rs who gave t h e i r comments on t h e c h a p t e r on t h e D i s t r i c t C o m m issio n ers and P r o v i s i o n a l C o m m is s io n e rs i n M alaw i,
13 CHAPTER I
L e g a l p e r s o n s were c o m p r is e d of o r d i n a r y men, women, i n f a n t s , t h e aged and i m p o t e n t , l u n a t i c s and a l i e n s . They had a r e c o g n i s e d s t a t u s i n t h e community* P a r e n t s , u n c l e s , o l d p e o p l e , t h e headmen and c h i e f s w e re v e r y much r e s p e c t e d , b u t were n o t exempted from t h e l a w . Freedom
of s p e e c h and f r e e d o m t o q u i t a v i l l a g e were one o f t h e g r e a t e s t j o y s o f v i l l a g e l i f e * I t i s s t a t e d t h a t e v e ry b o d y w a s . e q u a l i n m a t e r i a l w e a l t h and e v e r y b o d y had t h e same r i g h t s and t h e same d u t i e s , h e n c e t h e y were e x p e c t e d n o t
*
t o i n t e r f e r e w i t h o t h e r p e o p l e ’ s r i g h t s * Macdonald e x p l a i n e d t h a t t h e p e o p l e o f S o u t h e r n Malawi had l i t t l e know
l e d g e o f d i v i s i o n of- l a b o u r and t h a t " t h e y have t h e same m a n n e r s , c u s t o m s , b e l i e f s and o c c u p a t i o n s * " 1 Macdonald
may h av e w i t n e s s e d t h i s b u t h i s a s s e r t i o n s h o u l d be q u a l i f i e d i n t h a t e v e r y v i l l a g e had a c h i e f o r s u b - c h i e f , t h e n a
v i l l a g e headman and t h e n o n l y t h e v i l l a g e r s t h e m s e l v e s * T h e r e f o r e , t h e i r d u t i e s and r i g h t s c o u l d n o t have bee n t h e same* I t i s a l s o n o t e w o r t h y t h a t women and men had d i f f e r e n t r i g h t s and d u t i e s a s w i l l be e x p l a i n e d i n t h e i r a p p r o p r i a t e p a s s a g e s *
Male A d u l t s
Among t h e Chewa, Yao, Lomwe, N y a n ja and M a k o lo lo , d e s c e n t i s m a t r i l i n e a l * The h u sb a n d i s n o t a c c e p t e d as
1* M a c d o n ald , D u f f , A f r i c a n a , Vol* 1, p* 29.
14.
t h e h e a d o f t h e f a m i l y which h e , h i s w i f e and c h i l d r e n have formed*. Benno He eke 1 d e d u c e d t h a t he tfwas t h e g u e s t and s e r v a n t i n t h e f a m i l y o f h i s p a r e n t s - i n - l a w Tf0^
A p e c u l i a r f e a t u r e o f t h i s s o c i e t y i s t h e d u a l r o l e p l a y e d by t h e e l d e s t male a d u l t , who, a s t h e u n c l e of t h e f a m i l y , h a s u n d i s p u t e d power o v e r i t s members, y e t i s c o m p l e t e l y p o w e r l e s s o v e r h i s own w i f e and c h i l d r e n , who i n t h e i r t u r n a r e u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e i r uncle*. I n p a t r i l i n e a l s o c i e t y , t h e male a d u l t who h a p p e n s t o be t h e h e a d o f t h e f a m i l y i s t h e most i m p o r t a n t member. His power o v e r h i s f a m i l y can be compared t o t h a t o f a v i l l a g e headman o v e r h i s s u b j e c t s . Among such t r i b e s a r e t h e N goni, Ngonde, Tumbuka, Tonga and Henga, and a few o t h e r s . I n b o t h m a t r i - l i n e a l and p a t r i l i n e a l s o c i e t i e s a male a d u l t owed a l l e g i a n c e t o h i s t r i b e and t h e r e f o r e t o h i s c h i e f . He o u g h t t o be c a p a b l e o f d e f e n d i n g h i s t r i b e as t r i b a l s o c i e t i e s had no m i l i t a r y o r g a n i s a t i o n i n t o a r m i e s , and i t s t a n d s t o r e a s o n t h a t t h e r e was no r e c r u i t m e n t . However, r e g a r d i n g t h i s f a c t , i t can be p o i n t e d o u t t h a t , t h o u g h t h e y may n o t have h a d r e g u l a r a r m i e s i n t h e t r u e u s e o f t h e word, i t was c e r t a i n t h a t men o f t h e s e t r i b e s h a d t o be on t h e
r e a d y f o r a c t i o n a t a momentTs n o t i c e ; so i t can be s a f e l y s a i d t h a t t h e r e was a l w a y s a p o t e n t i a l army . s t a n d i n g by f o r a c t i o n .
