by
MOHAMED CHTATOU
Thesis submitted for the degree of Master of Philosophy
School of Oriental and African Studies University of London
1980
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A B S T R A C T
T h e p u r p o s e of thi s t h e s i s is to c a r r y ou t a p h o n e m i c a n a l y s i s o f a s p e c i f i c B e r b e r d i a l e c t so as to be a b l e to c o m m i t s p o k e n m a t e r i a l f r o m t h i s d i a l e c t to w r i t t e n f orm. T h e m a i n a i m t h e r e f o r e w a s to l a y the f o u n d a t i o n s fo r a p r a c t i c a l o r t h o g r a p h y f o r s y n c h r o n i c p u r p o s e s . T h e d i a l e c t c h o s e n f o r s t u d y is t h a t o f the i n v e s t i g a t o r , n a m e l y of the v i l l a g e o f A j d i r in the i g ^ z a n n a y a n t r i b a l a r e a o f N o r t h E a s t e r n M o r o c c o . In a d d i t i o n to the m a i n b o d y o f l e x i c a l i t e m s b a s e d o n the i n v e s t i g a t o r ' s o w n e x p e r i e n c e as a n a t i v e s p e a k e r , a q u a n t i t y of t a p e d m a t e r i a l w a s a l s o c o l l e c t e d in the f i e l d a n d s u b j e c t e d to p h o n e m i c a n a l y s i s in t e r m s of th e i n v e s t i g a t o r ' s o w n i d i o l e c t . A d e s c r i p t i o n o f the s y s t e m w as t h e n c a r r i e d o u t o n t h e b a s i s o f m i n i m a l pa i A l l l e x i c a l i t e m s u s e d f o r t h e d e s c r i p t i o n of t he s o u n d
a n d fo r the e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f m i n i m a l o p p o s i t i o n s w e r e t a p e - r e c o r d e d a n d a r e r e p r o d u c e d on a c a s s e t t e w h i c h a c c o m p a n i e s the t h e s i s .
A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T S
F i r s t l y , m y t h a n k s ar e d u e to L a F a c u l t e de L e t t r e s , U n i v e r s i t e M o h a m e d V. R a b a t , M o r o c c o , w h i c h g r a n t e d me a s c h o l a r s h i p to do p o s t g r a d u a t e s t u d i e s in E n g l a n d , a n d to the U n i v e r s i t y of L o n d o n f r o m w h o s e C e n t r a l R e s e a r c h F u n d I r e c e i v e d a g r a n t to c o m p l e t e m y f i e l d w o r k . T h a n k s , also, g o to th e S c h o o l of O r i e n t a l a n d A f r i c a n S t u d i e s w h o s e g r a n t h e l p e d m e c a r r y o u t t h i s
r e s e a r c h .
S e c o n d l y , I am i n d e b t e d .to Dr J . F . G . B y n o n w h o s u p e r v i s e d the w r i t i n g o f thi s t h e s i s . M y g r a t i t u d e to h i m is b e y o n d e x p r e s s i o n f o r h i s v a l u a b l e h e l p a n d
c o n s t a n t e n c o u r a g e m e n t a n d car e . W i t h o u t his g u i d a n c e a nd h e l p f u l a d v i c e thi s s t u d y w o u l d n o t h a v e b e e n done.
I o w e h i m a l s o m u c h o f m y t r a i n i n g in B e r b e r l i n g u i s t i c s . T h i r d l y , s p e c i a l t h a n k s go to m y f a t h e r Haj A b d e l k a d e r B e n A b d e s l a m , m y m o t h e r H a s s a n i M i m o u n a a n d m y c o u s i n A h m e d B e n R a h a l w h o h a v e c o n t r i b u t e d t h e i r v a l u a b l e t i m e
as i n f o r m a n t s .
A n d , las t bu t no t l e a s t , m y d e e p e s t t h a n k s go to m y f r i e n d s D a n n y K o l k e r , L e s l i e S i m o n a n d C l a i r e L o u c a for c o n t i n u e d e n c o u r a g e m e n t a n d hel p .
T O I M A Z I G H E N W H E R E V E R T H E Y ARE.
T A B L E O F C O N T E N T S
Page
A b s t r a c t 2
A c k n o w l e d g e m e n t s 3
T a b l e of C o n t e n t s ^
I n t r o d u c t i o n 7
C h a p t e r One: T h e P h o n e m i c S y s t e m H
C h a p t e r Two: T h e V o w e l S y s t e m 36
C h a p t e r T h r e e : T h e C o n s o n a n t a l S y s t e m 44
C h a p t e r Four: W o r d S t r e s s 97
C o n c l u s i o n 131
G l o s s a r y B i b l i o g r a p h y
132 165
SPAIN
M E D I T E R R A N E A N S E A
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I N T R O D U C T I O N
T h e p u r p o s e o f the p r e s e n t t h e s i s is to d e v i s e a p r a c t i c a l o r t h o g r a p h i c s y s t e m f or a s p e c i f i c d i a l e c t of
B e r b e r s p o k e n in t h e R i f a r e a o f M o r o c c o . W h i l e v a r i o u s s y s t e m s of a n a l y s i s h a v e b e e n d e v i s e d , fo r i n s t a n c e the p r o s o d i c a n a l y s i s o f th e F i r t h i a n S c h o o l in B r i t a i n or t h e g e n e r a t i v e p h o n o l o g y c u r r e n t l y f a s h i o n a b l e in A m e r i c a , o n l y a s e g m e n t a l a n a l y s i s o f t h e t y p e d e s c r i b e d b y
T r u b e t z k o y a n d his s u c c e s s o r s is r e a l l y c a p a b l e o f p r o d u c i n g a p r a c t i c a l o r t h o g r a p h y f o r c o m m i t t i n g to w r i t t e n f o r m a p r e v i o u s l y u n w r i t t e n l a n g u a g e . O f c o u r s e s u c h a p r a c t i c a l s y s t e m m a y be to a l e s s e r or g r e a t e r e x t e n t m o r p h o p h o n e m i c , a n d t h e d e c i s i o n as to e x a c t l y w h e r e to d r a w the lin e b e t w e e n p h o n e m i c s a n d m o r p h o p h o n e m i c s is
l i k e l y to be a p r a c t i c a l o n e b a s e d o n the a c t u a l e x p e r i e n c e o f c o m m i t t i n g th e l a n g u a g e in q u e s t i o n to w r i t i n g .
