A t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l a p p r o a c h
T O T H E N O U N - ;P H R A S E IN P E R S I A N
b y
S h a d a b V a j d i , B.A. ( P e r s i a n L i t e r a t u r e , T e hr an ) , M.A. ( S o ci al S c i e n c e , T e hr an )
A t he si s s u b m i t t e d Tor the D eg r e e of.
D o c t o r o f P h i l o s o p h y in the D e p a r t m e n t of P h o n e t i c s a n d L i n g u i s t i c s , S c h o o l of O r i e n t a l a n d A f r i c a n S t u d i e s , U n i v e r s i t y of L o n d o n •
O c t o b e r , 1976 *
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-1-
Abs tr a c t
T h e s u b j e c t of this the s i s is the d e s c r i p t i o n
of the n o u n - p h r a s e in P e r s i a n on the b a s i s of the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l t h e o r y as d e s c r i b e d b y C h o m s k y i n A s p e c t s of the T h e o r y of S y n t a x . The f i r s t c h a p t e r
of the t he s i s is d e v o t e d to a d e s c r i p t i o n of the s y n t a c t i c b e h a v i o u r of the n o u n - p h r a s e w i t h i n s i m p l e x s e n t e n c e s - b o t h those f o r m e d b y the v e r b s b u d a n or Scodan a n d t ho s e f o r m e d b y o t h er ve r b s . T h i s i nv o l v e s d e s c r i p t i o n of the n o u n - p h r a s e w i t h i n s i m p l e i n t e r r o g a t i v e s e n t e n c e s and, also, w i t h i n s e n t e n c e s f o r m e d w i t h p a s s i v e v e r b s .
T h e s u b j e c t of the s e c o n d c h a p t e r is a d e s c r i p t i o n of the s y n t a c t i c b e h a v i o u r of the n o u n - p h r a s e w i t h i n ■ c o m p l e x s e n t e n c e s . T he d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n r e s t r i c t i v e a n d n o n - r e s t r i c t i v e cl a u s e s h a ve b e e n d i s c u s s e d . The s y n t a c t i c b e h a v i o u r of the n o u n - p h r a s e w i t h i n s e n t e n c e s f o r m e d b y the v e r b s b u d a n or & o d a n has b e e n d e s c r i b e d
(i)
s e p a r a t e l y in this chapter. T he last p a r t of the s e c o n d c h a p t e r is d e v o t e d to a d e s c r i p t i o n of c o m p l e m e n t s .
P r o n o u n s a n d the p r o c e s s of p r o n o m i n a l i z a t i o n in P e r s i a n c o n s t i t u t e the s u b je c t of C h a p t e r T h r e e . The s y n t a c t i c b e h a v i o u r of the r e f l e x i v e a n d the e m p h a t i c p r o n o u n s , as w e l l as that of the p e r s o n a l p r o n o u ns , is
he" , & o d a n — 111o b e c o me " 0
I
i l l u s t r a t e d a n d d i s c u s s e d in this cha p t e r .
C h a p t e r F o u r has b e e n d e v o t e d to a d j e c t i v e s .
D i f f e r e n t k i n d s of adjectival/norninal c o n s t r u c t i o n s are i l l u s t r a t e d in this chapter.
C h a p t e r F i v e deals w i t h the g r a m m a t i c a l s t a t u s of d e t e r m i n e r s in P e r s i a n . It also g ives a d e f i n i t i o n a n d goes in t o a d e s c r i p t i o n a n d c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of d i f f e r e n t k i n d s of d e t e r m i n e r s in P e r s i a n ;
F i n a l l y , the th r e e s enses of the noun, the c o m p o s i t i o n of the n o u n - p h r a s e in the s u r f a c e s t r u c t u r e a n d the g r a m m a t i c a l s t a t u s of the i n f i n i t i v e in P e r s i a n are i l l u s t r a t e d in C h a p t e r Six.
C o n t e n t s
Abstrcict 1
C o n t e n t s 3
A c k n o w l e d g e m e n t 3
T h e N o t a t i o n n f o r A b b r e v i a t e d Fo r m s
a n d S y m b o l s • 6
P h o n e m i c T r a n s c r i p t i o n u s e d i n the T h e s i s 8 I n t r o d u c t i o n a n d G e n e r a l R e m a r k s 10
C h a p t e r On e ( N o u n - P h r a s e in S i m p l e x S e n t e n c e s ) 17 a: P h r a s e S t r u c t u r e (Base) R u l e s 17 b: N o u n - P h r a s e w i t h i n S i m p l e x S e n t e n c e s w i t h
V e r b s o t h e r t h a n b u d a n a n d & o d a n 19 c: N o u n - P h r a s e i n S i m p l e x S e n t e n c e s f o r m e d
w i t h the V e r b s b u d a n or & o d a n 45 d: N o u n - P h r a s e i n I n t e r r o g a t i v e S e n t e n c e s 49 1- Y e s - N o Q u e s t i o n S e n t e n c e s 50
2- @ y @ k .c . S e n t e n c e s 52
C h a p t e r T w o (N o u n - P h r a s e in C o m p l e x S e n t e n c e s ) 6 1 a: N P C o n s t r u c t i o n s w i t h R e s t r i c t i v e R e l a t i v e
C l a u s e s i n t h e i r D e e p S t r u c t u r e s ' 6 l b: N P in A p p o s i t i o n a l S e n t e n c e s 82 c: N P in Complex- S e n t e n c e s f o r m e d b y the
V e r b s b u d a n or & o d a n 98
d: C o m p l e m e n t s 107
1- P r e - V e r b a l C o m p l e m e n t . 108 2- P o s t - S u b j e c t i v a l C o m p l e me nt . Il4
C h a p t e r T h r e e (Pronouns) 123
P r o n o m i n a l ! z a t i o n 130
T y p e s of P r o n o u n s 164
1- P e r s o n a l P r o n o u n s 164
2- R e f l e x i v e P r o n o u n s 173
3- E m p h a t i c P r o n o u n s 186
C h a p t e r F o u r (Ad.j e c t i v e s ) ’ 197 H o w A d j e c t i v e s are d e r i v e d f r o m V e r b s 209 A d j e c t i v e s d e r i v e d f r o m the P r e s e n t S t e m 209 A d j e c t i v e s d e r i v e d f r o m the P a s t S t e m 212 D e e p S t r u c t u r e f or A d j e c t i v e s d e r i v e d f r o m
the V e r b S t e m s a n d C o n n e c t e d P r o b l e m s 215 A d j e c t i v e - N o u n C o n s t r u c t i o n s 224
C h a p t e r F i v e ( D e t e r m i n e rs ) 22 9
1- C a r d i n a l N u m b e r s 233
2- D e m o n s t r a t i v e s 235
3~ U n s p e c i f i e d D e t e r m i n e r s 236
4- P r o n o m i n a l D e t e r m i n e r s 24l
C h a n t e r S i x (More a b o u t N o u n - P h r a s e s ) 253 T he T h r e e S e n s e s of the N o u n 253
a: D e f i n i t e 253
b: I n d e f i n i t e 255
c: G e n e r i c 262
C o m p o s i t i o n of N P i n S u r f a c e S t r u c t u r e 269
I n f i n i t i v e - ‘ 288
b i b l i o g r a p h y 293
1 - . A c k n o w l e d g e m e n t
F i r s t a n d f o r e m o s t , i m u s t e x p r e s s m y de e p g r a t i t u d e to m y s u p e r v i s o r , Dr, Buse, w h o s e g u i d a n c e a n d a d v i c e h a v e b e e n the p r i m e f a c t o r s in the c o m p l e t i o n of this t h e s is ,
I a m a l s o d e e p l y i n d e b t e d to D r , N . V , S m i t h of the U n i v e r s i t y C o l l e g e , L o n d o n w h o was m y t u t o r w h e n he w a s w i t h the S c h o o l of O r i e n t a l a n d A f r i c a n S t u d i e s • It wa s Dr, S m i t h w h o , i n the c o u r s e of his l e c t u r es , i n t r o d u c e d me to the T h e o r y of T r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l G r a m m a r .