1« He eke 1, Benno, lfThe Yao T ri'b e n , S t u d i e s and R e p o r t s N°o_4, I n s t i t u t e o f E d u c a t i o n , O x fo rd U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1955, Po 19.
1 5 . The one e x c e p t i o n t o . t h e s t a t e m e n t t h a t t h e r e were no r e g u l a r a r m i e s i s t h e c a s e o f t h e Angoni, who n o t o n l y h a d a p o t e n t i a l army b u t a l s o h a d a r e g u l a r f o r c e \ known a s t h e *?Tmpi1?, i . e 0, t h e r e c r u i t m e n t o f w a r r i o r s . The s e l e c t i o n o f such c a n d i d a t e s was made by t h e Makosana
(members o f t h e c h i e f f s h o u s e - b l o o d r e l a t i o n s ) , t h e
I n k o s i Yamakosi ( t h e p aram o u n t c h i e f ) and t h e Nduna (House o f E l d e r s ) who i n so d o i n g , s t r e s s e d t h e e s s e n t i a l q u a l i t i e s o f s t r e n g t h and good h e a l t h i n t h e boys aged b e tw e e n 10
and 15, who, once c h o s e n , had t o r e m a i n i n t h e f o r c e as l o n g a s t h e y w ere r e q u i r e d * The q u a l i f i e d men from t h e s c h o o l o f ”Xmpi,f were p o s t e d t o s t r a t e g i c a r e a s o f t h e
kingdom , t h e s t r o n g e s t b e i n g t h e g u a r d s o f t h e I n k o s i Yama
k o s i * When an a t t a c k was immanent, w h e t h e r i t was t h e o r g a n i s e d tJI m p i 1f o r t h e p o t e n t i a l army, t h e male a d u l t s , r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e i r a g e , were summoned t o war by a drum c a l l e d A l g Toma. They armed t h e m s e l v e s a t t h e i r own c o s t , w i t h a n y t h i n g from p o i s o n e d a r r o w s , s p e a r s , a x e s t o c u t - l a s s e s . 2
The Angoni m i l i t a r y s y s t e m was l a t e r a d o p t e d by t h e Tumbuka and p e r h a p s by t h e Tonga* 3 The t?I m p i 1? w ere
1* R ead, M . , The Angoni o f N y a s a l a n d , o p < ,c i t „ , p . 31*
2* L i v i n g s t o n e , David & C h a r l e s , The Zambezi and i t s T r i b u t a r i e s , o p 0c i t „ , p* 96*
3* Young, T . , N o t e s on t h e H i s t o r y o f Tumbuka and Kamanga P e o p l e s , M i s s i o n P r e s s , L i v i n g s t o n ^ , 1931> P° 127*
1 6 .
so m e tim e s h i r e d by o t h e r c h i e f s su c h a s C h i e f M alem ia, t h e Yao c h i e f , who h i r e d t h e TfI m p i ,f t o f i g h t a g a i n s t h i s enemy, C h i e f K u n t a j a * 1 A lth o u g h K u n t a j a was d e f e a t e d by tfl m p i n , Malem ia s t i l l was n o t q u i t e f r e e from t h e Ngoni p o l i t i c a l
power c
T h i s would a p p e a r t o be one o f t h e r e a s o n s why t h e Angoni w e re t h e l a s t t o s u r r e n d e r t h e i r s u z e r a i n t y and t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l s y s t e m t o t h e B r i t i s h * An e x c e p t i o n t o t h e g e n e r a l p r a c t i c e amongst t h e t r i b e s o f r e c r u i t i n g m a le s o f any a g e , was t h e Yao y o u t h who was n o t c a l l e d up f o r s u c h s e r v i c e s u n t i l he had gone t h r o u g h t h e ceremony o f i n i t i a t i o n , where he was t a u g h t n o t o n l y t h e way o f v i l l a g e l i f e , i . e . h i s b e h a v i o u r t o w a r d s v i l l a g e e l d e r s , b u t he was a l s o g i v e n i n s t r u c t i o n s as t o how t o s t a n d up t o t h e enemyo H e c k e l s a i d , r?From t h i s t i m e onw ards t h e y a r e c o n s i d e r e d a s a d u l t s h a v i n g t h e r i g h t s and d u t i e s of grown men and b e i n g o b l i g e d t o g i v e up a l l c h i l d i s h t h i n g s and
h a b i t s o They a r e no l o n g e r a l l o w e d t o j o i n t h e c h i l d r e n <, * „17 2 T h i s was t h e most i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t o f t r i b a l l i f e , i n i t i a t i o n i n t o manhood. Between t h e a g e s o f f o u r t e e n and s e v e n t e e n when a b p y ^ s v o i c e b r o k e and he h a s had h i s fdream* he becomes i n i t i a t e d i n t o t h e d u t i e s and t h e I p y a l t y o f h i s
1. B uchanan, J o h n , The S h i r e H i g h l a n d s , W i l l i a m Blackwood
& S o n s , London, ~
2 0 H e c k e l , Benno, Op. c i t . , p . 24*
17 o t r i b e ' * ' , u n l i k e i n E n g l i s h law where a man i s n o t r e c o g n i s e d a s r e a c h i n g a d u l t h o o d u n t i l he a t t a i n s t h e age o f t w e n t y - one, when he i s no more c o n s i d e r e d an i n f a n t .