H o w e v e r , w h a t e v e r t h e n u m b e r o f m o r p h o p h o n e m i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s ar e f i n a l l y a d o p t e d , a n y s u c h s y s t e m m u s t in th e f i r s t i n s t a n c e d e p e n d u p o n a t r a d i t i o n a l p h o n e m i c a n a l y s i s . I h a v e u s e d as m o d e l s in m y a p p r o a c h t w o w o r k s in p a r t i c u l a r ; the f i r s t is b y A. M a r t i n e t (La D e s c r i p t i o n p h o n o - l o g i q u e , a v e c a p p l i c a t i o n a u p a r l e r f r a n c o - p r o v e n g a l
d 'H a u t e v i l l e , S a v o i e , P a r i s , M i n a r d , 1 95 6 ) , t h e s e c o n d is b y A. C o h e n (T h e P h o n e m e s o f E n g l i s h , T h e H a g u e , M a r t i n u s N i j h o f f , 1952). O f c o u r s e I h a v e n o t b e e n a b l e to s o l v e
8
al l th e p r o b l e m s o f t h e p h o n o l o g y o f the d i a l e c t b e i n g s t u d i e d . T h r e e a r e a s in p a r t i c u l a r a r e n o t t r e a t e d her e , a r e a s so i n t e r d e p e n d e n t o f e a c h o t h e r t h a t t h e y c a n n o t be r e s o l v e d in i s o l a t i o n . T h e s e are:
the s y l l a b i c s t r u c t u r e o f the w o r d , t h e q u e s t i o n s of c l u s t e r s a n d n e u t r a l i z a t i o n a n d t h e p r o b l e m o f s c h w a i n s e r t i o n . H o w e v e r , a l t h o u g h t h e s e a r e a ll i m p o r t a n t p r o b l e m s of t he p h o n o l o g y o f a n y B e r b e r d i a l e c t , t h e y ar e n o t v i t a l fo r the q u e s t i o n o f d e v i s i n g a p r a c t i c a l o r t h o g r a p h y . T h e m a i n p r o b l e m s r e g a r d i n g s y l l a b l e s t r u c t u r e c o n c e r n s y l l a b l e c e n t r e s w h e r e t h e s e a r e n o n v o c a l i c ( s y l l a b i c f r i c a t i v e s , etc.) a n d t h e e x a c t l o c a t i o n of s y l l a b l e b o u n d a r i e s . T h i s l a t t e r p r o b l e m is c l o s e l y i n t e r c o n n e c t e d w i t h t he q u e s t i o n o f c l u s t e r s a n d n e u t r a l i z a t i o n . F i n a l l y , s c h w a i n s e r t i o n is a g a i n a n i m p o r t a n t p r o b l e m to b e s o l v e d , a n d t h e r u l e s g o v e r n i n g it m u s t be t h e s u b j e c t o f c o n t i n u e d r e s e a r c h . H o w e v e r , the i m p o r t a n t p o i n t is t h a t I h a v e n o t b e e n a b l e to f i n d a s i n g l e m i n i m a l p a i r b a s e d s o l e l y o n the p r e s e n c e or a b s e n c e o f a s c h w a a n d it is t h e r e f o r e to b e a s s u m e d t h a t s c h w a is n o t a p h o n e m e a n d s h o u l d n o t t h e r e f o r e b e
w r i t t e n in a p r a c t i c a l o r t h o g r a p h y o f th e l a n g u a g e .
T h e d i a l e c t I h a v e s t u d i e d in th e p r e s e n t t h e s i s is tha t of the v i l l a g e o f A j d i r . A j d i r is s i t u a t e d in the t r i b a l a r e a of i g ^ z a n n a y a n ( A r . g z e n n a y a ) , at a d i s t a n c e of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 10 0 k i l o m e t r e s to t h e n o r t h e a s t of the p r o v i n c i a l c a p i t a l of T a z a . T h e i n h a b i t a n t s
of A j d i r b e l o n g to t h e i h a r a s a n clan, w h i c h is a p a r t of t h e t r i b e o f i g ^ z a n n a y a n . F u r t h e r m o r e , e v e n in a c o m m u n i t y as s m a l l as A j d i r ( a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 , 0 0 0 i n h a b i tan t s ) t h e r e is u n l i k e l y to b e c o m p l e t e h o m o g e n e i t y b e t w e e n th e p h o n e m i c s y s t e m s o f th e v a r i o u s i n h a b i t a n t s .
I h a v e t h e r e f o r e u s e d m y o w n i d i o l e c t as t h e b a s i s fo r m y a n a l y s i s . It w o u l d n a t u r a l l y b e i n t e r e s t i n g to c o m p a r e this w i t h the s y s t e m s e m p l o y e d b y o t h e r s e c t i o n s of the c o m m u n i t y a n d o t h e r a g e g r o u p s ( bo r n in 1952, I a m 28 y e a r s o l d ) . T h e d i f f e r e n c e s h o w e v e r a r e l i k e l y to b e s m a l l , a n d a b o v e a l l s y s t e m a t i c , a n d t h e r e f o r e do n o t c o n c e r n us in the d e v i s i n g o f a p r a c t i c a l o r t h o g r a p h y . T h e m e t h o d I h a v e u s e d in m y a n a l y s i s is as f o l l o w s : d u r i n g the s u m m e r s o f 1 9 7 8 a n d 1979 I s p e n t t w o p e r i o d s in th e a r e a o f A j d i r m a k i n g t a p e r e c o r d i n g s o f m y f r i e n d s a n d r e l a t i v e s t e l l i n g a n d e x p l a i n i n g f o l k t a l e s a n d o t h e r g e n r e s of o r a l l i t e r a t u r e , t h e l o c a l d i a l e c t s , etc. I h a v e to a l a r g e e x t e n t t r a n s c r i b e d t he c o n t e n t of t h e s e t a p e s in m y o w n p h o n e m i c s y s t e m , a n d f r o m t h e m I h a v e e x t r a c t e d the l e x i c a l i t e m s w h i c h , s u p p l e m e n t e d b y m y o w n e x p e r i e n c e as a n a t i v e s p e a k e r of the d i a l e c t in q u e s t i o n , h a v e f o r m e d t he b a s i s o f t h e p r e s e n t a n a l y s i s . T h e s e
i t e m s w e r e t r a n s f e r r e d to t w o c a r d i n d e x e s , o n e of m i n i m a l p a i r s a n d one of p a t t e r n s .
N a t u r a l l y the i d e a l w o u l d h a v e b e e n to h a v e f o u n d m i n i m a l p a i r s c o n t r a s t i n g e a c h c o n s o n a n t or v o w e l s e g m e n t w i t h all the o t h e r s e g m e n t s o f the s y s t e m for e v e r y
10
e n v i r o n m e n t . T h i s i d e a l s i t u a t i o n h a s n o t in f a c t b e e n r e a l i z e d . I h a v e h o w e v e r b e e n a b l e to f i n d m i n i m a l p a i r s for m o s t s e g m e n t s f o r a n y p a r t i c u l a r p o i n t or
m a n n e r of a r t i c u l a t i o n w h e r e a s i n g l e f e a t u r e o p p o s i t i o n ( v o i c e d - v o i c e l e s s , p l o s i v e - f r i c a t i v e , e m p h a t i c - n o n - e m p h a t i c , l a b i a l i z e d - n o n l a b i a l i z e d a n d p a l a t a l i z e d - n o n p a l a t a l i z e d ) is i n v o l v e d . T h e o p p o s i t i o n g e m i n a t e - n o n g e m i n a t e a p p e a r s o r i g i n a l l y to h a v e b e e n a m o r p h o l o g i c a l one. H o w e v e r , it is n o w so c l o s e l y i n t e r r e l a t e d w i t h th e p h o n e m i c s y s t e m t h a t I h a v e a l s o d e a l t w i t h it
in the lis t of m i n i m a l p a i r s .
C H A P T E R O N E
12
T H E P H O N E M I C S Y S T E M
A s w e s h a l l show, in o u r a n a l y s i s th e p h o n e m i c s y s t e m of the i d i o l e c t w h i c h is the s u b j e c t o f the p r e s e n t s t u d y c o m p r i s e s 48 p h o n e m e s . A l t h o u g h we h a v e n o t m a d e a s t u d y o f t h e s e in t e r m s o f m a n n e r o f a r t i c u l a t i o n or of a c o u s t i c f e a t u r e s , n o r a t t e m p t e d to d e s c r i b e t h e i r a l l o - p h o n i c v a r i a n t s , w e h a v e g i v e n a b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n o f e a c h
to a l l o w t h e m to be i d e n t i f i e d . T h e s y s t e m c o m p r i s e s six v o w e l s :
1. A c l o s e f r o n t v o w e l , w h i c h is r e p r e s e n t e d in o u r s y s t e m b y t he s y m b o l i. T h i s s o u n d is f o u n d in s u c h w o r d s as:
i z a n : ’ f l i e s ', 9azi ri : ’m o o n l i g h t ’ , a r i : 'a l f a ’ ;
A m i d f r o n t v o w e l w h i c h w e r e p r e s e n t b y m e a n s o f the s i g n e. T h i s s e g m e n t e x i s t s in s u c h w o r d s as
'e m b e r s ’ , 'd r e a m s ’ , a 9be : ' p i g e o n ';