I f u r t h e r w i s h to t h a n k all m e m b e r s of the D e p a r t m e n t of L i n g u i s t i c s of the S c h o o l of O r i e n t a l a n d A f r i c a n
S tu d i e s , I n p a r t i c u l a r , I w i s h to e x t e n d m y g r a t i t u d e to P r o f e s s o r R o b i n s , the H e a d of the D e p a r t m e n t , to Mrs, W a t e r s o n a n d to Dr, R.M. K e m p s o n •
T h r o u g h o u t the c o m p i l a t i o n of this th e s i s , m y h u s b a n d has b e e n a n i n v a l u a b l e i n f o r m a n t t h r o u g h his de e p k n o w l e d g e of P e r s i a n a n d h i s e x p e r i e n c e of t e a c h i n g P e r s i a n l a n g u a g e a n d l i t e r a t u r e b o t h to P e r s i a n s p e a k i n g s t u d e n t s a n d to n o n - P e r s i a n s p e a k i n g ones •
M i s s J. T h o r n t o n h a s s h o w n g re a t p a t i e n c e i n p r o d u c i n g a n i m p e c c a b l e t y p e w r i t t e n v e r s i o n of m y t he s i s a n d I h o pe she w i l l a c c e p t m y s i n c e r e t hanks •
f
T he N o t a t i o n foir A b b r e v i a t e d F o r m s a n d S y m b o l s
A , B = T h e c ho i c e of a n y i t e m is f r e e a n d t h e y are n o t m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e . In- ot h e r words, A a n d B o*' A or B •
A - B = I t em s d o m i n a t e d b y d i f f e r e n t n o d e s in s uc es s i o n , a n d ) i n the case of l e x i c a l rules, d i f f e r e n t l e x i c a l i t e ms w h i c h can o c c ur in the same p lace.
= T h e c h o i c e of a n y i t e m is free a n d t h e y are m u t u a l l y e xc lu s i v e : In o t h er words, e it h e r A or B.
A + B = A s h o u l d be a t t a c h e d to the n o d e w h i c h d o m i n a t e s B, or B s h o u l d be a t t a c h e d to the n o d e w h i c h d o m i n a t e s A.
A =— (B) C (D) - A m i g h t c o n s i s t o f C or B - C - D or C -D or B - C b u t n o t B a n d D alone.
a, b a n d c are d i f f e r e n t f e a t u r e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h A.
(i) In this list of a b b r e v i a t i o n s , the c o n v e n t i o n s of t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e (such as NP = n o u n - p h r a s e ...
etc.) h a v e n o t b e e n in c l u d e d . T h e s e c o n v e n t i o n s h a v e b e e n u s e d t h r o u g h o u t the thesis.
A_
jc£.
b c
-7-
[a : b]
A A
= a a n d b are n o d e s w h i c h are d e r i v e d f r o m n o d e A.
A B = B is d o m i n a t e d b y A A B - A is d o m i n a t e d b y B P.M. = p h r a s e m a r k e r
* = u n g r a m m a t i c a l s e n t e n c e
(*) = u n g r a m m a t i c a l b u t a c c e p t a b l e s e n t e n c e a c c o r d i n g to the C o n t e x t a n d style.
j \ = I n p h r a s e markers, the li n e s w h i c h are
/ '
A B
s h o w n b y dots i n d i c a t e the i n a p p l i c a b i l i t y of the tree.
1 1
A ... B = B a n d A are i d e n t i c a l a n d c o r e f e r e n t i a l .
1 2
A ... B = B a n d A are n o t i d e n t i c a l a n d c o r e f e r e n t i a l
£ = Th e c o m b i n a t i o n of two c o n j o i n t s e n t e n c e s . yftz - T h e b o u n d a r y of
r
P h o n e m i c 'pra n s c r i p t i o n u s e d in the T h e s i s
/ @ / ss- [ <z] open, back, u n r o u n d e d v o w e l /a / = r a ] open, front, u n r o u n d e d v o w e l
/ e / = [ e j h a l f close, front, u n r o u n d e d v o w e l / o/ - c o J h a l f close, back, r o u n d e d v o w e l / i / = t i J close, front, u n r o u n d e d v o w e l /u/ =: c u ] close, back, r o u n d e d v o w e l /y/ r J] u n r o u n d e d , p a l at al , s e m i - v o w e l /b/ = i b ] vo ic ed , b i l a bi al , p l o s i v e
/p/ - c P ] v o i c e l e s s , b il a b i a l , p l o s i v e /d / = r d] vo ic ed , a ve o l a r , p l o s i v e / t/ = l 1 1 v o i c e l e s s , a ve o l a r , p l o s i v e /g / - c g] vo ic ed , v elar, p l o s i v e
/ k / = [ k] v o i c e l e s s , velar, p l o s i v e /? / 1 ? 1 g l o t t a l p l o s i v e
/ j / -
1 4 ) v o iced, p a l a t o - a lv eo la r, a f f r i c a t e /c/ = [ t ] v o i c e l e s s , p a l a t o - a l v e o la r, a f f r i c a t e /m/ = t m ] vo ic ed , b i l a b i a l , n a s a l
/n/ = t n ] v o i c e d, a l v e o la r, n a s a l /! / = c 1 ] vo ic ed , a lv e o l a r , l a t e r a l
/v/ = c v ] vo ic ed , l ab io d e n t a l , f r i c a t i v e /f/ = r f J v o i c e l e s s , l ab io d e n t a l , f r i c a t i v e /z/ = t z ] v o ic e d , b l a d e - a l v e o l a r , f r i c a t i v e / s/ = i s ] v o i c e l e s s , b l a d e - alveolar,, f r i c a t i v e /«=/ - t v o i c e l e s s , p a l a t o - a l v e o l a r , f r i c a t i v e
-9-
/3/ =
[3
] : v o i c e d , p a l a t o - a l v e o l a r A * / ‘ = [ r ] ■ : n o i l l i n g u a l/h/ = [.h] : v o i c e l e s s , glo t t a l , fri /x/ = [ x ] : v o i c e l e s s , vel a r , f r i c a
A /
= [ q j : v o i c e l e s s , u v u l a r , pl o sT h e col u m n on the e x t r em e left ,conta in the t h e s i s • T h e o ther c o l u m n c o n t a i ns s y m b o 1 s u s e d in the I n t e r n a t i o n a l P h o n e t i
* I n t r o d u c t i o n a n d G e n e r a l R e m a r k s
I n t h i s thesis, I h a v e t r i e d to s h o w the m a j o r s y n t a c t i c s t r u c t u r e s of the n o u n - p h r a s e in P e r si an . T h e data on w h i c h I h a v e b a s e d m y a n a l y s e s are d e r i v e d f r o m w h a t I r e f e r to as
"the s t a n d a r d f o r m a l d i a l e c t of P e r s i a n " or, less
s c i e n t i f i c a l l y , "the o f f i c i a l l a n g u a g e of I ran". T h is is u s e d all o v e r I r a n (but no t o t h e r P e r s i a n spealcing c o u n t r i e s
or r e g i o n s ) as a m e d i u m w i t h i n the b o u n d s of f o r m a l (as o p p o s e d to c o l l o q u i a l ) lan g u a g e . It is the l a n g u a g e of n e w s p a p e r s , boolts ( i n c l u d i n g text boolcs), b r o a d c a s t i n g a n d f o r m a l s p eech. F u r t h e r m o r e , it is the m e d i u m u s e d in w r i t i n g m o s t l e t t e r s . In short, in c o m m u n i c a t i o n of a n y f or ma l
n a t u r e , it is the p r a c t i c e to a b a n d o n l o c a l d i a l e c t s a n d to u s e the s t a n d a r d f o r m a l dialect. It c an n o t be a t t r i b u t e d to a n y p a r t i c u l a r r e g io n. Some h a ve e r r o n e o u s l y a t t r i b u t e d it to T e h r a n w h e r e a s , a m o n g c o l l o q u i a l r e g i o n a l dialects, t h a t of T e h r a n is n o t the n e a r e s t to it if we c o n s i d e r all a s p e c t s a n d n o t p r o n u n c i a t i o n alone. It s h ould, h o w ever, be noted, h e r e that the " s t a n d a r d f o r m a l d i a l e c t " is not v e r y d i f f e r e n t f r o m c o l l o q u i a l r e g i o n a l d i a l e c t s of Iran.
