REFERENCE TO THE ADMINISTRATION OP LORD GEORGE HAMILTON,
1895
-1903
"b y
P rem ansukuiaar B a n dyo p a d hya y
T h e s is s u b m itte d f o r th e degre e o f D o c to r o f P h ilo s o p h y a t th e
U n i v e r s i t y o f London
S c h o o l o f O r i e n t a l and A f r i c a n S tu d ie s
N ovem ber 1969
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s u b je c t to s e v e re a g r i c u l t u r a l d e p r e s s io n . She was h i t b y th e two w o r s t fa m in e s o f th e c e n t u r y , f i r s t i n 1 8 9 6 -7 d u r in g E l g i n ’ s v i c e - { r o y a l t y (1 8 9 4 -8 ) th e n i n 1 8 9 9 -1 9 0 0 d u r in g C u r z o n 's ( 1 8 9 9 - 1 9 0 5 ) .
On b o th o c c a s io n s g o v e ru m e n t p o l i c y was d o m in a te d b y c o n c e rn f o r economy i n r e l i e f e x p e n d itu r e and h e a v y m o r t a l i t y o c c u r r e d . I n
th e f o r m e r fa m in e L o r d George H a m ilto n , S e c r e ta r y o f S ta t e f o r I n d i a , p ro p o s e d some l i b e r a l m e a su re s and s e c u re d f i n a n c i a l a s s is ta n c e fro m
th e I m p e r ia l T r e a s u r y f o r fa m in e r e l i e f . B u t E l g in r e j e c t e d su ch a s s is t a n c e . I n th e l a t t e r fa m in e H a m ilt o n ’ s p o l i c y was i l l i b e r a l and he p r e v e n te d C u rzo n fro m s e e k in g an I m p e r ia l g r a n t . H a m ilto n d id t h i s b e cau se th e I m p e r ia l T r e a s u r y was th e n h a rd p re s s e d b y w a rs i n C h in a and S o u th A f r i c a . The o c c u r re n c e o f th e s e fa m in e s r a is e d th e q u e s t io n o f th e a p p l i c a t i o n o f th e F a m ine In s u r a n c e F u n d w h ic h was p o p u l a r ly a lle g e d to have been l a r g e l y m is a p p r o p r ia t e d b y th e g o v e rn m e n t s in c e i t s c r e a t io n i n 1 8 7 7 -8 . The a l l e g a t i o n was a d - m i t t e d b y C u rz o n and H a m ilto n b u t t h e i r a tte m p ts to r e o r g a n is e th e F u n d f o r i t s p r o p e r u s e w ere f r u s t r a t e d b y th e o p p o s it io n o f th e C o u n c il o f I n d i a .
M oved b y th e c h r o n ic e co n o m ic d i s t r e s s i n I n d i a and d is a p p o in t e d a t th e G overnm ent o f I n d i a ’ s f a i l u r e to r e d r e s s i t , a g ro u p o f
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l ib e r a l- m i n d e d E n g lis h m e n fo u n e d an I n d ia n F am ine U n io n i n E n g la n d
and u rg e d th e I n d i a O f f i c e a id th e G overnm ent o f I n d i a to u n d e r ta k e m e a sure s to im p ro v e I n d ia n a g r i c u l t u r e and th e e c o n o m ic c o n d it io n o f th e m asses. B u t t h i s p ro d u c e d no e f f e c t . A n o th e r g ro u p , o f r e t i r e d A n g lo - I n d ia n o f f i c i a l s t o g e t h e r w it h R . C . D u t t , a p p e a le d to th e g o v e rn m e n t to re d u ce th e la n d t a x i n I n d i a w here i t was e x c e s s iv e . The G overnm ent o f I n d i a r e fu s e d to do t h a t b u t p a s s e d some r e m e d ia l a g r a r ia n l e g i s l a t i o n w h ic h , h o w e v e r, f a i l e d
to p r o v id e r e l i e f to th e im p o v e r is h e d m asses.
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s t a n t i n t e r e s t f o r i t s im p ro v e m e n t. I owe a g r e a t d e b t to h im f o r h i s v a lu e d c r i t i c i s m and a d v ic e . I am in d e b te d to th e S c h o la r s h ip s C o m m itte e o f th e S c h o o l o f O r i e n t a l and A f r i c a n S tu d ie s f o r an aw ard w h ic h e n a b le d me to c o m p le te th e p r e s e n t t h e s i s . I am a ls o g r a t e f u l to th e T r u s te e s o f th e E d w in a
M o u n tb a tte n iu n d f o r t h e i r g r a n t . L a s t l y , I w is h to th a n k th e s t a f f o f th e I n d i a O f f i c e L i b r a r y , th e B r i t i s h Museum, th e P u b lic R e c o rd O f f i c e and t lie C h r i s t C h u rc h L i b r a r y , O x fo r d , f o r t h e i r a s s is t a n c e .