Women
Dr, K a r l Weule i n w r i t i n g of E a s t and C e n t r a l A f r i c a s t a t e d , M0 u r m an u als o f e t h n o l o g y g i v e a t e r r i b l e p i c t u i ' e o f t h e l o t o f women among p r i m i t i v e p e o p l e ,
!B e a s t of burden* and * s l a v e * a r e t h e e p i t h e t s c o n t i n u a l l y a p p l i e d t o h e r . . , The f a c t i s t h a t t h e women a r e i n no d a n g e r o f k i l l i n g t h e m s e l v e s w i t h h a r d work.** 2 Dr. K a r l Weule may be c o r r e c t i n t h a t t h e women o f Malawi were i n no d a n g e r o f k i l l i n g t h e m s e l v e s w i t h h a r d work, b u t t h i s d o e s n o t d i s p r o v e t h e f a c t t h a t t h e y were o v e r w o rk e d and b u r d e n e d , j u s t a s i t was i n any p r i m i t i v e community, where women w e r e l o o k e d down upon. The f u n d a m e n t a l t h i n g was t h a t t h e women d i d most o f t h e h a r d w ork. However, i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o n o t e t h a t women were i n f a c t a lw a y s i n d a n g e r
of k i l l i n g t h e m s e l v e s ; b u t such d a n g e r was more immanent d u r i n g p r e g n a n c y and a t c h i l d b i r t h , where m e d i c a l t r e a t m e n t was l e s s a d v a n c e d . I t i s a l s o t o be n o t e d t h a t most work was done n o t o n l y by t h e s e n i o r w i f e b u t a l s o by j u n i o r w i v e s , d a u g h t e r s and by s l a v e s , i f a n y . 3 Hence t h e work
1 . H e c k e l , Benno, The Yao T r i b e , p p. 2 1 - 2 2 .
2. W e u le , K a r 1, N a t i v e L i f e i n E a s t A f r i c a , P itm a n &
Sons L t d . , 1909, p p .
3 o W e rner, A ., Op. c i t . , p . 136.
th o u g h h a r d was o f t e n d i v i d e d among t h e women and l e s s e n e d t h e b u r d e n - Again t h i s custom p r e v a i l e d f o r t h e m a j o r i t y o f women b u t d i d n o t a p p l y t o Royal women s u c h as t h e
N goni, whose work was done by t h e i r s e r v a n t s o r s l a v e s ( b e f o r e s l a v e r ’y was a b o l i s h e d ) , o r by coinmoners, L i v i n g s t o n e i n h i s work on t h e Malawi p e o p l e m e n t i o n s M ak o lo lo s e r v a n t s who d i d a l l t h e work which i n n o r m a l c a s e s was done by t h e women t h e m s e l v e s . 1 Read g i v e s u s t h e f o l l o w i n g q u o t a t i o n , r e g a r d i n g Ngoni R o y a l women:
iJThe common f e a t u r e s of t h e l i f e of l e a d i n g women as i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e s e t e x t s w ere:
t h e number o f a t t e n d a n t s and s e r v a n t s i n
t h e i r h o u s e h o l d s and t h e i r c o n s e q u e n t fre e d o m from m anual work; t h e e t i q u e t t e s u r r o u n d i n g l i f e i n t h e i n d l u n k u l u and t h e b i g h o u s e ,
and t h e f o r m a l i t y of h o s p i t a l i t y , b e e r - d r i n k s and d a n c e s ; r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h t h e i r i n d u n a and w i t h t h e i r h u s b a n d s , and, a s i l l u s t r a t e d by M a r g a r e t J e r e , w i t h t h e p a t e r n a l g r a n d m o t h e r who s u p e r v i s e d t h e i r u p b r i n g i n g when t h e y were
young %
A g ain , L i v i n g s t o n e n o t e d t h a t N y a n ja women c h i e f s were r e s p e c t e d by a l l v i l l a g e r s and even v i l l a g e headmen t o o k s e c o n d a r y p l a c e i n h e r p r e s e n c e . 3 T h i s o b s e r v a t i o n o f L i v i n g s t o n e i s t r u e b e c a u s e t h e r e i s no h i g h e r a u t h o r i t y I n a community t h a n t h a t o f a c h i e f and h e n c e even a woman c h i e f comes above t h e male v i l l a g e h ea d -m an . I t i s
I* L i v i n g s t o n e , David & C h a r l e s , The Zambesi and i t s T r i b u t a r i e s , o p . c i t . , p p. 304~5*
2, Read, M . , The Angoni o f N y a s a l a n d , o p . c i t . , p . 3 o L i v i n g s t o n e , D avid & C h a r l e s , The Zambesi and i t s
T r i b u t a r i e s , p . 106v, a l s o r e c o r d ”ed Th B r i t i s T T C e n t r a l A f r i c a G a z e 1 1 e , December 1397•
cu stom ary among Malawi women to k n e e l when a man p a s s e s b y - i t i s n o t a s i g n o f i n f e r i o r i t y but an i n d i c a t i o n o f r e s p e c t* D uring p r e g n a n c y , women were su p p osed t o a v o i d m e e tin g men and i t was "usual f o r them as w e l l a s f o r un
m arried g i r l s to re m a in a t home, b u t i f t h e y met a man on a p a th , t h e y had t o s t e p a s i d e and t u r n t h e o t h e r way;
c o n s e q u e n t l y , th ey a v o id e d f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h s t r a n g e men and t h e i r c h a s t i t y was p r e se r v e d * A n oth er a s p e c t o f t h i s b e h a v i o u r was t o show c o u r t e s y t o s t r a n g e r s .