T he m a i n d i f f e r e n c e s lie in tlie p h o n o l o g i c a l a s p e c t s of the l a n g u a g e w i t h w h i c h we are n ot c o n c e r n e d in this thesis. I a m a l s o a w a r e of the fact that the lan g u a g e , in all of its m a n i f e s t a t i o n s , is not a s ta ti c p h e n o m e n o n w h i c h can be p l a c e d in a s ta t i c framework.. It is v a r i a b l e , a n d r e l a t i v e
t o, th e e x t e n t that some s y n t a c t i c s t r u c t u r e s w h i c h arc u s e d
-11-
« .» •*
o n l y in the c o l l o q u i a l l a n g u a g e b y some n a t i v e s p e a k e r s m a y be u s e d in the f o r m a l l a n g u a g e b y some o t h e r s . In o t h e r w o r d s , one c a nn ot d r a w a v e r y s h a r p line or an a b s o l u t e l y d e c i s i v e b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n " f o r m a l 11 a n d
" c o l l o q u i a l ” . I n this r e s p e c t there are m a n y cases of c o n t r o v e r s y . T h e p r o b l e m of l i m i t i n g the da t a to a g i v e n time a n d to g i v e n n a t i v e s p e a k e r s w i l l be w i t h us t h r o u g h o u t the t he si s . It w ou ld , t h e r ef or e, be m o r e p r e c i s e to say that this r e s e a r c h ha s b e e n c o n d u c t e d on the b a s i s of the
" s t a n d a r d f o r m a l d i a l e c t of P e r s i a n " , w i t h i n the l i m i t a t i o n s d e s c r i b e d above.
I m u s t a d d that, in r e f e r e n c e to " P e r s i a n d i a l e c t s " , I do n o t h a v e in m i n d s cores of l a n g u a g e s s p o k e n in Iran, a l t h o u g h some of t h e m m a y be o f f i c i a l l y r e f e r r e d to as
" d i a l e c t s of P e r s i a n " . A p a r t f ro m o b v i o u s cases of T u r ki sh , A r a b i c a n d K u r d i s h , the m os t n o t e w o r t h y of t h e se l a n g u a ge s are B a l u c h i , M a z a n d a r a n i , G i l a k , L a r e s t a n i a n d S e m n a n i . No r e f e r e n c e to " P e r s i a n d ia l e c t s " s h o u l d be t a k e n as a r e f e r e n c e to a n y of t h e se l an g u a g e s or to m a n y l e s s e r ones s p o k e n in Iran. I t h i n k this c l a r i f i c a t i o n s u f f i c e s , a n d o b v i o u s l y d i s c u s s i o n s a b o u t m o d e s a n d p r i n c i p l e s of
d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n b e t w e e n " l a n g u a g e " a n d " d i a l ec t" w i t h i n the b o u n d a r i e s of I r a n are n ot w i t h i n the sc o p e of this thesis.
F r o m n o w o nw a r d s , I use the w o r d " P e r s i a n " to r e f e r to the
" s t a n d a r d d i a l e c t of P e r s i a n " as a l r e a d y def i n e d .
T h e m a i n f r a m e w o r k w i t h i n w h i c h I t r y to d e s c r i b e the n o u n - p h r a s e in P e r s i a n is b a s e d on the s t a n d a r d t h e o r y of t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l g r am ma r as d e s c r i b e d b y C h o m s k y in his
A s p e c t s of the T h e o r y of S y n t a x . I n f a c t t h r e e ye a r s
ago I s t a r t e d the w o r k on the b a s is of i m m e d i a t e c o n s t i t u e n t a n a l y s i s . As the w o r k w e n t on, I r e a c h e d some c ases t h r o u g h m y i n v e s t i g a t i o n w h i c h I f o u n d d i f f i c u l t to d e s c r i b e a nd i l l u s t r a t e in a s a t i s f a c t o r y m a n n e r o n the b a s i s of
i m m e d i a t e c o n s t i t u e n t grammar. T h e s e o r i g i n a l l y f e w cases g r e w to m a n y a n d I f o u n d out th a t m o s t of t h e m c o u l d be b e s t i l l u s t r a t e d on the ba s i s of t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l grammar.
A l t h o u g h m a n y p r o b l e m s h a v e r e m a i n e d u n s o l v e d , t h e y are f e w e r t h a n b e f o r e . In o t h e r wo r d s , I f o u n d i m m e d i a t e c o n s t i t u e n t g r a m m a r less p o w e r f u l t h a n t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l
g r a m m a r f o r d e s c r i b i n g the r e a l r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n g r a m m a t i c a l e le m e n t s ; a n d al s o for d e p i c t i n g t h e i r s y n t a c t i c status.
I a m n o t i n c l i n e d to s a y that T.G. is a p e r f e c t t h e o r y w i t h o u t a n y d e f i c i e n c i e s . On the contrary, the t h e o r y of t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l g r a m m a r m a y w e l l ha v e s h o r t c o m i n g s and
d e f i c i e n c i e s w h i c h s h o u l d be o v e r c o m e . But this is i m p o s s i b l e u n l e s s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l g r a m m a r is t e s t e d a n d a p p l i e d as
m u c h as p o s s i b l e t h r o u g h the g r a m m a t i c a l s t r u c t u r e s of d i f f e r e n t l a n g u a g e s . I b e l i e v e that p r o v i d i n g a d e t a i l e d a n d c o r r e c t f o r m u l a t i o n of s y n t a c t i c f e a t u r e s of s en t e n c e s w i l l l e a d us to a d e e p e r s t u d y of m e a n i n g . T h i s is the ai m I h a v e h a d in m i n d t h r o u g h o u t this work. N e e d l e s s to say, b e c a u s e the a n a l y s i s w h i c h is put f o r w a r d b y C h o m s k y in
A s p e c t s of the T h e o r y of S y n t a x is for E n g l i s h s e n t e n c e s , w h e r e v e r n e c e s s a r y I ha v e a d o p t e d d i f f e r e n t a n a l y s e s w h i c h a r e m o r e s u i t a b l e for the d e s c r i p t i o n of the s t r u c t u r e of P e r s i a n n o u n — p h r a s e s . F o r instance, for the f o r m u l a t i o n of
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the p r o c e s s of ' p r o n o m i n a l iz at io n in P e r s i a n , as this p r o c e s s is very c o m p l i c a t e d (p■130 ) i I • was f o r c e d to leave
the t r a c k f r o m the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l g r a m m a r ' s c o n v e n t i o n s a n d to give, in a d d i t i o n t'o a T ru l e for p r o n o m i n a l i z a t i o n , a t a b l e w h i c h is c o n n e c t e d to it a n d at the same time m a k es it c o m p l e t e ('p . l4d) .