, V
er i z 3eza
3. A, i/iorb ape-oi v o w e l , r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e s i g n a.
W e f i n d this v o w e l in, f or i n s t a n c e , th e f o l l o w i n g w o r d s :
ayi : ' b u t t e r m i l k * , m a n i : 'w h e r e ';
fa : 'to y a w n ' ;
4. A: tor\g o p e n - v o w e l , r e p r e s e n t e d b y th e s i g n a, w h i c h o c c u r s in s u c h w o r d s as:
an : 'f l o u r ', 9 a s y a Q : ’s h a r e ',
$ a : rl e g ';
5. A m i d b a c k v o we l , r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e s y m b o l o, w h i c h is f o u n d in s u c h w o r d s as:
o 9 a n : ' o r c h a r d ' ,
t o h a : 'man's n i c k n a m e ' , aqsfo : 'p e e l ';
6. A c l o s e b a c k v o we l , r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e s i g n u.
T h i s s o u n d is f o u n d in, fo r e x a m p l e , th e f o l l o w i n g w o r d s :
u m a : 'my b r o t h e r ' ,
a r u m i : 'a C h r i s t i a n , a E u r o p e a n ' , f u r u : 's t r i n g '.
B e s i d e s th e v o w e l s , t h e r e a r e tw o s e m i - v o w e l s :
7. A f r o n t s e m i - v o w e l , r e p r e s e n t e d b y y. We f i n d this s e g m e n t n o n - g e m i n a t e in, for i n s t a n c e :
14
y i s s : 'h o r s e ',
8aya : ' t h a t ' s all',
n i y : 'to m o u n t a h o r s e ' , a n d g e m i n a t e in:
9 a y y a : ' b l a c k w o m a n s e r v a n t ; f e m a l e s la v e ' , z z i y y : 'to m i l k a cow, a goa t , e t c . . . ' , etc.
N o n - g e m i n a t e y o c c u r s in all p o s i t i o n s but, w h e r e a s g e m i n a t e y y is f o u n d in i n t e r v o c a l i c and s y l l a b l e - f i n a l p o s i t i o n s , w e h a v e n o t b e e n a b l e to f i n d a n y e x a m p l e w i t h y y in i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n .
A b a c k s e m i - v o w e l , r e p r e s e n t e d b y th e s i g n w. It o c c u r s n o n - g e m i n a t e in, f o r e x a m p l e , th e f o l l o w i n g w o r d s :
w a m i w a q i l a a w a t a n i
'w h e n ', 'p e r h a p s ',
1 a n a t i o n a l i s t ',
'a p e r s o n w h o s t u t t e r s in h i s s p e e c h ' ; a q a w q a w
a n d g e m i n a t e in:
a w w a m : 'alfa g r a s s ' .
N o n - g e m i n a t e w e x i s t s in al l p o s i t i o n s , w h e r e a s g e m i n a t e w w s e e m s to o c c u r in i n t e r v o c a l i c p o s i t i o n only.
In a d d i t i o n to t h e s e v o w e l s a n d s e m i - v o w e l s , w e h a v e i d e n t i f i e d 42 c o n s o n a n t s in t h e s y s t e m o f A j d i r :
9. A v o i c e l e s s b i l a b i a l p l o s i v e , r e p r e s e n t e d b y the
s i g n p. T h i s is f o u n d n o n - g e m i n a t e in s u c h w o r d s as:
p a x i t a : ' m a s t u r b a t i o n ' , a s p a ny u : 'Spaniard',
spa9ina : ' tennis shoes', pa § p o : 'passport';
and g e mi n a t e in, for example:
$appa : 'hoe',
p a p p a : 'bread Cnursery language)', p u p p u h : 'man's nickname*.
N o n - g e m i n a t e £ a n d g e m i n a t e £ £ o c c u r i n i t i a l l y a n d i n t e r v o c a l i c a l l y b u t I h a v e n o t f o u n d a n y e x a m p l e o f t h e i r o c c u r r e n c e in f i n a l p o s i t i o n . T h e s o u n d £ is a l s o f o u n d in n i c k n a m e s a n d a n i m a l c a l l s as in:
p u n t o : ' m a n ' s n i c k n a m e 1 ,
p r r : 'a c a l l u s e d to a t t r a c t t h e a t t e n t i o n of c o w s a n d c a l v e s b e f o r e s e r v i n g t h e m g r a s s or hay*.
10. A v o i c e d b i l a b i a l p l o s i v e , r e p r e s e n t e d b y m e a n s of the s y m b o l b. T h i s s e g m e n t e x i s t s n o n - g e m i n a t e in s u c h w o r d s a s :
b a b a : ’ (my) f a t h e r 1, abaqziz' : ' c o c k r o a c h ' ,
r ^ s b a b : ' r ea s o n ; j u s t i f i c a t i o n ' ; a n d g e m i n a t e in:
bbec : ' to p u t ' , q u b b u : ' b u c k e t ' , k a b b : 'to p o u r '.
16
11. A l a b i o d e n t a l f r i c a t i v e , r e p r e s e n t e d b y m e a n s o f th e s y m b o l f. T h i s s o u n d o f w h i c h t h e r e is no v o i c e d c o u n t e r p a r t in t h i s s y s t e m is f o u n d n o n g e m i n a t e in, for i n s t a n c e , t h e f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e s :
f a f a : 'to l o o k for', f a q : 'to w a k e up', a f u n a s : 'o x ',
z z u f : 'c h e s t ';
a n d g e m i n a t e in:
f f a y : 'to go out', k u f f u : 'f o a m ',
s u f f : 'to w e t '.
N o n - g e m i n a t e f a n d g e m i n a t e ff o c c u r i n i t i a l l y , i n t e r v o c a l i c a l l y a n d f i n a l l y .
12. A n o n - e m p h a t i c v o i c e l e s s d e n t a l p l o s i v e , r e p r e s e n t e d b y th e s y m b o l t. T h i s s e g m e n t e x i s t s n o n - g e m i n a t e in s u c h w o r d s as:
t a r i : 'she w r i t e s ' , h a t i t a : ' p a n c a k e s ' , a r b i t : 'r o o m ';
a n d g e m i n a t e in:
t t a : 'to b e g ',
a s t a t t u : 'the n a m e of a c l a n in A j d i r ' . We f i n d n o n - g e m i n a t e _t in all p o s i t i o n s a n d g e m i n a t e Jtt i n i t i a l l y a n d i n t e r v o c a l i c a l l y , b u t we h a v e n o t b e e n a b l e to f i n d a n y e x a m p l e of it in f in a l p o s i t i o n .
1 3
.
14.
A n o n - e m p h a t i c v o i c e d d e n t a l p l o s i v e w h i c h we r e p r e s e n t b y m e a n s o f t h e s i g n d. T h i s s e g m e n t e x i s t s n o n - g e m i n a t e in, for e x a m p l e :
d a d d u s d a e m u s 0ida
r i d
’w a l k ! ( n u r s e r y l a n g u a g e ) ' ,
’m a n ' s n i c k n a m e ’ ,
’a l i t t l e w o r m f o u n d in water' d r a w n f r o m w e l l s a n d s p r i n g s ' ,
'it is n o t ...';
a n d g e m i n a t e in:
d d i n : ' r e l i g i o n ' , 0 a d d a 9 : ' house',
b a d d : 'stand'., s t a n d u p ! , e t c .' .
N o n - g e m i n a t e d a n d g e m i n a t e d d o c c u r in all p o s i t i o n s .
A v o i c e l e s s d e n t a l f r i c a t i v e , r e p r e s e n t e d b y the s y m b o l 0. It is f o u n d n o n - g e m i n a t e in s u c h w o r d s a s :
0a 0 a r a b
'this o n e C h a l k i n g a b o u t a f e m a l e ) ' , 'to r o o f a h o u s e ' ,
i9r i : ' s t a r ',
qa9 : ' t h e r e he i s '.