A lth o u g h i t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t women w ere e x c lu d e d from men’ s f u n c t i o n s , t h e y w ere th e l e a d i n g figunss i n
some s o c i a l and r e l i g i o u s f u n c t i o n s . They a l s o j o in e d men i n b e e r - d r i n k i n g . I t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t women were a llo w e d to j o i n i n b e e r - d r i n k i n g , w h i l e t h e y were n o t
a llo w e d t o e a t t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e i r h u sb a n d s, a s b e e r -
d r in k in g was a s o c i a l f u n c t i o n w here a n yone c o u ld j o i n i n ; But e v e n i n t h i s c a s e th e women, a llo w e d t o j o i n i n , w ere o f t e n t h e b rew ers o f t h e b e e r . 2 The main r e a s o n why
women b rew ers were a llo w e d t o j o i n men i n t h e d r i n k i n g would seem t o be due to f e a r t h a t i f t h e b e e r was p o is o n e d
by w i t c h c r a f t , t h e brew er h e r s e l f would be t h e v i c t i m and t h e r e s t would n o t ta k e i t . I n t h i s c a s e i t would seem t h a t she must t e s t th e b e e r ea c h tim e a cu sto m er buys i t ; 1 . Read, M ., The Angoni o f N y a s a la n d , p . 3 2 .
2 . I n t e r v i e w - R. K a te n g e z a .
Both among t h e Ngoni and t h e Yao s e n i o r women h e l d i m p o r t a n t p o s i t i o n s i n v i l l a g e d i s p u t e s T h e y h e l p e d t o s e t t l e d i s p u t e s by t h e i r j u d i c i o u s h a n d l i n g . They k e p t
c a s e s o u t o f c o u r t , by c o n s t a n t s u p e r v i s i o n o f t h e j u n i o r women, and i n so d o i n g , t h e y e n h a n c e d t h e i r s t a n d i n g i n
t h e community. Among t h e s e n i o r Ngoni women, each s e n i o r woman h a d a g r o u p o f young women who w ere j u n i o r t o h e r ,
and whom s h e s u p e r v i s e d i n h o u s e h o l d s . She s u p e r v i s e d them i n h e r own h o u s e as w e l l a s t h a t o f t h e c o - w i v e s and h e r s o n s ? w i v e s .
I t i s a l s o i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t t h e s e n i o r women a l s o worked as m i d w i v e s . 2 T h e i r i m p o r t a n c e was n o t i c e d i n i n i t i a t i o n c e r e m o n i e s . M o t h e r s i n p a t r i l i n e a l s o c i e t i e s had much power o v e r t h e i r c h i l d r e n , b u t o n l y when t h e c h i l d r e n were y o u n g . When s u c h c h i l d r e n grew u p ,
t h e y came u n d e r t h e g u a r d i a n s h i p o f t h e n f a t h e r s 1 s i s t e r s o r t h e i r g r a n d m o t h e r s . T h i s i s so b e c a u s e i n s u c h s o c i e t i e s c h i l d r e n b e l o n g t o t h e i r f a t h e r s and s u c h p r a c t i c e i s
s t r o n g e r where b r i d e p r i c e i s p a i d . V/omenTs i m p o r t a n c e was f u r t h e r e n h a n c e d b e c a u s e h u s b a n d s w e re u s u a l l y away i n
em ploym ent, s u c h a s HMtenga M te n g a 11 - i . e . , c a r r y i n g 1 . R ead, M„, The Angoni o f N y a s a l a n d , o p . c i t . , p . 12 4 . 2. I b i d . , p p . 1 2 4 - 5 .