T h e deep s t r u c t u r e s . a r e j u s t i f i e d b y s e m a n t i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s w h i c h h a v e b e e n g i v e n to the s u r f a c e s t r u c t u r e s b y the n a t i v e u s e r s of f o r m a l lan g u a g e , as w e l l as b y f o r m a l
c r i t e r i a . T h a t is to say, a p p e a l to the i n t u i t i o n of n a t i v e s p e a k e r s has b e e n made, no t o n l y for d i s t i n g u i s h i n g a c c e p t a b l e s e n t e n c e s f r o m u n a c c e p t a b l e ones, b u t a l s o for r e a c h i n g the deep s e m a n t i c r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n e l e m e n t s w i t h i n one s e n t e n c e and, m o r e o v e r , fo r r e a c h i n g the deep s e m a n t i c r e l a t i o n s
b e t w e e n d i f f e r e n t s e n t e nc es .
M y e n q u i r i e s h a v e n o t b e e n direct. I h a v e r e a c h e d c o n c l u s i o n s t h r o u g h i n d i r e c t q u e s ti on s. So I u s e d the c o m p e t e n c e of the n a t i v e s p e a k e r s of the f o r m a l l a n g u a g e as a g u i d e to the de e p r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n e l e m e n t s of the l a n g u a g e . In short, in s e t t i n g up the de e p s tr uc t u r e , the f o r m a l model, is t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l g r a mmar, but the m a t e r i a l to w h i c h the f o r m a l m o d e l is a p p l i e d r e s i d e s in the m i n d s of n a t i v e s pe a k e r s . As I h a v e s a i d b e fo re , the f or m a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n of deep s t r u c t u r e s has b e e n g i v e n in m a n y cases.
As, in this thesis, I am d e a l i n g w i t h the n o u n _ p h r a s e
a n d c o n n e c t e d p r o b l e m s , the p h r a s e s t r u c t u r e (base) r u l es w h i c h are c o n n e c t e d w i t h the v e r b _ p h r a s e are n ot e x h a u st iv e.
N o r a m I g o i n g to give a n y f o r m a l or s e m a n t i c j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r i l l u s t r a t i n g the r u l es c o n n e c t e d to the v e r b _ p h r a s e . In m y e x a m p l e s , ! h a v e o f t e n u s e d the s i m p l e ' p r e s e n t or the s i m p l e p a s t t e ns e to a v o i d .complications w h i c h are i r r e l e v a n t to the thesis.
F o r the sake of s i m p l i f i c a t i o n , I h a v e o m i t t e d the a u x i l i a r y a l t o g e t h e r w h e n e v e r its e x i s t e n c e is i r r e l e v a n t to the m a i n d i s c u s s i o n . I h a v e also o m i t t e d f e a t u r e s a s s o - . c i a t e d w i t h e l e m e n t s w h e n t he y are n ot r e l e v a n t to the
s u b j e c t c o n c e r n e d . O n ce I h a v e p r o d u c e d a r u l e a n d s h o w n h o w it is to be a pp l i e d , I o n l y r e f e r to it in l a t er cases a n d do n o t r e p e a t it or i l l u s t r a t e the m o d e of its
a p p l i c a t i o n . T h e o r d er of a p p l i c a t i o n of t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l r u l es is g i v e n at the end of e ac h chapter, a n d if the
a p p l i c a t i o n of one r ul e b e f o r e a n o t h e r one is crucial, the m a t t e r is s h o w n a n d d i s c u s se d.
T h e r e are two t r a n s l a t i o n s for e a ch s e n t e n c e or p h r a s e g i v e n as a n e x a mp le . One is l i t e r a l a n d the o th e r one sh o w s the c o r r e c t m e a n i n g of the s e n t e n c e in E ng l i s h .
(i )
In the caseof u n t r a n s l a t a b l e s e nt en ce s, h o w e ve r, o n l y a l i te ra l t r a n s l a t i o n is given.
As this a n a l y s i s is not a c o m p a r a t i v e one, a l m o s t no c o m p a r i s o n has b e e n m a de b e t w e e n g r a m m a t i c a l s t r u c t u r e s of P e r s i a n a n d E ng l i s h . O n l y in rare cases h a v e I done so,
(i) T he litex'al t r a n s l a t i o n s of the c o n s t i t u e n t p a r ts of c o m p o u n d v e r b s are l i n k e d t o g et he r by h y p h e n s . The same m e t h o d is o c c a s i o n a l l y u s e d to s h o w the p r o n o u n i n h e r e n t in a verb •
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w h e r e I t h i n k c o m p a r i s o n m i g h t t h r o w a light, h el p u n d e r s t a n d i n g , or r e v e a l a p o int.
A l t h o u g h the title of this thesis is "A t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l A p p r o a c h to the N o u n - P h r a s e in P e r s i a n " , I was b o u n d to
d i s c u s s a n d i l l u s t r a t e m a n y p o i n t s w h i c h h a v e n o t h i n g to do w i t h deep s t r u c tu re s. I h a d to do th a t b e c a u s e in all or m o s t P e r s i a n g r a m m a r s t h e s e p o i n t s h a v e b e e n i g n o r e d or m i s u n d e r s t o o d . For e x a mple, all P e r s i a n g r a m m a r s h a ve r e g a r d e d k e as a r e l a t i v e p ro n o u n . I h a v e h a d to
i l l u s t r a t e the fa c t that k e is a c o n j u n c t i o n a n d n o t a r e l a t i v e p r o n o u n (see p . 69, C h a p t e r 2 ). A n o t h e r case is the i l l u s t r a t i o n of the d i f f e r e n c e s in the s y n t a c t i c b e h a v i o u r of b o u n d a n d fr e e fo r m s of p r o n o u n s . In P e r s i a n grammars, t h es e two k i n d s of p r o n o u n s are c a t e g o r i z e d a c c o r d i n g to t h e i r m o r p h o l o g i c a l a sp e c t s , a n d the s y n t a c t i c b e h a v i o u r of t h e m is c o m p l e t e l y i g n ored.
A q u e s t i o n w h i c h s h o u l d be a n s w e r e d in the b e g i n n i n g of th i s t h e s i s is w h et h e r , in our d i s c u s s i o n s , we are i n t e r e s t e d i n the t h e o r y or in the d e s c r i p t i o n of
.the P e r s i a n l a ng ua g e. T h e a n s w e r is th a t we are i n t e r e s t e d in the d e s c r i p t i o n of the l a n g u a g e in the f i r s t pl a c e . But as the d e s c r i p t i o n of l a n g u a g e s is c o n d i t i o n e d b y the theory, a n d as the t h e o r y s h o u l d be t e s t e d a n d j u s t i f i e d t h r o u g h
(i.) W h e n e v e r I h a v e r e f e r r e d to " P e r s i a n g r a m m a r s " I have h a d the l e a d i n g ones in mind. Some of t h e m a p p e a r in the b i b l i o g r a p h y .
i
the struct u r e s of d i f f e r e n t l a n g u a g e s , I ca n c l a i m th a t a l l a r g u m e n t s w h i c h I p u t f o r w a r d f o r m y s t a t e m e n t s are a t t e m p t s at the j u s t i f i c a t i o n of the t h e o r y of t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l
g r a m m a r a n d t h a t t h e y s h o w w h e t h e r the t h e o r y is w o r k a b l e or not.
A n o t h e r p o i n t w h i c h m i g h t n e e d c l a r i f i c a t i o n is th a t to the b e s t of m y k n o w l e d g e no t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l a p p r o a c h has b e e n m a d e to the n o u n - p h r a s e i n P e r s i a n so far. N o r h a s a n y r e s e a r c h b e e n c a r r i e d out w h i c h can be r e g a r d e d as.
a s t r u c t u r a l a p p r o a c h to the h o u n - p h r a s e . T h e r e is o n l y one a r t i c l e on r e f l e x i v e a n d e m p h a t i c p r o n o u n s b y M o y n e w h i c h is p u b l i s h e d in L a n g u a g e •, V o l . 4 7 ( 1 9 7 1 ) i PP »141- l6 3-1 h a v e d i s c u s s e d this a r t i c l e a n d a l s o p o i n t e d out its s h o r t c o m i n g s in the r e l e v a n t c h a pter.