W e f i n d n o n - g e m i n a t e 0_ in all p o s i t i o n s .
G e m i n a t e 00 d o e s n o t s e e m to o c c u r at al l in the s y s t e m o f t h i s d i a l e c t .
15. A n o n - e m p h a t i c v o i c e d d e n t a l f r i c a t i v e , w h i c h w e
-18
r e p r e s e n t b y m e a n s o f t h e s i g n d_. T h i s s e g m e n t e x i s t s n o n - g e m i n a t e in s u c h w o r d s as:
3 u s i d : ’s he c a m e ' ,
3 a r a : ' s p r i n g (of w a t e r ) ' , a 3 a n : ' i n t e s t i n e s ' ,
ea3 : 'y e t ';
a n d g e m i n a t e in at l e a s t o n e w o r d : a 3 3 a n : ' b r u s h w o o d ' .
We f i n d n o n - g e m i n a t e 3^ in a l l p o s i t i o n s . In the o n l y e x a m p l e w e h a v e f o u n d o f g e m i n a t e 3_3_ , it is in i n t e r v o c a l i c p o s i t i o n .
16. A n e m p h a t i c v o i c e l e s s d e n t a l p l o s i v e w h i c h w e
r e p r e s e n t b y m e a n s o f th e s y m b o l t. T h i s s o u n d e x i s t s n o n - g e m i n a t e in, f o r i n s t a n c e :
f u h a : ' ma n ' s n a m e ' , a % a $ : ' a l o t ' ,
3 it : 'e y e ';
a n d g e m i n a t e in:
•fctaf : 1 p i e c e ',
a t ^ a n : ' i l l n e s s t h a t a f f e c t s the eyes', s a t t : 'what is l e f t o v e r a f t e r e a t i n g or
s h a r i n g o u t s o m e t h i n g ' .
N o n - g e m i n a t e % a n d g e m i n a t e ^ t a r e f o u n d in all p o s i t i o n s .
17. A n e m p h a t i c v o i c e d d e n t a l p l o s i v e , r e p r e s e n t e d b y m e a n s of the s i g n Xt is f o u n d n o n - g e m i n a t e in, for exam p l e :
18.
19.
d ar : 'to h u r t ',
: ' a f t e r n o o n p r a y e r ' ; j d h o
a n d g e m i n a t e in, f o r i n s t a n c e :
d ^ a q : 'to r e f r a i n f r o m t a l k i n g to a p e r s o n b e c a u s e o f a d i p e a n u t »
We h a v e n o t b e e n a b l e to f i n d a n y e x a m p l e o f e i t h e r n o n - g e m i n a t e d or g e m i n a t e d<j in i n t e r v o c a l i c a n d f i n a l p o s i t i o n s .
A n e m p h a t i c v o i c e d d e n t a l f r i c a t i v e , r e p r e s e n t e d b y the s y m b o l T h i s s e g m e n t o c c u r s n o n - g e m i n a t e in s u c h w o r d s as:
$o : 'to f l y ',
3a : 'l e g ',
arqafl i : ' j u d g e ' ,
3a$ : ' f i n g e r ' , etc.
W h i l e n o n - g e m i n a t e jj. o c c u r s in a l l p o s i t i o n s , we h a v e n o t b e e n a b l e to f i n d a n y e x a m p l e of g e m i n a t e 3 $•
A b i l a b i a l n a s a l w h i c h w e r e p r e s e n t in o u r s y s t e m by m e a n s o f the s y m b o l m. It is f o u n d n o n
g e m i n a t e in s u c h w o r d s as:
'b u t ', 'w h y ',
' b e a r d ( d i m i n u t i v e f o r m ) ' , a x x a m : 'r o o m ':
m a s a m a y a 3ama0
20
a n d g e m i n a t e in:
m m a r : 'to show; to a d v i s e ; to s u p e r v i s e ; to t e a c h ' ,
9 a mm o 9 : 'land; c o u n t r y ' , z u m m : 'to f a s t ' , etc.
N o n - g e m i n a t e m a n d g e m i n a t e m m b o t h o c c u r in all p o s i t i o n s .
20. A n a l v e o l a r n a s a l , r e p r e s e n t e d b y m e a n s o f t h e s i g n n. T h i s s e g m e n t is f o u n d n o n - g e m i n a t e in, f o r i n s t a n c e :
n a m : 'to get u s e d to', n u n z a : ' w o m a n ' s n a m e ' , m a n i : ' w h e r e ',
a m a n : ' w a t e r ' ; a n d g e m i n a t e in:
n n i y y a Q : ' g o o d w i l l ' , i n n a s : 'he t o l d h i m ' ,
h a n n : 'to be c l e m e n t ' , etc.
W e f i n d g e m i n a t e n a n d n o n - g e m i n a t e n n in i n i t i a l , i n t e r v o c a l i c a n d f i n a l p o s i t i o n s .
21. A v e l a r n a s a l , w h i c h w e r e p r e s e n t in o u r s y s t e m
b y m e a n s o f the s y m b o l n* It o c c u r s n o n - g e m i n a t e in, f o r e x a m p l e :
n i $ a ? : fo f s le e p ' , n i f r i : 'of the cave';
a n d g e m i n a t e in:
n n i y z q : 'of th e r i v e r 1.
N e i t h e r n o n - g e m i n a t e rj_ n o r g e m i n a t e ryq a p p e a r to o c c u r in i n t e r v o c a l i c or f i n a l p o s i t i o n s ,
2 2 . /I |akia(fz.e<i. v e l a r n a s a l , w h i c h w e r e p r e s e n t in t h i s s y s t e m b y m e a n s of the s y m b o l V ^ . T h i s s e g m e n t is f o u n d n o n - g e m i n a t e in, f o r e x a m p l e :
r)W a : 'my b r o t h e r ' , a p W a : ' O h m y brother!';
a n d g e m i n a t e in:
nr)W iy • 11 am t i r e d o f s i t t i n g ; I a m h o t an d r e s t l e s s b e c a u s e o f l a c k of a c t i o n r ,
ir)pW a : 'he is t i r e d o f s i t t i n g ; h e is
v e r y h o t a n d v e r y r e s t l e s s b e c a u s e of l a c k of a c t i o n 1 ,
nnW : 'Be c o o k e d ! ' .
N o n - g e m i n a t e is f o u n d i n i t i a l l y , i n t e r v o c a l i c a l l y b u t n o t f i n a l l y . G e m i n a t e rir|W is f o u n d in t h e s a m e two p o s i t i o n s a n d is a l s o p e r h a p s s y l l a b i c in the l as t e x a m p l e .
23. A l a t e r a l a l v e o l a r l i q u i d , r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e s y m b o l K It is f o u n d n o n - g e m i n a t e in w o r d s s u c h as:
l i s t i q l a l : ' i n d e p e n d e n c e ' , l x a § e : 'man ' s n a m e ' ,
22
a l i m a n : ' G e r m a n y ' ,
b u q l l a l : 'a v i l l a g e in t h e R i f (s s a f 9 n- b u q l l a l ) ';
a n d g e m i n a t e in:
l l i f : '(my) love, (my) s w e e t h e a r t ' , r a l l a : ' m a d a m ' .
N o n - g e m i n a t e 1_ o c c u r s in a ll p o s i t i o n s w h e r e a s I h a v e f o u n d n o e x a m p l e o f g e m i n a t e 1_1 in f i n a l p o s i t i o n .