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4 5 7
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INTRODUCTION
B o rn i n 1 8 4 5 , G eorge F r a n c is H a m ilto n was fro m the f i r s t d e s t in e d f o r a p o l i t i c a l c a r e e r . H is f a t h e r , th e t e n th E a r l and f i r s t L u ke o f A b e r c o r n , was a T o r y o f w e a lth and em inence and tw ic e V ic e r o y o f I r e l a n d . H is m o th e r was a d a u g h te r o f th e house o f R u s s e ll. H a m ilto n was s e n t to H a rro w b u t he d id n o t show an y o u t s t a n d in g i n t e l l e c t u a l i n c l i n a t i o n . A f t e r le a v in g ' H a rro w he s e rv e d f o r some tim e i n th e R i f l e B r ig a d e and th e C o ld
s tre a m G u a rd s . A t t h e age o f t w e n t y - t h r e e he e a rn e d th e fa v o u r o f D i s r a e l i , who s e le c t e d him as th e C o n s e r v a tiv e c a n d id a te f o r
th e p a r lia m e n t a r y c o n s t it u e n c y o f M id d le s e x i n th e g e n e ra l e le c t io n o f 1 8 6 8 .^ The tw o s e a ts o f t h a t c o n s t it u e n c y w ere th e n h e ld b y a N h ig and a r a d i c a l . H a m ilto n was r e t u r n e d w it h a huge m a j o r i t y b y d i n t o f h i s p a t r im o n y . 2
C o n s e r v a tiv e p o l i t i c a l id e a s w ere i n g r a in e d i n H a m ilto n . I n h is e a r l y p a r lia m e n t a r y l i f e he s t u d ie d B r i t i s h C o n s t i t u t i o n a l and I m p e r ia l h i s t o r y , and James M i l l ’ s H i s t o r y o f I n d i a a ro u s e d h is
1The T im e s , 2 5 -S e p te m b e r 1 9 2 7 ; see a ls o D i c t i o n a r y o f N a t io n a l B io g r a p h y , 2 0 t h C e n tu r y , 1 9 2 2 -1 9 3 0 , p p . 3 8 8 -9 0 .
2G . F . H a m ilt o n , P a r lia m e n t a r y R e m in is c e n c e s said R e f l e c t i o n . 1 8 5 8 -1 8 8 6 . London 1 9 1 7 , p p . 1 - 3 * I n h i s f i r s t e l e c t i o n H a m ilto n h a d tq jp u r - ch a se v o t e s a t £1 e a c h , e x c lu d in g th e co n ve ya n ce c h a rg e s o f th e
v o t e r s . H a m ilto n s p e n t a t o t a l am ount o f £ 3 0 ,0 0 0 i n h is f i r s t th r e e e l e c t i o n s . The p r a c t i c e o f p u r c h a s in g v o te s was a b o lis h e d i n 1 8 8 3 .
i n t e r e s t i n I n d i a . He was a lso a c t i v e i n h i s c o n s t it u e n c y and i n h ig h C o n s e r v a tiv e p o l i t i c a l c i r c l e s . He soon came u n d e r th e n o t i c e o f L o rd D e rb y and i n th e g e n e ra l e l e c t i o n o f 1 8 7 4 , when th e C o n s e r v a tiv e s came to p o w e r, he was a t f i r s t o f f e r e d th e p o s t o f U n d e r S e c r e ta r y o f S ta t e f o r F o r e ig n A f f a i r s . B u t because o f h i s l a c k o f F re n c h th e o f f e r was w ith d ra w n and he was g iv e n th e p o s t o f U n d e r S e c r e ta r y o f S t a t e f o r I n d i a , w it h L o r d S a lis b u r y
as h i s c h i e f and S i r L o u is M a l l e t as P e rm a n e n t U n d e r S e c r e t a r y . 3
The p o s t o f th e U n d e r S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e i s , a c c o rd in g to H a m ilto n , " t h e b lu e r ib b o n o f i t s g r a d e " . 4 He has l i t t l e o p p o r
t u n i t y f o r m a k in g p o l i c y b u t has a w id e scope to d is p l a y h is i n i t i a t i v e i n d e p a r tm e n ta l w o rk . B at H a m ilt o n 's a d v a n ta g e was t h a t as L o rd S a lis b u r y was a p e e r th e "task o f r e p r e s e n t in g I n d i a i n th e House o f Commons f e l l upon h im . T h is e n a b le d h im to i n t r o duce s e v e r a l I n d ia n b i l l s and b u d g e t d e b a te s i n th e Commons. H a m il
to n a s s is t e d i n p i l o t i n g th e R o y a l T i t l e s B i l l o f 1876 b y w h ic h th e Queen assumed th e t i t l e o f th e Em press o f I n d i a .