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C H A P T E R O NE
N o u n - P h r a s e In S i m p l e x S e n t e n c e s
a; P h r a s e S t r u c t u r e (Base) R u l e s
I n o r d e r to s h o w the s y n t a c t i c b e h a v i o u r of the n o u n - p h r a s e in P e r s i a n , we f i r s t set up the p h r a s e s t r u c t u r e
(base) r u l e s f r o m w h i c h the u n d e r l y i n g s t r u c t u r e of a l l k i n d s of s e n t e n c e s (active, p as s i v e , complex, s im p l e x , ... etc.) a r i s e s . T h e n b y d r a w i n g u p o n d i f f e r e n t e x a m p l e s we w i l l s h o w h o w t h e s e s e n t e n c e s are d e r i v e d f r o m u n d e r l y i n g
s t r u c t u r e s b y a p p l y i n g d i f f e r e n t t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l rul e s . So the l i s t of c o n n e c t e d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l r u l e s w i l l come at the e n d of e a c h sec t i o n . H e r e are the p h r a s e s t r u c t u r e b a s e r u l e s :
S C o n j u n S
S (Pre) - N P - (adv P) - VP - A U X
(Det) - NP - (S) NP - C o n j u n
(neg)
a d v P ---- £ a d v time, a d v p lace, a d v m a n n e r ( P ) a d v
a dv p l a c e > P - a d v
VP
NP(
p pI - V
f NP
J
PP^ \^a d J
I b u d I
&o d
PP P - NP
adj P ---- > adj - (S)
A U X ---- -> (Prog) - (M) - (Pre) - (Passive) - tens<
M ---- > t a v ^ n e s t a n , x @ s t a n P r o g > e + b u d
P a s s i v e --- t e n s e ---- >
L e x i c a l Rules:
& o d pr e s ent p a s t
Det
be - b@ - az ...'etc
-> in - @ n - h a r ... eti N
V
p a r v i n - k e t @ b ... etc
^ r a f t - goft ... etc
C o n j u n va - a m m @ adj
a d v
x u b -• sabz
"71 e m r u z - in ~j@
. .■ * etc ... etc ... etc
N o w we are g o i n g to s h o w h o w the s u g g e s t e d p h r a s e s t r u c t u r e (base) r u l e s g e n e r a t e d i f f e r e n t k i n d s of s e n t e n c e s a n d what the s y n t a c t i c b e h a v i o u r of the noun-
-19-
p h r a s e is. F i r s t we st a r t w i t h s i m p l e x s e n t e n c e s w h o s e g e n e r a t i o n 'n e e d no t i n v o l v e m a n y t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l r u l es a n d t h e n we m ov e on to m o r e c o m p l e x s e n t en ce s.
b; N o u n - P h r a s e ^ i t h i n S i m p l e x S e n t e n c e s w i t h V e r b s o t h e r t h a n b u d a n a n d & o d a n
T o i l l u s t r a t e the s y n t a c t i c b e h a v i o u r of the n o u n - p h r a s e w i t h i n s i m p l e x s e n t e n c e s we f i r s t s h o w the deep s t r u c t u r e of a s i m p le i n d i c a t i v e s e n t e n c e f o r m e d w i t h an i n t r a n s i t i v e v e r b a n d s h o w the r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n the n o u n - p h r a s e a n d o t h e r e l e m e n ts of the se n t e n c e . C o n s i d e r the f o l l o w i n g example:
( s t u d e n t s ) (came)
1: 8c@gerd@n @ m a d a n d = T h e s t u d e n t s came.
T h e d e e p s t r u c t u r e of 1 is s h o w n by P . M . ^ 4 (i)
S
n:
v p
N A U X
V tens e
+ a n i m a t e - si n g _+ 3
@ m a d
p a s t
& @ g e r d @ n
P . M . 1.
(i) b u d a n - 11 to be" , ScodanJ 1 to b e c o m e " 0
r
T h e f e a t u r e s j^-singj a n d Qi*3 J s h o u l d be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the n o u n in the de e p s t r u c t u r e b e c a u s e t h e y are
p r o p e r t i e s of the n o u n w h i c h a f f e c t the A U X in the s u r f a c e s t r u c t u r e . T h e a u x i l i a r y w o u l d c o p y th e s e f e a t u r e s u n d e r c e r t a i n c o n d i ti o ns . The f e a t u r e £+ animate^ s h o u l d be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the n o u n i n o r d e r to s h o w if the a u x i l i a r y s h o u l d c o p y the ot h e r f e a t u r e s of the n o u n (i.e. £+3j a n d
sing~j ) or not. If the f e a t u r e s .associated w i t h the n o u n are t h i r d p e r s o n a n d the te n s e is p a s t as in s e n t e n c e
1 . , t h e n the a f f i x w h i c h is d o m i n a t e d b y the a u x i l i a r y and.
w h i c h is to be a t t a c h e d to the e n d of the v e r b in the f i n a l s t a g e w o u l d be a n d . If the t ense is p a s t a n d the f e a t u r e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a n o u n are [ + 3] a n d [+ singj , the a f f i x w o u l d be ze r o as in 2 .
( student) (came)
2: & @ g e r d @ m a d - T h e s t u d e n t came,
T h e f o l l o w i n g ta b l e shows the c h a n g e s at the e n d of the v e r b a c c o r d i n g to the f e a t u r e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the n o u n i n the deep s t r u c t u r e if the te n s e is " s i m p l e past"
or " p a s t c o n t i n u o u s or "p a s t p e r f e c t "
S i n g u l a r P l u r a l
F i r s t p e r s o n am im
S e c o n d p e r s o n i id
T h i r d p e r s o n 0 a n d
T a b l e One
(i) A f f i x e s for o t h e r t enses are e x a c t l y the same a n d dif
fe r o n l y in the t h i r d p e r s o n singular-': p o r s i m p l e p r e s ent t c n s e 0 b e c o m e s a d , fo r the p r e s e n t p e r f e c t tense,
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t
If the f e a t u r e £+ animatej is. a t t a c h e d to the e n d of the n o u n the a u x i l i a r y cop i e s the f ea t u r e s of p e r s o n a n d n u m b e r of the noun, w h i c h in the case of s e n t e n c e 1 are
singj ; that is to sa y t here is a l w a y s c o n c o r d of p e r s o n a n d n u m b e r b e t w e e n v e r b a n d a n i m a t e n oun. T h e f o l l o w i n g e xa m p l e s j u s t i f y this claim:
3: m a n © m a d a m = I came .
4: to @ m a d i - Y o u ( s i n g u l a r )c a m e . 5: p a r v i n © m a d = P a r v i n came . 6: m @ © m a d i m = W e came .
7: Scom© © m a d i d = Y o u (plural) came.
8: & @ g e r d @ n © m a d a n d - T h e s t u d e n t s came ^
O n the o t h e r hand, if the n o u n is i n a n i m a t e , t h e re is u s u a l l y no c o n c o r d of p e r s o n a n d n u m b e r b e t w e e n n o u n a n d the verb. C o n s i d e r the f o l l o w i n g examples:
(books) (by) (men) (g r e a t )(w r i t t e n - b e c a m e - s i n g u l a r ) 9: (a) k e t © b h @ bevasileye; m a f d @ n e b o z o r g n e v e & t e - & o d „
♦The b o o k s was w r i t t e n b y g r e at men.
(books) (by) (men) (g r e a t )(w r i t t e n - b e c a m e - p l u r a l ) (b) * k e t @ b h @ b e v a s i l e y e m a r d @ n e b o z o r g n e v e & t e - Scodand
=The b o o k s w e r e w r i t t e n b y gr e a t men.