3o I b i d . , p p . 134-*5*
E u ro p e a n t r a v e l l e r s * goods f o r a s m a l l payment*, Sometimes t h e y c a r r i e d t h e E u r o p e a n s t h e m s e l v e s on t h e ”m a c h i l a ” -
s t r e t c h e r . Women, d u r i n g such i n t e r v a l s , g u a r d e d t h e
h u s b a n d Ts i n t e r e s t a t home,, tfT hus, women h a d g r e a t a u t h o r i t y b e h i n d t h e s c e n e s , a l t h o u g h men were a c c e p t e d as t h e
c a r r i e r s of a u t h o r i t y . ” 1 One o f t e n h e a r d t h a t s u c h - a n d - s u c h a woman was t h e r e a l owner o f t h e name. T h i s was so b e c a u s e most o f t h e h o u se d u t i e s were d e a l t w i t h by t h e woman w h i l e h e r h u s b a n d was away. She i n f a c t c a r r i e d o ut a l l t h e f u n c t i o n s o f t h e h u s b a n d i n t h e h o u s e t i l l he r e t u r n e d , e x c e p t t h a t she c o u l d n o t , when h e r h u s b a n d was away, s e t t l e d i s p u t e s w i t h i n h e r own f a m i l y , and a l s o c o u l d n o t r e c e i v e s t r a n g e r s , i n w h i c h c a s e , s h e h a d t o c a l l h e r u n c l e . I t i s a l s o t r u e t h a t i t was v e r y r a r e f o r h e r t o be e x e c u t i v e o f h e r h u s b a n d * s t i t l e . T h i s was l e f t t o a man who, a l t h o u g h o f t e n away, r e p r e s e n t e d t h e t i t l e i n t h e c o u r t s o r on o t h e r p u b l i c o c c a s i o n s , ^ u n l e s s s h e came from a m a t r i l i n e a l s o c i e t y where t h e u n c l e d i d a l l e x e c u t i v e d u t i e s .
The i n f l u e n c e o f t h e m o t h e r s o v e r t h e i r c h i l d r e n , b o t h d a u g h t e r s and s o n s , s h o u l d n o t be o v e r l o o k e d . S o n s, whose f a t h e r s were away f o r a l o n g t i m e , x^ere bound t o be
1 . Van V e l s e n , J . , The P o l i t i c s o f K i n s h i p , p . 7 1 .
2. I b i d . , p . 71*
under s t r o n g c o n t r o l o f t h e i r m o th e r s . The m o th e r 1s
c o n t r o l w as more o f l o v e f o r so n s th a n d i s c i p l i n a r y c o n t r o l w h ich o n ly t h e f a t h e r c o u ld g i v e . T h is was more s o when
t h e son w as a grown-up hoy who would g i v e v e r y l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n t o h i s m o th e r 1s a d v i c e . Apart from t h e a b o v e -
m tated f a c t , t h e women o f a v i l l a g e had c o n s i d e r a b l e i n f l u e n c e i f d e s c e n t i s m a t r i l i n e a l , when t h e i r im p o r ta n c e i s c o n c l u s i v e from t h e d e f e r e n c e shown t o them by t h e men.'3' Hence so n s o r d a u g h t e r s , would to some e x t e n t be a f f e c t e d by t h e i r m o th e r s .
Werner n o t e s t h a t th e w iv e s had a r o l e i n t h e c h o i c e o f a new c h i e f , "and t h a t o f t e n t h e cu stom ary o r d e r o f s u c c e s s i o n among th e Yao t r i b e was s e t a s i d e , n 2 by th e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e women i n t h e e l e c t i o n v As b oth w iv e s
and f r e e d s l a v e s had a p e r s o n a l i n t e r e s t i n t h e ap p oin tm en t o f a s u c c e s s o r , i t w as o n ly j u s t t h a t t h e y s h o u ld have a chance t o e x p r e s s t h e i r o b j e c t i o n s , a l t h o u g h t h e i r s t a t u s was lo w e r th a n t h a t o f f r e e men. The headman i n m a t r i l i n e a l
s o c i e t i e s a l s o dep en ded on a c o n s i d e r a b l e and i n f l u e n t i a l s u p p o r t from t h e women. Among t h e Yao w here d e s c e n t i s m a t r i l i n e a l , a woman w i e l d s more power o v e r h e r im m ediate f a m i l y th a n th e m a le , i n c l u d i n g h e r husband who l e f t h i s T .’^Stannus. N o te s on th e T r ib e s o f B r i t i s h C e n t r a l A f r i c a ,"
p • 2 96 .
2 . W erner, A . , Races o f B r i t i s h C e n t r a l A f r i c a , o p . c i t ♦, 1 9 0 6 , p p . 2 5 9 -6 0 1
23.
own v i l l a g e t o j o i n h e r . Her s t a t u s i s a l s o t h a t e n j o y e d by t h e e l d e s t male o f h e r f a m i l y , i . e . h e r u n c l e or b r o t h e r . And i f t h e r e be no s u r v i v i n g male t h e n she c o u l d s a f e l y
assume f u l l power and t h i s c o u l d even be t o t h e e x t e n t o f a s s u m in g c h i e f t a i n s h i p .