^I b i d . , p p . 1- 1 3 *
2H a m ilto n to S a lis b u r y , 17 Hay 1 8 6 9 , S . P . , I 0 L , M i c r o f i l m , R e e l H o. 8 1 9 .
3H a m ilto n , o n . c i t . , p p . 66- 8 .
^ I b i d . , p .6 7 .
The p e r io d o f H a m ilt o n 's U n d e r S e c r e ta r y s h ip was e q u a lly d i s t r i b u t e d b e tw e e n th e l a s t h a l f o f N o r t h b r o o k 's l i b e r a l v i c e r o y a l t y and th e f i r s t h a l f o f L y t t o n ' s T o r y v i c e r o y a l t y . D u r in g t h i s p e r io d H a m ilto n w it n e s s e d th e c o n f l i c t i n g fa m in e and f r o n t i e r p o l i c i e s p u rs u e d b y th e G overnm ent o f I n d i a . He fa v o u r e d th e l i b e r a l fa m in e p o l i c y t h a t N o r th b r o o k f o l lo w e d in th e B e n g a l fa m in e o f
1 2
1 3 7 3 -4 b u t s u b s c r ib e d to th e " f o r w a r d " f r o n t i e r p o l i c y o f L y t t o n .
#
D u r in g th e te n u r e o f h i s U n d e r S e c r e t a r y s h ip H a m il to n s a t on two p a r lia m e n t a r y c o m m is s io n s on I n d ia n a f f a i r s , th e f i r s t on E a s t
I n d i a f in a n c e i n 1 8 7 4 , as a member, th e second on E a s t I n d i a P u b lic U o rk s i n 1 8 7 8 , as c h a irm a n . 4
H a m ilt o n 's U n d e r S e c r e t a r y s h ip ended i n 1873 when S a lis b u r y w e n t to th e F o r e ig n O f f i c e . H a m ilto n s u b s e q u e n tly s e rv e d as V ic e - P r e s id e n t o f th e C o m m itte e o f th e C o u n c il upon E d u c a tio n
( 1 8 7 8 - 8 0 ) , F i r s t L o r d o f th e A d m ir a lt y ( 1 8 8 5 -3 2 ) and C h a irm a n o f th e London S c h o o l B o a rd ( 1 8 9 2 - 5 ) . I n 1895 when t h e C o n s e r v a tiv e s came to p o w e r u n d e r S a lis b u r y H a m ilto n was a p p o in te d S e c r e ta r y o f
^"H a m ilto n to S a l is b u r y , 8 D ecem ber 1 8 7 7 , S . P . , op . c i t .
2G .F .H a m ilto n , The P r e s e n t P o s i t i o n o f th e C o n s e r v a tiv e P a r t y , E d in b u rg h 1 8 8 0 , an a d d re s s made a t th e in a u g u r a l m e e tin g o f th e C o n s e r v a tiv e A s s o c ia t io n o f th e U n i v e r s i t y o f E d in b u r g h , 14 J a n u a ry 1 8 80 , p p . 1 - 2 0 ; see a ls o a sp e e ch to th e members o f th e D a l k e i t h D i s t r i c t C o n s e r v a tiv e A s s o c ia t io n , 16 J a n u a r y 1 8 8 0 , i b i d . , p p . 1 - 1 6 ;
see a ls o h is P a r lia m e n t a r y R e m in is c e n c e s and R e f le c t io n s , 1 8 6 8 -1 8 8 6 , p p . 1 3 9 -4 0 .
^ R e p o rts fro m th e S e le c t C o m m itte e on E as t I n d i a F in a n c e , 1 8 7 4 , P .P . ( E . C . ) , 1874« V o l. 8 .
4R e p o rt fro m the S e le c t C o m m itte e on E a s t I n d i a P u b li c W orks, 1 8 7 8 , P . P . ( n . C . ) , 1 8 7 3 , V o l . 12
.