(pr o b l e m s ) (nu m e r o u s ) (in) ( P a r l i a m e n t ) ( p o s e d - was) 10: (a) m a s @ ? e l e b i & o m @ r i dar m a j l e s matrah-Scod
= * N u m e r o u s p r o b l e m s was p o s e d in the P a r l i a m e n t .
( p ro b l e m s ) (nu m e r o u s ) (in) ( P a r l i a m e n t ) ( p o s e d - were) (b) * m a s © ? ele b i & o m @ r i dar ■ m a j l e s tnatrali - & o d a n d
= N u m e r o u s p r o b l e m s we r e p o s e d in the P a r l i a m e n t .
f
I
i
As the e x am pl es show, in s e n t e n c e (a) the v e r b r e m a i n s s i n g u l a r (i.e. has no suffix) in s pite of the p l u r a l i t y of the n o u n Jand s e n t e n c e (b) in w h i c h the p r o c e s s of c o n c o r d h a s t a k e n p l a c e is u n g r a m m a t i c a l . A l t h o u g h in m o s t cases t h e r e is no c o n c o r d b e t w e e n a n i n a n i m a t e n o u n a n d the verb, t h e r e are v e r y r a r e ca s e s w h e n we see that th e r e is s u c h a c o n c o r d . C o n s i d e r the f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e s :
( p l a n e s ) ( l a n d e d - plu r a l )
11: (a) h a v @ p e y m @ h @ f o r u d - @ m a d a n d = T h e 'planes l a n d e d
('planes) ( l a n d e d - s i n g ular) (plural),
(b)* h a v @ p e y m @ h @ f o r u d - @ m a d = T h e 'planes l a n d e d (s i n g u l a r (cars) (fast) ( w e r e mo v i n g )
12: (a) o t o m o b i l h © b e s o r ? a t h a r e k a t - m i k a r d a n d
= T h e cars w e r e m o v i n g fast.
(cars) (fast) (w a s m ov i n g ) (b) * o t o m o b i l h © b e s o r ? a t h a r e k a t - m i k a r d
~ * T h e cars was m o v i n g fast.
As the e x a mp le s 11 a n d 12 s h o w the ( a ^ are g r a m m a t i c a l bu t the (b)’s are not. In (a)s the v e r b is i n c o n c o r d of p e r s o n a n d n u m b e r w i t h the n o u n a n d in (b)s the v e r b r e m a i n s s i n g u l a r d e s p i t e the p l u r a l i t y of the noun. We c a n n o t say t h a t the n o u n s c o n c e r n e d (i.e. h a v @ p e y m @ h @ - "' pl a n e s " a nd o t o m o b i l h ® =s l( cars" are u s e d m e t a p h o r i c a l l y , b e c a u s e if this w e r e the case the (b )- s e n t e n c e s w o u l d be s y n t a c t i c a l l y w e l l f o r m e d as well. N o r can we c o n s i d e r the w o r d s o t o m a b i 1 = " car a n d - h a v @ p e y m @ ^ " p l a n d 1 as b e i n g g r a m m a t i c a l l y a n i m a t e b e c a u s e t h e y b e h a v e as i n a n i m a t e n o u n s in o t h e r c i r c u m s t a n c e s . For
-23-
. r. ^
i n s t a n c e 1n e i t h e r n o u n can take the p l u r a l e n d i n g @ n w h i c h is a l l o c a t e d to a n i m a t e nou n s . Thus we c an n o t h a v e
(’p l a n e s ) (cars)
* h a v @ p e y m @ y @ n or * o t o m o b i l @ n . In al l the e x a m p l e s a b o v e , it is n o t the i n a n i m a t e n o u n s t h e m s e l v e s w h i c h are r e s p o n s i b l e tor the action, bu t h u m a n b e i n g s , a n d t h a t is w h y the v e r b s s t a n d in c o n c o r d of p e r s o n a n d n u m b e r w i t h the noun.
C o n s i d e r , h o w e v e r , the f o l l o w i n g examples:
(due to ) (e a r t h q u a k e ) (many) (o f ) ( m o u n t a i n s )(e x p l o d e d - 1 3 i b a r - a s a r e zelzele' b e s y @ r i az k u h h @ ^m o n f 1! j e r - & o d
= Due to the e a r t h q u a k e , m a n y m o u n t a i n s e x p l o d e d (singular)*
(stones) (from) ( m o u n t a i n ) ( r o l l e d - b e c a m e ) 14: s a n g h © az k u h s a r @ z i r - & o d
« R o c k s r o l l e d (s i n g u l a r )d o w n the m o u n t a i n .
I n 13 a n d li , w h e r e no h u m a n f a c t o r is b e h i n d the action, v e r b s r e m a i n s i n g u l a r . In s u c h cases, p l u r a l i z a t i o n of the v e r b can o c c u r o n l y when, m e t a p h o r i c a l l y , a h u m a n a c t i o n is a t t r i b u t e d to a n i n a n i m a t e n o u n (see p. 25 )• T h e r e f o r e , the f e a t u r e h u m a n factorj s h o u l d he a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the v e r b in deep s t r u c t u r e in o r d e r that it is d e t d r m i n e d w h e a t h e r the p r o c e s s of c o n c o r d s h o u l d take p l a c e or not*
T h e s e c o n d f a c t o r w h i c h a f f e c t s the p r o c e s s of c o n c o r d b e t w e e n n o u n a nd .verb is the o c c u r r e n c e of a n u m e r a l b e f o r e the n o u n 5 that is to s a y w h e n NP c onsits of Det + NP a nd the d e t e r m i n e r is a c a r d i n a l nu m b e r . B e f o r e d e m o n s t r a t i n g the e f f e c t of this factor, we s h o u l d c l a r i f y a n o t h e r p o i n t in P e r s i a n g r a mmar, n a m e l y that in P e r s i a n the n o u n remains' s i n g u l a r w h e n it is p r e c e d e d by a c a r d i n a l n u m b e r * Th u s we
h a v e c@ h @ r & @ g e r d r= *" f o u r s t u d e n t " a n d h a f t k e t @ b _ * " s e v e n book", on w h i c h there is no p l u r a l a f f i x (i.e.
h @ - @ n ) a t t a c h e d to the end of the noun. P h r a s e s like
* c @ h @ r & @ g e r d h @ = " f o u r s t u d e n t s " a n d *h a f t k e t @ b h @ =
" s e v e n b o o k s " } in w h i c h the p l u r a l a f f i x (i.e. li^) is a t t a c h e d to the en d of the noun, are deviant. I n su c h cases, the v e r b m a y be s i n g u l a r or p l u r a l (with no d i f f e r e n c e of m e a n i n g ) if the n o u n is a n i m a t e , a n d if it is i n a n i m a t e the v e r b r e m a i n s s in g u l a r . H e r e are some e x a m p l e s :
( t h o u s a n d s ) (soldier) (in) (war) ( k i l l e d - 1 5 : (a) h e z @ r @ n s ar b @ z dar j a ng k o & t e -
b e c a m e - p l u r a l )
& o d a n d
= * T h o u s a n d s of s o l d i e r w e r e k i l l e d i n the war.
( t h o u s a n d s ) (soldier) (in) (war) ( l d l l e d - b e c a m e - s i n g u l a r (b) h e z @ r @ n s a r b @ z • dar jang k o & t e - & od
= * T h o u s a n d s of s o l d i e r wa s k i l l e d in the war.
(four) ( t a b l e ) ( i n ) (room) (is) 1 6 : (a) c @ h @ r m i z dar o t@ q h a st
— * T h e r e is fo u r ta b l e in the room.
(four) (table) (in) (room) (are)
(b )* c @ h @ r m i z dar o t @ q h a s t a n d
~ T h e r e are f o u r t ables in the room.