The i m p o r t a n c e o f women was a g a i n n o t i c e d among t h e M a k o lo lo women, Among them a woman m ig h t r e j e c t t h e
d e c i s i o n o f h e r h u s b a n d o r f a t h e r , as was done by S u b u t u a n e Ts d a u g h t e r who r e s i g n e d t h e t h r o n e a s s i g n e d t o h e r by h e r
f a t h e r i n o r d e r t o g e t a p r o p e r m a r r i a g e , as h e r f a t h e r was a v e r s e t o t h e i d e a o f h e r m a r r y i n g , as i t would mean t h a t she would f o r f e i t h e r t h r o n e t o h e r husband.*^
Women were a l s o known t o be a c t i v e i n c u s t o m a r y m e d i c i n e . But h e r e t h e y h a d t o be s e n i o r women i n t h e com
m u n i t y . They a l s o a d v i s e d t h e young women on h e a l t h m a t t e r s and t h e t r a i n i n g o f c h i l d r e n . ^
The h u s b a n d was lo o k e d on as a f a t h e r o f h i s w i f e and c h i l d r e n . As i n t h e c a s e o f a f a t h e r , he m ig h t s t r i k e h i s w i f e a s d i s c i p l i n a r y a c t i o n , and t h i s w*as n o t t o be
t a k e n as an a s s a u l t on h e r . Any a c t i o n t a k e n by h e r a g a i n s t h e r h u s b a n d would n o t be c o n s i d e r e d by t h e Ankhoswe u n l e s s i t was a s e r i o u s p h y s i c a l i n j u r y . But any a c t i o n s h o r t o f 1 . L i v i n g s t o n e , D avid & G h a r l e s , The Zambezi and i t s
T r i b u t a r i e s , p . 225«
2. Read, M . , The Angoni o f N y a s a l a n d , o p . c i t . , p p . 134-5«
d i s c i p l i n a r y m e a s u r e s was t a k e n t o be a g a i n s t c u s t o m a r y
law* 1 T h i s 3 i f done by an o u t s i d e r , was a c r i m i n a l o f f e n c e • Further* e v i d e n c e o f woman* s p r i v i l e g e s was shown by t h e f a c t t h a t she c o u l d b a r t e r a s m a l l p a r t of h e r g r a i n a t any t i m e , w i t h o u t a s k i n g f o r h e r h u s b a n d * s p e r m i s s i o n , b u t s h e c o u l d n o t g i v e g i f t s t o h e r r e l a t i v e s w i t h o u t t h e c o n s e n t o f h e r husband* I f a h u s b a n d f o u n d any g o o d s , he had t o a s k h i s w i f e t o make e n q u i r i e s a b o u t t h e i r ow ner»
s h i p * I f t h e owner c o u l d n o t be f o u n d and he w is h e d t o b a r t e r , t h e n he c o u l d n o t do s o ’w i t h o u t h i s w i f e * s p e r m i s -
s i o n . 3 The r e a s o n why t h e w i f e had t o make e n q u i r i e s a b o u t t h e o w n e r s h i p o f t h e goods was b e c a u s e i t was c o n s i d e r e d t o o m e n i a l a t a s k f o r a man, and t h e y were u s u a l l y i n h e r p o s s e s s i o n , , I n r e g a r d t o h e r r i g h t t o b a r t e r any s m a l l h o u s e h o l d a r t i c l e w i t h o u t t h e h u s b a n d Ts p e r m i s s i o n , t h i s would seem t o come c l o s e t o t h e p o s i t i o n a s r e g a r d s j o i n t
o w n e r s h ip b e tw e e n s p o u s e s o f p r o p e r t y i n E n g l i s h law - as i t was p r o p o u n d e d i n J o n e s v* M a y n a rd .
lo . I n t e r v i e w w i t h R. K a t e n g e z a .
2* H e c k e l , Benno, The Yao T r i b e , op* c i t * , p* 22*
3 o I n t e r v i e w w i t h R* K a te n g e z a * See a l s o H e c k e l , Benno, The Yao T r i b e , p , 36
2 5 .
I n f a n t s
I n Malaw i s o c i e t i e s c h i l d r e n a r e t h e p r i d e o f t h e t r i b e s . Among t h e m a t r i l i n e a l t r i b e s , d a u g h t e r s n o t
o n l y h a v e a m a t e r i a l v a l u e , b u t a l s o b r o u g h t i n a d h e r e n t s t o t h e m a t e r n a l v i l l a g e i n t h e form of s o n s - i n - l a w * The p a t r i l i n e a l t r i b e s who a c c e p t e d b r i d e p r i c e a l s o welcomed f e m a l e c h i l d r e n as t h e y b r o u g h t ,fw e a l t h IT t o t h e p a r e n t s .