24. A r o l l e d a l v e o l a r l i q u i d , w h i c h w e r e p r e s e n t in this s y s t e m by the s i g n r. It is f o u n d n o n g e m i n a t e in, fo r e x a m p l e :
r u m m r a m a n a r a h h a d
'h a y ',
' s e c u r i t y ; p e a c e ' , 'c o m e h e r e I 1 ,
's h u t u p I 1 ;
Bar
a n d g e m i n a t e in:
r r a : 'o r d e r s h o u t e d to a d o n k e y to m a k e it g o ' ,
a r r a : 'i d e m ' ,
p r r : 'an a n i m a l c a l l u s e d to a t t r a c t the a t t e n t i o n o f c o w s a n d c a l v e s , etc. ...
b e f o r e s e r v i n g t h e m g r a s s , h a y or s o m e o t h e r f e e d ' .
We f i n d n o n - g e m i n a t e r in all p o s i t i o n s . A l l the e x a m p l e s we h a v e b e e n a b l e to f i n d o f g e m i n a t e
rr a r e in a n i m a l c a l l s , o t h e r e x a m p l e s are:
q r r or x a r r : 'a c a l l u s e d to c h a s e a w a y c ow s a n d c a l v e s , e t c . . . . or p r e v e n t t h e m f r o m e a t i n g s o m e t h i n g *.
25. A n e m p h a t i c a l v e o l a r l a t e r a l , w h i c h w e r e p r e s e n t in the s y s t e m o f t h i s d i a l e c t b y m e a n s o f the s i g n
It is f o u n d n o n - g e m i n a t e in, fo r i n s t a n c e : l a l l a s : ’f o o t ( n u r s e r y l a n g u a g e ) ’ ;
a n d g e m i n a t e in s u c h w o r d s as:
l j a h : ’God', a l l a h : ’O h God.'' .
N o n - g e m i n a t e I d o e s n o t s e e m to o c c u r i n t e r v o c a l i c a l l y or f i n a l l y w h e r e a s t h e r e a r e n o e x a m p l e s of g e m i n a t e f i n a l l y . G e m i n a t e 1 ^ is f o u n d e s p e c i a l l y in n u r s e r y w o r d s a n d in w o r d s t h a t s t e m f r o m the A r a b i c w o r d 1 l a h m e a n i n g 'God' as, fo r i n s t a n c e :
w l } a h : 'by G o d !', l l a h i n u : 'my G o d ’ ,
a l l a h : ’O h God.'', etc.
26. A n e m p h a t i c r o l l e d a l v e o l a r l i q u i d , r e p r e s e n t e d by the s y m b o l p. It o c c u r s n o n - g e m i n a t e in, fo r e x a m p l e , s u c h w o r d s as:
raz : ' h u n g e r , f a m i n e ' ,
24
a r a q : ’p l a c e , s e a t ’,
a p u m i : ’a C h r i s t i a n , a E u r o p e a n 1 , etc.
a n d g e m i n a t e in:
t a r r : ' e x c l a m a t i o n of d i s c o n t e n t a n d d i s p l e a s u r e ’ .
I h a v e n o t b e e n a b l e to f i n d e x a m p l e s of n o n
g e m i n a t e £ in f i n a l p o s i t i o n a n d o f g e m i n a t e rr in i n i t i a l a n d i n t e r v o c a l i c p o s i t i o n s .
27. A n o n - e m p h a t i c v o i c e l e s s a l v e o l a r f r i c a t i v e , w h i c h w e r e p r e s e n t b y the s y m b o l _s. It is f o u n d n o n g e m i n a t e in s u c h w o r d s as:
s u : 'to d r i n k ’ , 9 a s a : ’1 i v e r ’ , qas : ’to t a s t e ’ , a n d g e m i n a t e in:
s s u : 'to s p r e a d o ut a c a r p e t ’ ,
8 a s s u 6 : ' b l a n k e t s , c a r p e t s a n d m a t s ’ , s h u s s : 'to feel ' , etc.
N o n - g e m i n a t e £ a n d g e m i n a t e s_s o c c u r in all p os it i o n s .
28. A n o n - e m p h a t i c v o i c e d a l v e o l a r f r i c a t i v e , w e r e p r e s e n t b y th e s y m b o l z_. It is f o u n d n o n g e m i n a t e , fo r i n s t a n c e , in s u c h w o r d s as:
z a w a g : 'to i m p l o r e ' , . z a w a : 'to i n s u l t ’ ,
29.
30
9 a z a : ’T a z a , a p r o v i n c i a l c a p i t a l in N o r t h e r n M o r o c c o ' ,
inez : 'a n k l e ';
a n d g e m i n a t e in:
zzif : 'handkerchief', izza : 'heartburn',
s e i z z : 'to e x p r e s s love, a f f e c t i o n a n d f r i e n d s h i p t o w a r d s a p e r s o n ' . N o n - g e m i n a t e £ a n d g e m i n a t e z_z o c c u r in all p o s i t i o n s .
A n o n - e m p h a t i c v o i c e l e s s p a l a t o - a l v e o l a r f r i c a t i v e w h i c h we r e p r e s e n t in o u r s y s t e m b y m e a n s o f the
s y m b o l ?. T h i s s e g m e n t o c c u r s n o n - g e m i n a t e in, f or i n s t a n c e , s u c h e x a m p l e s as:
sqs : 'to be a p a r t n e r with; to share',
- V
i s a r i : 'r a m ',
y
aris : 'hair Cof a man); feathers';
a n d g e m i n a t e in:
v ^ r . ,
s sag : 'e a s t ', a s s i r : ' y o g u r t ' ,
hass : 'to c u t grass', etc.
y y y
N o n - g e m i n a t e _s a n d g e m i n a t e s_s a r e f o u n d in all p o s i t i o n s .
A n o n - e m p h a t i c v o i c e d p a l a t o - a l v e o l a r f r i c a t i v e ,
y
r e p r e s e n t e d b y m e a n s o f th e s i g n z. T h i s s o u n d is f o u n d n o n - g e m i n a t e in, f o r e x a m p l e , s u c h w o r d s as:
26
z ar a b : 'to t r y ’ , az a 9 ir : ’m a t ’ ,
V V V v
h a z u z u m a z u z : ’m y t h i c a l p e o p l e o f s m a l l h e i g h t 1 a n d g e m i n a t e in:
VV .
z z a w i : ' i n c e n s e ,
V V
a z z a r : ’w i d o w e r ' ,
.v V ,
s i z z : 'to p e e p ’ , etc.
/ V V
N o n - g e m i n a t e z_ a n d g e m i n a t e zz_ a r e f o u n d in all p o s i t i o n s .
31. A n e m p h a t i c v o i c e l e s s a l v e o l a r f r i c a t i v e w h i c h w e r e p r e s e n t in o u r s y s t e m b y m e a n s o f the s y m b o l £.
T h i s s e g m e n t is f o u n d in, fo r i n s t a n c e , s u c h w o r d s as :
'to b l o w ',
'a v e r s e o f t h e K o r a n ' , 'a l o t ';
$u9 3a§o9 a t a §
a n d g e m i n a t e in:
$ $ q f : 'c h a n g e ',
i$sa9 : 'he h i d him; he d i d n o t b e t r a y h i m 1 , We f i n d n o n - g e m i n a t e ^ in a l l p o s i t i o n s , w h e r e a s f o r g e m i n a t e _s£ w e c o u l d n o t f i n d a n y e x a m p l e of its o c c u r r e n c e in f i n a l p o s i t i o n .
y
e t c .
32. A n e m p h a t i c v o i c e d a l v e o l a r f r i c a t i v e , r e p r e s e n t e d b y the s ig n £. T h i s s o u n d o c c u r s n o n - g e m i n a t e in, for e x a m p l e , s u c h w o r d s as:
ziyyo& : fto t i g h t e n ' ,
zo : 'to v i s i t the t o m b o f a s a i n t ; to k i s s ',
izi : ' g a l l - b l a d d e r ' , raz : 'h u n g e r ';
a n d g e m i n a t e in:
zz i y : 'to m i l k 1 , i z z a n : ' e x c r e m e n t * ,
tazz : ' e x c l a m a t i o n e x p r e s s i n g d i s c o n t e n t * , etc.