As the e x a m p l e s show, 15 w i t h a n a n i m a t e n o u n o c c u r w i t h a s i n g u l a r or a p l u r a l verb, b ut l6 w i t h i n a n i m a t e n o u n is u n g r a m m a t i c a l if the verb' is p l u r a l 16(b). A n d b e c a u s e of this, we have to st a t e in the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l r u l e w h i c h we e s t a b l i s h for c o n c o r d
c a n an as in
tha t
-25-
the e l e m e n t w h i c h comes b e f o r e an i n a n i m a t e n o u n s h o u l d not be a n u m b e r if we are to r e g a r d the p r o c e s s as a n o b l i g a t o r y one .
T h e r e is a n o t h e r s i t u a t i o n w h i c h a f f e c t s the p r o c e s s of c o n c o r d b e t w e e n i n a n i m a t e no u n s a n d ve r b s . T h i s is w h e n the s p e a k e r u s e s a m e t a p h o r . C o n s i d e r the f o l l o w i n g
e x a m p l e s :
(bars of) (prison) ( are t a l k i n g )
1 7 : (*) (a) m i l e h @ y e - z e n d @ n s o x a n - m i g u y a n d - T h e p r i s o n b a r s are t a l king*
(bars of) (prison) (is t a l k i n g )
(b) m i l e h @ y e z e n d @ n s o x a n - m i g u y a d c * T h e p r i s o n ba r s is talking.
(as if) (stones) ( P e r s e p o l i s ) (with) (I) 1 8 : (*) (a) gu?i s a n g h @ y e t a x t e j a m & i d b @ m a n
(were t a l k i n g .) •
h a r f - m i z a d a n d = It was as if the s t o n e s of P e r s e p o l i s were t a l k i n g to me.
(as if) (stones) ( P e r s e p o l i s ) (with) (I) (b) gu?i sanghiye. t a x t e j a m & i d b @ m a n
( w a s tal k i n g )
h a r f - m i z a d =* I t was as if the s t o ne s of P e r s e p o l i s was t a l k i n g to me.
As the e x a m p l e s show, the (b) - s e n t e n c e s are g r a m m a t i c a l , a n d the (a)-sen'tences are d e v i a n t bu t a c c e p t a b l e u n d e r
c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s of c o n t e x t of s i t u a t i o n . I n 17 a nd 18 , the verb is a n a c t i o n w h i c h a p p l i e s to h u m a n b e ings.
In o t h e r w o r d s , the s p e a k e r r e g a r d s the i n a n i m a t e n o u n as a n a n i m a t e one. T h e r e f o r e , the v e r b s ta n d s i n c o n c o r d of
p e r s o n and n u m b e r w i t h the i n a n i m a t e noun, a n d yet the s e n t e n c e is a c c e p t a b l e . So w e . s a y t h at in 17(a) a n d 18(a) a n i n a n i m a t e
n o u n is m e t a p h o r i c a l i y u s e d as an a n i m a t e n o u n (i.e.
p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n ) . N o t i c e that s en t e n c e s 19 a n d 20 , in w h i c h the h u m a n a c t i o n is not a t t r i b u t e d to the .nouns,, ar e g r a m m a t i c a l if a n d o n l y if the v e r b r e m a i n s sin g u l a r .
(bars) (prison) (b r o k e n - b e c a m e - s i n g u l a r ) 19*. (a) m i l e h @ y e z e n d @ n . &ekaste-Scod = * T he p r i s o n bars
w a s b r o k e n .
(bars) (prison) (b r o k e n - b e c a m e - p l u r a l )
( b ) * m i l e h @ y e s e n d @ n & e k a s t e - & o d a n d = T h e p r i s o n ba r s w e r e b r o k e n .
(stones) ( c r a c k e d - s i n g u l a r )
20: (a) s a n g h @ & e k @ f - b a r d@l-t = T h e s t o n e s c r a cked.
(s t o n e s )( c r a c k e d - p l u r a l )
( b ) * s a n g h @ &ek@f-bard@8ctand = T he s to ne s cracked.
So, as we h a v e a l r e a d y said, the f a c t o r w h i c h is r e s p o n s i b l e for the c o n c o r d b e t w e e n v e r b a n d i n a n i m a t e
n o u n is the m e t a p h o r i c a l u s e of the a n i m a t e noun. W e do n ot w i s h to r e g a r d this p r o c e s s as a g r a m m a t i c a l one or i n c l u d e
it in the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l rule w h i c h we are g o i n g to
e s t a b l i s h for the c o n c o r d b e t w e e n n o u n a n d verb. We p r e f e r to r e g a r d it as a s t y l i s t i c p r o c e s s w h i c h h a s n o t h i n g to do w i t h the g ra m m a r .
C o n s i d e r i n g the g r a m m a t i c a l f ac t o r w h i c h a f f e c t s the p r o c e s s - o f c o n c o r d b e t w e e n i n a n i m a t e n o u n * a n d v e r b (i.e.
w h e n the h u m a n b e i n g is r e s p o n s i b l e for* the a c t i o n w h i c h t akes p lace) a n d a l s o the f a c t o r w h i c h a f f e c t s the p r o c e s s o f c o n c o r d b e t w e e n a n i m a t e n o u n a n d v e r b (i.e. the
o c c u r r e n c e of c a r d i n a l n u m b e r s b e f o r e a n i m a t e n o u n ) , we n o w set up a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l rule w h i c h wc n e e d to a p p l y
to the deep s t r u c t u r e of all k in d s of s e n t e n c e s in P e r s i a n to get to the s u r f a c e structure.- In o r d er to s h o w the p r o c e s s
-27- I
( s t u d e n t s ) ( c a m e )
we a p p l y it h e r e to the s e n t e n c e '&@gerd@n~ @ m a d a n d ~ = "The s t u d e n t s came" ( w hose deep structure, is s h o w n b y P.M„1 P '.19) o. W e ca l l this r u l e T c o n c o r d . T c o n c o r d is an. o b l i g a t o r y r u l e a n d as its n am e s ug g e s t s , it deals
w i t h the c o n c o r d of p e r s o n a n d n u m b e r b e t w e e n n o u n a n d verb.'
T concord:
SD = X
NP
Y - N — (NP) - V
+ c a r d i n a l + a n i m a t e p + h u m a n 1
n u m b e r P E R S O N \J ~ f actor
' N U M B E R
-j
SC - 1
o b l i g C o n d i t i o n :
1 - A U X - Z
NP VP
(a) 3 < f+ animate]
2 is - c a r d i n a l n u m b e r
(b) 3 [- animate]
5 [+ h u m a n factor]
VP
o “ 6 P E R S O N N U M B E R
In the rule, above, we sp l i t u p the NP i n t o two e le m e n t s N a n d Y - w h i c h sh o w s a p r e c e d i n g v a r i a b l e . T h i s v a r i a b l e m a y be a c a r d i n a l n u m b e r or a n o t h e r e l e m e n t w h i c h m i g h t o c c u r b e f o r e a noun. W e are o b l i g e d to h a v e this v a r i a b l e h e r e b e c a u s e as we h a v e p r e v i o u s l y s a i d a n d i l l u s t r a t e d
( p . 2 3 ) > the o c c u r r e n c e or' n o n - o c c u r r e n c e of the c a r d i n a l n u m b e r b e f o r e a n o u n a f f e c t s the p r o c es s of c on c o r d . In P . M . ! (p. 19), , N has the f e a t u r e f-i-animate] a t t a c h e d to it a n d also it is n o t p r e c e d e d b y a c a r d i n a l number; so, we
h a v e to -apply T c o n c o r d to it and, as a result, the
a u x i l i a r y c op i e s the f e a t u r e s of n u m b e r a n d p e r s o n w h i c h are the p r o p e r t i e s of the noun. A f t e r a p p l y i n g T concord, the tree d i a g r a m w h i c h is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the r e s u l t i n g s t r i n g w o u l d h a v e the shape:
tens e
@ m a d p a s t
- s i n g .