Most E u r o p e a n s t h o u g h t t h a t c h i l d r e n l e f t on t h e i r own w i t h l i t t l e o r no s u p e r v i s i o n must be s a d l y
n e g l e c t e d . On t h e c o n t r a r y , i n Malawi homes o t h e r s i b l i n g s and r e l a t i v e s e x e r c i s e d some i n f l u e n c e on t h e young. A l
t h o u g h t h e r e were no s c h o o l s t o c o n f i n e them t o d e s k s , t h e y l e a r n t t h e i r d u t i e s and p i c k e d up a g r e a t d e a l o f
i n f o r m a t i o n , by i m i t a t i o n , a s k i n g f a t h e r , m o t h e r or u n c l e s ; b u t above a l l , c h i l d r e n a c q u i r e d what s k i l l s t h e y n e e d e d
a t t h e i r own d i s c r e t i o n . The main e d u c a t i o n a l and r e l i g i o u s e m p h a sis i n t h e c h i l d * s u p b r i n g i n g a t t h i s s t a g e was
ffr e s p e c t w and ^ s o c i a l a w a r e n e s s 1*. T h e r e was a f i x e d code o f a c c e p t a b l e b e h a v i o u r . 1 P h y s i c a l s t r e n g t h , c o u r a g e and a t t e n t i o n t o d e t a i l was v e r y much e n f o r c e d .
P a r e n t s had g r e a t p a t i e n c e w i t h t h e i r c h i l d r e n . M acdonald i n 1882 n o t e d t h a t s* th e r e a r e no c l o t h e s t o s o i l , no h o u s e t o s p o i l , no windows t o smash, no d i s h e s t o b r e a k , no s p o o n s t o l o s e , t h e c h i l d may p l a y w i t h a n y t h i n g i t can 1 . M ac d o n ald , D u f f , A f r i c a n a , V o l. 1, o p . c i t . , p . 120
26 o f i n d ; i t may go where i t l i k e s w i t h o u t g o i n g i n t o much d a n g e r , and w i t h o u t d e s t r o y i n g f l o w e r b e d s o r f a v o u r i t e p l a n t s * 7f P a r e n t s had g r e a t l o v e f o r t h e i r c h i l d r e n , and t h i s l o v e i s o f t e n shown by t h e f r e e d o m g i v e n t o a c h i l d
i n n o t b e i n g o v e r - c o n t r o l l e d *
Yet t h e Yao p a r e n t s do n o t i n d u l g e t h e i r c h i l d r e n , and i f t h e y were c a u g h t p i l f e r i n g a s e c o n d t i m e , t h e y were s e v e r e l y p u n i s h e d <> H e c k e l s a i d o f t h e Yao c h i l d r e n , ,ft h e w r e t c h e d s i n n e r i s t a k e n by h i s l e f t arm and h i s hand i s h e l d o v e r a f i r e o r p u t i n h o t a s h * n3
Under c u s t o m a r y law t h e c h i l d i s n o t t r a i n e d by b e i n g b e a t e n as a n o r m a l form o f d i s c i p l i n a r y m e a s u r e ; and h e n c e b e a t i n g a c h i l d i s wrong u n d e r Malawi c u s to m , e x c e p t
i n c a s e s o f p e r s i s t e n t d e l i n q u e n c y . T h i s d ep e n d ed v e r y much on t h e age of t h e c h i l d c o n c e r n e d , and a l s o on t h e t y p e o f wrong t h e c h i l d had c o m m i tt e d , and h e n c e t h e r e were
c e r t a i n wrongs which m ig h t n o t be p u n i s h e d by t h e m o t h e r ; f o r ex a m p le , t h e f t i s p u n i s h e d by t h e f a t h e r and v e r y g r a v e c a s e s a r e p u n i s h a b l e by t h e c o u r t B u t i n t h e l a t t e r c a s e , i t i s v i c a r i o u s l i a b i l i t y , and a n s w e r a b l e by t h e p a r e n t s * 1* M ac d o n ald , D u f f , A f r i c a n a , Vol* 1, o p . c i t * , p , 120*
2 0 D u f f , H. L . , N y a s e l a n d u n d e r t h e F o r e i g n O f f i c e , p p .23 4 - 5 • 3* H e c k e l , Benno, The Yao T r i b e , o p . c i t . , p* 16*
4* R a n g l e y , W . H . J . , *rK o tes on Chewa T r i b a l Law*1, Hy as a l a n d J o u r n a l , V o l. I , No* N03, 1946, p* 15*
27
* The r e a s o n why c e r t a i n c a s e s a r e p u n i s h e d by t h e f a t h e r i s b e c a u s e i n most c a s e s c e r t a i n c h i l d r e n , e s p e c i a l l y b o y s , p a i d v e r y l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n t o t h e m o t h e r ’ s pun ish m en t*I n a d d i t i o n i f a b a b y c r i e d c o n t i n u a l l y , and t h e m o th e r p a i d no a t t e n t i o n , t h e m o th e r m ight be b e a t e n by any member o f t h e community; and s u c h e member was n o t a n s w e r a b l e f o r h i s a c t s * T h i s d e p e n d e d v e r y much on t h e age o f t h e c h i l d *
The s t a t e m e n t by H e c k e l t h a t t h e c h i l d ’ s hand was p u t i n t o h o t a s h s h o u l d be q u a l i f i e d * P u n is h m e n t o f t h i s n a t u r e was g i v e n t o a c h i l d who was a h a b i t u a l wrong
d o e r , and e s p e c i a l l y when he g o t i n t o t h e h a b i t o f s t e a l i n g t h i n g s i n t h e h o u s e a n d / o r o u t s i d e , so t h a t t h e c h i l d ’ s
r i g h t hand m i g h t be p u t i n t o h o t a s h , so t h a t t h e c h i l d was u n a b l e t o u s e h i s hand a g a in * 1 Hence H e c k e l ’ s s t a t e m e n t, i n r e g a r d t o t h e l e f t hand b e i n g p u t i n t h e a s h , i s n o t u s u a l l y t h e c a s e , u n l e s s t h e c h i l d i s l e f t - h a n d e d .