N o n - g e m i n a t e z a n d g e m i n a t e £_z o c c u r in all p o s i t i o n s .
33. A n e m p h a t i c v o i c e l e s s p a l a t o - a l v e o l a r f r i c a t i v e , r e p r e s e n t e d b y the s i g n j>. T h i s s o u n d is f o u n d n o n - g e m i n a t e in s u c h w o r d s as:
V
sawa : 'to c o n s u l t ' , a s a q o : 'a x e ' ,
a $ a w i 9 : 'o l d p i e c e o f c l o t h ' ; a n d g e m i n a t e in:
s § a : 'to f i l l 1 , u g s a y : ' g r e y h o u n d ' , m u $ s : 'c a t ', e t c .
v
N o e x a m p l e s o f n o n - g e m i n a t e ^ o c c u r r i n g in f i n a l p o s i t i o n h a v e b e e n f o u n d w h e r e a s g e m i n a t e
e x i s t s in all p o s i t i o n s .
34. A n e m p h a t i c v o i c e d p a l a t o - a l v e o l a r f r i c a t i v e , w h i c h we r e p r e s e n t by t h e s i g n z. T h i s s o u n d is f o u n d
28
35.
36.
n o n - g e m i n a t e in, f o r i n s t a n c e , s u c h w o r d s as:
'to c o p u l a t e (sa i d o f a n i m a l s ) ' , 'to d r a g o n e s e l f ' ,
' b a c k s i d e ' ; a n d g e m i n a t e in:
z z q f : ' r a v i n e ',
a z z q : ' n e i g h b o u r 1 , etc.
Vz a w q
za r 8 a z r a
We c o u l d n o t f i n d e x a m p l e s of n o n - g e m i n a t e £ or g e m i n a t e zz in f i n a l p o s i t i o n .
V V c 3 n c a n a
. v . a n i c i
^ V V
9 a m g a c
V
9 a y y u c
A v o i c e l e s s p a l a t o - a l v e o l a r a f f r i c a t e , w h i c h w e r e p r e s e n t b y th e s i g n c. T h i s s e g m e n t o c c u r s n o n - g e m i n a t e in, fo r e x a m p l e , s u c h w o r d s as:
't a m b o u r i n e ', 's h e p h e r d ' , Te g g f ,
' a s s ' ; a n d g e m i n a t e in:
V v , ,
c c a : 'to p r e s s ',
iccaQ : 'he p r e s s e d it'.
N o n - g e m i n a t e c o c c u r s in all p o s i t i o n s , w h e r e a s
V V
g e m i n a t e cc o c c u r s i n i t i a l l y , a n d i n t e r v o c a l i c a l l y b u t I h a v e f o u n d n o c a s e s of its o c c u r r e n c e in
f i n a l p o s i t i o n .
A v o i c e d p a l a t o - a l v e o l a r a f f r i c a t e , w h i c h w e r e p r e - V’
sent in th i s s y s t e m b y m e a n s o f the s i g n £. T h i s
s o u n d o c c u r s n o n - g e m i n a t e in, f o r i n s t a n c e , s u c h w o r d s as:
g a y g a : ' t he r e w a s ' ,
a e i g i w : ’a f i l t h y d i r t y p e r s o n ' , zzag : 'to p r a y ’ ;
a n d g e m i n a t e in:
gga z : 'to g e t h u n g r y ’ , m a g g a : 'a k i n d o f b i r d ’ ,
a r x a g g : ’v i n e g a r * , etc.
V y ^
B o t h n o n - g e m i n a t e g a n d g e m i n a t e g g are f o u n d in all p o s i t i o n s .
37. A v o i c e l e s s v e l a r p l o s i v e , w h i c h we r e p r e s e n t b y m e a n s of the s y m b o l k. T h i s s e g m e n t o c c u r s n o n g e m i n a t e in, for i n s t a n c e :
k u f f u : ’f o a m ’ ,
kapot : 'to r e a d the K o r a n o v e r a n d o v e r a n d m e m o r i s e i t ’ ,
m u k a : 'o w l ',
z z a y a k : ’f r o m y o u ’ ; an d g e m i n a t e in:
k k q : ’to g e t up; to w a k e u p ’ , s a k k u : ’b i s a c 1 ,
s a k k : 'to s e n d ’ , etc.
N o n - g e m i n a t e k a n d g e m i n a t e k k o c c u r in all p o s i t i o n s .
30
38. A v o i c e d v e l a r p l o s i v e , w h i c h w e r e p r e s e n t b y t he s i g n g in our s y s t e m . T h i s s o u n d is f o u n d n o n g e m i n a t e in s u c h w o r d s as:
g a r r u
V .
a g a z i z a w a g
1 c i g a r e t t e ',
'the a c t o f j o i n i n g the a r m y 1, 1 to i m p l o r e ';
a n d g e m i n a t e in:
g g q : 'to b a k e b r e a d ' , 8 igg az : ' t a t t o o i n g ' , etc.
We f i n d n o n - g e m i n a t e g in al l p o s i t i o n s but,
w h e r e a s g e m i n a t e 'gg o c c u r s i n i t i a l l y a n d i n t e r v o c a - l i c a l l y w e h a v e n o t f o u n d a n y e x a m p l e of its
o c c u r r i n g f i n a l l y .
39. A l a b i a l i z e d v o i c e l e s s v e l a r . plvsive, w h i c h we r e p r e s e n t in o u r s y s t e m by m e a n s of the s y m b o l k w . T h i s o c c u r s g e m i n a t e in, f o r i n s t a n c e :
k k w a : 'to i n s u l t ' , 3 ik k w ra : ' i n s u l t i n g ' .
I h a v e n o t b e e n a b l e to f i n d a n y e x a m p l e o f n o n g e m i n a t e k w in th e d i a l e c t of A j d i r .
40. A l a b i a l i z e d v o i c e d v e l a r jploj.ive, w h i c h w e
r e p r e s e n t in t h i s s y s t e m b y m e a n s o f the s i g n gw . T h i s c o n s o n a n t o c c u r s n o n - g e m i n a t e in, f or i n s t a n c e :
gw3 : 'to k n e a d b r e a d ' , z u g W a9 : 'to g r o w tali',
a n d g e m i n a t e in:
9 a § u g g w ac : ' m o t h e r in l a w 1 .
N o n - g e m i n a t e o c c u r s i n i t i a l l y a n d i n t e r v o -
c a l i c a l l y , w h e r e a s I h a v e n o t b e e n a b l e to f i n d a n y e x a m p l e of g e m i n a t e g g y in i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n .
41. A . voice.1 e s s f r i c a t i v e , w h i c h w e r e p r e s e n t b y t h e s i g n T h i s s e g m e n t is f o u n d n o n - g e m i n a t e in, f o r e x a m p l e :
a j ^ s u m : 'meat',
saJ<Jsu : ' c o u s c o u s 1 , etc.
Y)£T>- y
In al l the e x a m p l e s o f / g e m i n a t e t h a t I h a v e f o u n d , it o c c u r s m e d i a l l y . G e m i n a t e d o e s n o t s e e m to o c c u r in this s y s t e m .
42. A Voiced. p a l a t a l ; f r i c a t i v e , w h i c h w e r e p r e s e n t in t h i s s y s t e m b y m e a n s o f t h e s y m b o l g ^ . T h i s s o u n d is f o u n d n o n - g e m i n a t e in, for i n s t a n c e :
g ^ m a : 'to h u n t ',
a g ^ m e : ' l a n dm a r k ; s t o n e s i n d i c a t i n g th e l i m i t s of an e s t a t e ' ;
a nd g e m i n a t e in:
gg^ct : 'to b a k e b r e a d ' , y
* g g y
w v
' f i e l d ' ,
' p u t .' m a k e ! ' , e t c .