+ a m r a a t e - s x n g
& @ g e r d @ n
P . M . 2.
T h e o r d e r of e l e m e n t s in P . M . 2 is like the o r d e r of the e le me n ts in the n a t u r a l s en t e n c e .
T h e r e is one p o i n t a b o u t the p r o c e s s of c o n c o r d that we s h o u l d m e n t i o n h ere. P e r s i a n r e g a r d s p l a n t s as a
b o r d e r line case b e t w e e n a n i m a t e a n d i n a n i m a t e n o u n s so far as the p r o c e s s of c o n c o r d is con c e r n e d . Th e j u s t i f i c a t i o n for our c l a i m comes f r o m the fact that c o n c o r d b e t w e e n a p l u r a l n o u n d e n o t i n g a p l a n t (or pa r t s of it) a n d the v e r b is o p t i o n a l . Thus wo can have:
(all) (trees) (in) (s p r i n g )(g r e e n - b e c om e) 2 1 : (a) h a m e y e d e r a x t h @ dar b a h @ r sabz- m i & a v a u d
^ A l l tr e e s b e c o m e g r e e n in the spring.
-29-
(all) (trees) (in) (spring) (green, b e c o m e s )
(b) h a y m e y e d e r a x t h ® dar b a h @ r s a b z - m i & a v a d
* A l l trees becomes g r e e n in the s p ring.
(l e a v e s )(f r o m ) (t r e e s ) (fall) 2 2 : (a) b a r g h © az d e r a x t @ n m i r i z a n d
Th e l e a v e s f a l l f r o m the trees.
(l e a v e s )(f r o m ) (trees) (falls) (b) b a r g h @ az d e r a x t @ n m i r i z a d - * T he l ea ve s fa l l s f r o m the trees.
In 21(a) a n d 2 2 ( a ) , t h e r e is c o n c o r d b e t w e e n n o u n an d v e r b a n d in 2 1 (b) a n d 2 2 (b) th e r e is not, a n d y e t both- s e n t e n c e s are g r a m m a t i c a l . T h is rule does n o t a f f e c t the T r u l e w h i c h we h av e g i v e n for c o n c o r d b e c a u s e w h e t h e r we r e g a r d s u c h n o u n s a.s. a n i m a t e or i n a n i m a t e , T concord, as a device, g e n e r a t e s g r a m m a t i c a l s e n t e n c e s a n d p r e v e n t s the g r a m m a r f r o m g e n e r a t i n g u n g r a m m a t i c a l ones.
U p to now, w e h a v e b e e n d i s c u s s i n g s i m p l e x s e n t e n c e s w h i c h are f o r m e d b y i n t r a n s i t i v e verbs. N o w w e are g o i n g
to d i sc us s s i m p l e x s e n t e n c e s w h i c h are f o r m e d w i t h t r a n s i t i v e verbs, a n d t h e ir c o r r e s p o n d i n g p a s s i v e s e n t e n c e s . V7e w i l l al s o show, a p a r t f r o m T c o n c o r d , h o w m a n y t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l r u l e s are to be a p p l i e d for g e n e r a t i n g them. C o n s i d e r s e n t e n c e 23 w h i c h is f o r m e d w i t h the t r a n s i t i v e verb
( Ferdousi) ( Shahnaine ) 2 3• f e r d o u s i & @ h n @ m e r @
(wr ote) n e v e Set F e r d o u s i w r o t e the S h a h n a m e ,
30
The deep s t r u c t u r e of 23 is s h o w n b y P.M. 3
A U X NP
tense
N P p a s t
+ a n i m a t e n e v e & t
+ 3
jj- definite]
Sc@hn@me L + s i n g
f e r d o u s i
P.M. 3
l l J l
One f e a t u r e w h i c h is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h N>NP>-S in deep s t r u c t u r e is £+ animatej w h i c h we n e e d to k n o w to d e c i d e w h e t h e r we h a v e to a p p l y T c o n c o r d or not. The o t h e r
features( i.e. C+ ^3 , [jP s i n g •] ) a r e the p r o p e r t i e s of the n o u n w h i c h are c o p i e d b y the v e r b in s u rf ac e s t r u c t u r e . Th e
f e a t u r e £ + definiteJ w h i c h is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h NPj>VPj>S has to be s t a t e d in the deep s t r u c t u r e of this k i n d of
s e n t e n c e in o r d e r for us to s h o w w h e t h e r w e h a v e to a p p l y T d i r e c t o b j e c t m a r k e r (^.3^) or not. In o r d e r to r e a c h the n a t u r a l s e q u e n c e of e l e m e n t s in the s u r f a c e s tr u c t u r e , two T r u l e s s h o u l d be a p p l i e d to P . M . .3 * T h e o r d e r of t h e m is no t c r ucial. One of t h e m is T c o n c o r d w h i c h w e h a v e
a l r e a d y i n t r o d u c e d (,P*^7) a n d the o t h e r one is T d i r e c t o b j e c t m a r k e r . T h e m a r k e r of di p e c t o b j e c t o n the s u rf ac e s t r u c t u r e is if the d i r e c t o b j e c t is d e f i n i t e a n d s o m e times w h e n it is i n d e f i n i t e , b u t n e v e r w h e n it is g e n e r i c
(i) W e ha v e d i s c u s s e d the d e f i n i t e n e s s , i n d e f i n i t e n e s s
a n d g e n e r i c n e s s of the n o u n u n d e r "The T h r e e S e n s e s of the No u n "
t n arLsh_
-31“
H e r e are some e x am p l e s :
(book) (b o u g h t - I )
24: lcet@b ■ r @ xaridain = I b o u g h t the book.
(glass) - (from) (on) (table) (toolc-l)
2 5 : l i v @ n r @ az r uy e m i z b a r d @ & t a m
k I t o o k the g lass f r o m the table.
I n 24 a n d 2 5 , the d i r e c t o b j e c ts (i.e. ke t@b = " b o o k ” a n d l i v @ n = "glass'1, r e s p e c t i v e l y ) are d e f i n i t e , in 26 a n d 2 7 ? the d i re ct o b j e c t s (i.e. sa n g i = "a st o n e " a n d k e t @ b i -
"a boo k " ) are i n d e f i n i t e , a n d i n 2 8 (a) a n d 2 9 (a), the d i r e c t o b j e c t s (i.e. k e t @ b = "book" a nd p @rce = " c lo th ") are
generic, a n d w e can see that there is no d i r e c t o b j e c t m a r k e r af t e r them:
(a stone) (took-I) (and) ( to w a r d s ) (he.) (threw-I) 2 6 : (a) s a n gi b a r d @ & t a m va b e t a r a f e u p a r t @ b “ k a r d a m
s I t o o k a st o n e a n d t h r e w it t o wa rd s him.
(a stone) (took-I) (and) ( t o w ards) (he) (threw-I) (b) s a n gi r@ b a r d @ & t a m va b e t a r a f e u p a r t @ b - k a r d a m
es I t oo k a st o n e a n d t h r e w it t o w a rd s ‘ him.
(a b o o l ) ( b o u g h t - l ) (and) (to) (he) ( g i f t - d i d - l ) 27: (a) k e t @ b i x a r i d a m va be u h e d y e - k a r d a m
(a book) (bought-l) (and). (to) (h e ) ( g i f t - d i d - I ) (b) k e t @ b i r @ x a r i d a m va be u h e d y e - k a r d a m
" I b o u g h t a b o o k a n d gave it to h i m as a p r e s e n t .
(days) (off) (book) (read-l)
2 8 : (a) r u z h @ y e t a ? t i l lcet@b m.ix@nain s I r e a d books. 011 days off.
(days) (off) (book) (read-l)
(b) r u z h @ y e ta?ti.l k e t @ b r@ m i x @ n a m - I r e a d the b o o k on days off.