The r i g h t hand was o f t e n p u n i s h e d i n s u c h c a s e s .
As s t a t e d a b o v e , i n i t i a t i o n i s a v e r y i m p o r t a n t e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n among c e r t a i n t r i b e s s u c h a s t h e Yao, N y a n j a and Lomwe, and t h e i n i t i a t i o n c e r e m o n i e s t a k e
p l a c e a t v a r i o u s i n t e r v a l s .
I n i t i a t i o n t a k e s p l a c e a t f o u r d i s t i n c t p h a s e s h R a n g e l e y , W . H . J . , ’’K otos on Chewa T r i b a l Law‘r, o p . c i t . ,
p„ 15*
2, S t a n n u s , H . S . , ’’N o te s on T r i b e s o f B r i t i s h C e n t r a l A f r i c a ” , i n R o y a l A n t h r o p o l o g i c a l I n s t i t u t e J o u r n a l
1 9 1 0 , p* 3 1 0 “ — — — — — — — — — — — — — — —
23.
i n a g i r l Ts l i f e , w h e r e a s i t i s m e r e l y t h r e e i n t h a t o f a b o y . The f i r s t one among t h e boys i s t h a t o f c i r c u m c i s i o n , w hich i s c a r r i e d o u t on t h e m when t h e y a r e b e tw e e n n i n e
and t w e l v e , o r f o u r t e e n and f i f t e e n when t h e y a t t a i n p u b e r t y , A p a r t from t h e c i r c u m c i s i o n i t s e l f , t h e boys
a r e t o l d many t h i n g s w hich would g u i d e them i n t h e i r l i v e s and i n t h e i r d e a l i n g s w i t h o t h e r p e o p l e . 1 I n a d d i t i o n t h e y a r e t a u g h t hymns and s o n g s o f t h e i r t r i b e s , o b s e r v a t i o n o f t h e s k y , s t a r s and w i n d s , d a n c e s , games, and t h e im p o r
t a n c e o f human l i f e .
I n i t i a t i o n o f g i r l s a l s o t a k e s p l a c e a t a b o u t t h e same a g e , and i n s t r u c t i o n s as t o how t o c o n d u c t t h e m s e l v e s i n t h e s o c i e t y a r e g i v e n by o l d women. ^ C h in a n m w a li”
i s a s e c o n d ceremony f o r t h e g i r l s on t h e o c c a s i o n o f t h e i r r e a c h i n g p u b e r t y and when t h e y a r e r e a d y t o g e t m a r r i e d . o A c c o r d i n g l y , i n s t r u c t i o n s p i v o t r o u n d t h e o c c a s i o n and t h e g i r l s i n t h i s s e c o n d ceremony r e c e i v e a d v i c e as t o t h e n a t u r e o f m a r r i a g e and as t o how t o s e l e c t t h e i r f u t u r e
s p o u s e s •3
The n e x t ceremony f o r b o t h g i r l s and boys t a k e s p l a c e on t h e e v e n t o f m a r r i a g e when i t becomes a j o i n t a f f a i r and i n s t r u c t i o n s and a d v i c e a r e g i v e n t o b o t h groom 1. H e c k e l , Benno, The Yao T r i b e , o p . c i t . , p . 23.
2. S t a n n u s , H . S . , HN o t e s on T r i b e s of B r i t i s h C e n t r a l A f r i c a " , 1910, p . 297.
3 . H e c k e l , Benno, The Yao T r i b e , o p . c i t . , p . 23.