N o n - g e m i n a t e is f o u n d i n i t i a l l y a n d i n t e r - v o c a l i c a l l y b u t n o t f i n a l l y , w h e r e a s g e m i n a t e g g ^
v W
o c c u r s in all p o s i t i o n s .
32
43. A v o i c e l e s s u v u l a r f r i c a t i v e , w h i c h w e r e p r e s e n t in t h i s s y s t e m b y m e a n s o f t he s i g n x. T h i s s o u n d o c c u r s n o n - g e m i n a t e in, f o r i n s t a n c e :
xocbus : 'ma n ' s n i c k n a m e ' , x a x a : 'to fe e l e x h a u s t e d ' ,
s a x : 'to be w a s h e d a w a y b y the r a i n (soil)';
a n d g e m i n a t e in:
x x# 3 : 'to h a v e s e x u a l i n t e r c o u r s e ( v u l g a r ) ' , i x x a n : ' e x c r e m e n t (pi.; v u l g a r , r e p l a c e d b y
a r h a n n i 'henna' in p o l i t e u s e) ' , i x x : ' e x c l a m a t i o n o f d i s g u s t o n s m e l l i n g
s o m e t h i n g u n p l e a s a n t , or on s e e i n g s o m e t h i n g o u t r a g e o u s ' , etc.
B o t h n o n - g e m i n a t e x a n d g e m i n a t e x * o c c u r in all p o s i t i o n s .
44. A v o i c e d u v u l a r f r i c a t i v e , w h i c h w e r e p r e s e n t in t h i s s y s t e m b y m e a n s o f t h e s i g n y. T h i s c o n s o n a n t is f o u n d n o n - g e m i n a t e in, f o r e x a m p l e , s u c h w o r d s as:
y a : 'to s t u d y ; to r e a d ' , ay i : ' b u t t e r m i l k ' ,
a n a y n a y : 'a p e r s o n w h o s p e a k s t h r o u g h hi s n o s e ';
a n d g e m i n a t e in:
y y a m : 'to g i v e a g i f t o f m o n e y to the b r i d e g r o o m ',
3 a y y a s Q : 'a s h e e p or c o w s l a u g h t e r e d as a s a c r i f i c e * .
N o n - g e m i n a t e y o c c u r s in all p o s i t i o n s . G e m i n a t e y y o c c u r s i n i t i a l l y a n d i n t e r v o c a l i c a l l y b u t h a s n o t b e e n f o u n d f i n a l l y .
45. A v o i c e l e s s u v u l a r p l o s i v e , r e p r e s e n t e d i n this s y s t e m b y m e a n s of th e s i g n £. T h i s s e g m e n t is f o u n d n o n - g e m i n a t e in s u c h w o r d s as:
q a b u : ’w a l k i n g s t i c k * ,
a q a 3 a s : ’p a i r o f w o o l - c a r d s ’ , g s s a q : 1 g l u e *;
a n d g e m i n a t e in, f o r e x a m p l e :
q q u : ’to h a v e s e x u a l i n t e r c o u r s e ( v u l g a r ) ' , q a q q a : ' c a n d y ( n u r s e r y l a n g u a g e ) * .
W h i l e n o n - g e m i n a t e £ is f o u n d in al l p o s i t i o n s , I h a v e n o t b e e n a b l e to f i n d a n y e x a m p l e of g e m i n a t e £ £ in f i n a l p o s i t i o n .
A t l e a s t one l a b i a l i z e d u v u l a r e x i s t s in the
d i a l e c t of A j d i r w h i c h w e r e p r e s e n t b y t h e s i g n y .w
I h a v e o n l y f o u n d o n e w o r d c o n t a i n i n g t h i s s o u n d in this s y s t e m , n a m e l y :
3 a y w g g a t : ’w o m a n ’s b e l t * .
I h a v e n o t b e e n a b l e to f i n d a n y e x a m p l e o f its g e m i n a t e c o u n t e r p a r t *yy ,w
. r * w * w * w j * W
n o r o f q , *q q , *x a n d * x x .
34
46. A v o i c e l e s s p h a r y n g a l f r i c a t i v e , w h i c h w e r e p r e s e n t in this s y s t e m b y th e s y m b o l h. T h i s s o u n d is f o u n d n o n - g e m i n a t e in, f o r e x a m p l e :
h a w a r : Tb e c a r e f u l w i t h ; t a k e c a r e of', w a h i t : 'o n e ',
i r a h : 'he w e n t ; he left';
a n d g e m i n a t e in:
hfram : 'to c o v e r ; to p r o t e c t as f o r i n s t a n c e a b i r d p r o t e c t i n g its o f f s p r i n g w i t h its w i n g s ',
ifrha9 : 'he hid'.
W h i l e n o n - g e m i n a t e lj o c c u r s in all p o s i t i o n s , I h a v e n o t b e e n a b l e to f i n d a n y e x a m p l e o f g e m i n a t e hh in f i n a l p o s i t i o n .
47. A v o i c e d p h a r y n g a l f r i c a t i v e , r e p r e s e n t e d h e r e
b y the s i g n e_. W e f i n d th i s s e g m e n t n o n - g e m i n a t e in s u c h w o r d s a s :
cara : 'to u n c o v e r ' ,
a e a w i r : 'a f a m o u s b a t t l e d u r i n g t he R i f i a n W a r q a c : 'at a l l '.
I h a v e n o t b e e n a b l e to f i n d a n y e x a m p l e o f g e m i n a t e ej: in a n y p o s i t i o n .
48. A v o i c e d g l o t t a l f r i c a t i v e , r e p r e s e n t e d in t h i s s y s t e m b y h* It I s f o u n d n o n - g e m i n a t e in, for i n s t a n c e :
haz : 'to r a g e ', a h a k u s : ’o n e sho e ' .
G e m i n a t e h h d oe s n o t a p p e a r to o c c u r in th e d i a l e c t o f A j d i r .
C H A P T E R T W O
T H E V O W E L S Y S T E M
As w e h a v e said, th e s y s t e m o f A j d i r h a s s i x v o w e l p h o n e m e s n a m e l y : / i /; / e / ; /a/; /a/; Jo / a n d J u / .
1. T h e p h o n o l o g i c a l s t a t u s of / i/ in r e l a t i o n to th e o t h e r v o w e l p h o n e m e s c a n b e s h o w n f r o m t h e f o l l o w i n g o p p o s i t i o n s :
1.1 / i / f /e/
/ i 9 ( a ) / : ' n o w a d a y s 1 ,
/ e 9 / : 'wea r I '.
/ ( 9 a s ) r i 9 / : 'bri d e' ,
/ ( 9 a f ) r e 9 / : 'sk i n o n s u r f a c e o f m i l k ' .
/ s i / : ' t i t l e g i v e n to th e n o t a b l e s of..
a t r i b e ',
/ s e / : 'go I '.
1.2 / i/ / /a/
/ i r i / : 'n e c k ', / a r i / : ' a l f a ' .
/ a m i n / : 'amen',
/ a m a n / : 'w a t e r '.
/ m a n i / : ' w h e r e ', / m a n a / : ' w h a t '.
38
1.3. / i/ f /a/
/ inu/ : ' m i n e *,
/ a n u / : 'well (of w a t e r ) ’ . / 3 i r a / : ' w r i t i n g 1 ,
/ 8 a r a / : 'she g a v e b a c k ' . / x z i / : 'to c u r s e S a t a n ' , / x z a / : 'to l o o k '.
1.4. / i/ / /o/
/ i 0 ( r a n ) / : 'stars', / o 0 ( a n ) / : ' o r c h a r d s ' . / ss i f / : 's u m m e r ',
/ s s o f / : 'to s t e p o v e r ' . / iz i / : ' g a l l - b l a d d e r ' ,
/ i z o / : 'he v i s i t e d t h e t o m b o f a saint.
1.5. /i/ / /u/
/ i r i n u / : 'my n e c k ' , / u r i n u / : 'my h e a r t ' . / u r i f / : 'ke b a b d i s h ' , / u r u f / : ' d i v o r c e ' .
/ i r i / : 'n e c k ',
/ iru/ : 'he w e p t ' .
2. T h e p h o n e m i c s t a t u s o f /e/ in r e l a t i o n to the o t h e r v o w e l s c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d f r o m t h e f o l l o w i n g
o p p o s i t i o n s :
2.1. /e/ f / l /
R e f e r to 1.1. a b o v e .
2.Z. /e/ / /a/
/er i ( z ) / / ari ( f ) /
/ ( 9 a ) s e Q / / ( 9 a k ^ ) s a 0 / /se/
/ ( f ) s a /
'e m b e r s 1 ,
’t h e Rif , a B e r b e r s p e a k i n g a r e a of N o r t h e r n M o r o c c o 1 .
'h a n d q u e r n ’ , 'd o w n h i l l ’ . 'go! 1
to s p r e a d in th e s u n to d r y ’ .
2.3. /e/ f /a/
/ s s e 9 / / s s a g / / ( a ) z e / /(iy) za/
'to h e l p a p e r s o n d r e s s ' , 'to s w a l l o w '.
'name o f a m e d i c i n a l p l a n t ' , 'r i v e r '.
2.4. /e/ / /o/
/ 9 a h f e 0 / / 9 a h f o 0 /
/ ( a s )be/
/ ( a h ) b o /
' b o y s ' g a m e ',
'hole in th e g r o u n d ( d i m i n u t i v e f o r m ) '.
'long r o b e w i t h s l e e v e s w o r n b y m e n a n d w o m e n ' ,
'hole in the g r o u n d ' .
2.5. /e/ / /u/
/ eri ( 1) / / u r i ( f ) /
' e m b e r s ', 'K e b a b d i s h '.
40
/ s e 0 / : 'go! ( p l u r a l ) ' , / su0/ : 'drink! ( p l u r a l ) ' .
/ a z e / : ' n a m e o f a m e d i c i n a l p l a n t ' ,
/ a z u / : 'to s k i n a s h e e p , a r a b b i t , e t c . ' .
3. T h e p h o n o l o g i c a l s t a t u s o f t h e v o w e l /a/ is w i t n e s s e d b y the f o l l o w i n g o p p o s i t i o n s :
3.1. /a/ f /i/
R e f e r to 1.2. a b o v e .
3.2. /a/ + /e/
R e f e r to 2.2. a b o v e .
3.3. /a / f /a/
/ a n u / : 'well (of w a t e r ) ',
/ a n u / : 'a d d '.
/ 9 a y a / : ' t h a t ' s all',
/ 9 a y a / : ' i r r i g a t i o n d i t c h ' , / y a / : 't o w a r d s ',
/ y a / : 'to s t ud y ; to r e a d ' .
5.4. /a/ j- /o/
/ a 0 ( m u n ) / : ' h a y s t a c k ' , / o 0 ( a n ) / : ' o r c h a r d 1 .
/ a z q q o / / ( B ) a z q q a /
: 'oli ve t r e e 1 , : 'r o o f '.
5.5. /a/ / /u/
/ a r i n u / / u r i n u / / B a z a /
/ B u z a /
/ s s a / / s s u /
1 m y a l f a 1 , 'my h e a r t '.
'Taza, a p r o v i n c i a l c a p i t a l in N o r t h e r n M o r o c c o ',
: 'she s k i n n e d a s h e e p , a r a b b i t , e t c . ...'.
: 'this w a y ',
: 'to s p r e a d a c a r p e t ' .
4. T h e p h o n o l o g i c a l s t a t u s o f the v o w e l /a/ in
r e l a t i o n to t h e o t h e r v o w e l s c a n b e e s t a b l i s h e d on the b a s i s o f t h e f o l l o w i n g o p p o s i t i o n s :
4.1. /a / + /i/
R e f e r to 1.3. a b o v e .
4.2. /a/ f /e/
S e e 2.3. a b o v e .
4.3. /a/ / /a/
See 3.3. a b o v e .
42
4.4. /a/ f /of
/ s s a f / : 'c h a n g e 1 ,
/ s s o f / : 'to s t e p o v e r ’ . / s s o / : ' w a l l ',
/ s s a / : 'to h i d e a p e r s o n ; to k e e p a s e c r e t ’ .
4.5. /q/ ^ /u/
/a r / : ’to v o m i t ',
/ u r / : ’h e a r t ’ . / z z a 0 / : 'see h i m ' ,
/ z z u 0 / : 'plant it'.
/ zza / : 'to s e e ',
/ zzu/ : 'to p l a n t '.
5. T h e p h o n e m i c s t a t u s o f / of in r e l a t i o n to the o t h e r v o w e l s c a n b e s h o w n f r o m th e f o l l o w i n g o p p o s i t i o n s :
5.1. /of j /i/
R e f e r to the o p p o s i t i o n in 1.4. a b o v e .
5.2. /o/ f /e/
Se e 2.4. a b o v e .
5.3. /o/ f /a/
See 3.4. above.
5.4. /o / f J c l /
R e f e r to 4.4. a b o v e
5.5. /o/ t /u/
/ s s o ( f ) / /ssuC?) / / q q o /
’to s t e p o v e r ’
’to b l o w ’.
’to d r y u p ', 1 to c o p u l a t e '.
/ q q u /
6. T h e p h o n o l o g i c a l s t a t u s o f t h e v o w e l /u/ in r e l a t i o n to th e o t h e r v o w e l s is d e t e r m i n e d f r o m the f o l l o w i n g o p p o s i t i o n s :
6.1. /u/ f / i/
R e f e r to 1.5. abov e .
6.2. /u/ f /e/
S e e the o p p o s i t i o n in 2.5. a b o v e .
6.3. /u/ f /a/
S e e 3.5. above.
6.4. /u/ f J a/
R e f e r to 4.5. a b o v e .
6.5. /u/ f / o/
R e f e r to 5.5. abo v e .
C H A P T E R T H R E E
T H E C O N S O N A N T A L S Y S T E M
A. T h e s e m i - v o w e l s
As w e h a v e said, t h i s s y s t e m h as a fl:oiit s e m i - v o w e l ly/
a n d a b-acK s e m i - v o w e l /w/.
7. /yI T h e p h o n o l o g i c a l o p p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n n o n - g e m i n a t e ly/ a n d g e m i n a t e i y y / is s h o w n b y t he e x i s t e n c e of s u c h p a i r s as:
ly/ I l y y l
/ 9 a y a / : ’t h a t ' s all',
/ 9 a y y a / : ' b l a c k w o m a n s e r v a n t ; f e m a l e slave'.
/ a y a / : 'Oh!' ( w h e n c a l l i n g a p e r s o n ) ; ay a £ri! 'Oh A l i i ’,
/ a y y a / : ' e x c l a m a t i o n m e a n i n g : " l o o k w h a t y o u h a v e d o n e " , o r s i m p l y
" g o a w a y " '.
T h e p h o n o l o g i c a l s t a t u s o f the p h o n e m e l y / in r e l a t i o n to t h e s e m i - v o w e l /w/ c a n b e s e e n f r o m the f o l l o w i n g o p p o s i t i o n s :
lyl f /w/
/ y a ( k ) /
/ w a ( h ) /
' e x c l a m a t i o n m e a n i n g " r e m e m b e r this, I w i l l n e v e r f o r g e t it m y s e l f !"',
'y e s '.