S t a t e f o r I n d i a . He s e rv e d i n th e I n d i a O f f i c e f o r a r e c o r d p e r io d o f e ig h t y e a r s . I n O c to b e r 1903 he r e s ig n e d fro m th e p o s t as he o o u ld n o t a g re e w it h th e t a r i f f p o l i c y o f
C h a m b e r la in .^ H a m ilt o n 's p a r lia m e n t a r y l i f e ended i n 1905 when th e L ib e r a l s r o u t e d th e C o n s e r v a tiv e s . T h e r e a f t e r he was
a s s o c ia te d w it h c e r t a i n p u b l i c b o d ie s u n t i l h i s d e a th i n 1 9 2 7 . The G overnm ent o f I n d i a A c t o f 1853 p la c e d th e H a s t I n d i a C om pany's I n d ia n a d m in i s t r a t i o n u n d e r th e d i r e c t c o n t r o l o f th e Crown i n p a r lia m e n t . R e s p o n s i b i l i t y d e v o lv e d upon a S e c r e ta r y o f S t a t e f o r I n d i a i n C o u n c il. 2 The C o u n c il c o n s is t e d o f f i f t e e n
m em bers, e ig h t b e in g a p p o in te d b y th e Crown and seve n n o m in a te d b y th e d is s o lv e d C o u r t o f D i r e c t o r s . By an amendment o f 1869
th e members o f th e C o u n c il w ere to be n o m in a te d b y th e S e c r e t a r y o f S ta t e f o r I n d i a . C o u n c il members h a d t o have p a s s e d te n y e a r s i n I n d i a and n o t to have l e f t th e c o u n tr y m ore th a n te n y e a r s be
f o r e t h e i r a p p o in tm e n t. T h e ir te rm o f o f f i c e was te n y e a r s and th e y c o u ld be rem oved e a r l i e r o n ly on p e t i t i o n o f b o th h o use s o f p a r l i a m e n t. The C o u n c il o f I n d i a was to a id and a d v is e th e S e c r e t a r y
H a m ilto n to B a l f o u r , 15 S e p te m b e r 1903* c i t e d i n I n d i a , 2 O c to b e r 1 9 0 3 ; see a ls o H a m ilto n to H r . W r ig h t , C ha irm a n o f th e C o n s e r v a tiv e C o u n c il a t E a lin g , 25 S e p te m b e r 1 9 0 3 , i b i d .
2A c ts 21 & 22 V i c . , C .1 0 6 . H o r d e t a i l s on th e r o l e o f th e C o u n c il o f I n d i a see S .H .S in g h , The S e c r e ta r y o f S ta te f o r I n d i a and h i s C o u n c il, 1 8 5 8 -1 9 1 9 . D e lh i 1 9 6 2 , C hs. I - I I I .
o f S t a t e f o r I n d i a i n th e d is c h a r g e o f h i s d u t i e s , h u t th e
l a t t e r ha d th e d i s c r e t i o n to d iv i d e th e C o u n c il i n t o C o m m itte e s and to e n t r u s t each o f "them w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r a s p e c t o f a d m in i
s t r a t i o n . D e s p a tc h e s w ere s e n t to I n d i a i n th e name o f th e S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e h u t a l l o r d e r s , e x c e p t an m a t t e r s o f h ig h i m p e r i a l p o l i c y , su ch as w a r and p e a c e , m u s t he b r o u g h t to th e n o t i c e o f th e C o u n c il. The members m ig h t r e c o r d t h e i r d is s e n t fr o m an y d e c is io n . A l l d e c is io n s on f i n a n c i a l m a t t e r s m u st he ta k e n b y a m a j o r i t y v o t e i n f u l l C o u n c il.
The p o s i t i o n and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f th e S e c r e t a r i a t S ta t e f o r I n d i a were c o m p le x w it h r e g a r d t o th e a d m in i s t r a t i o n o f I n d i a h u t s im p le so f a r as the C a b in e t and th e p a r lia m e n t w ere c o n c e rn e d . He was r e s p o n s ib le f o r the s t a b i l i t y o f th e I n d ia n i k ip i r e as w e l l as f o r th e w e lf a r e o f th e p e o p le . A lth o u g h he was c o n s t i t u t i o n a l l y p o w e r f u l he h a d t o c a r r y w it h him th e v i c e r o y on th e one hand and h i s own C o u n c il on th e o t h e r , i n o r d e r to d is c h a rg e h i s u l t i m a t e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . As he a ls o had d i r e c t c o r r e s p ondence w it h th e P r e s id e n c y G overnm ents o f Bombay and M a d ra s , w h ic h e n jo y e d s u b s t a n t i a l l o c a l a u t h o r i t y , th e S e c r e t a r y o f S ta te a c te d as an i m p a r t i a l ju d g e i n r e l a t i o n s b e tw e e n them and th e G overnm ent o f I n d i a . A t home th e p o s i t i o n o f th e S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e f o r I n d i a was s im p le r th a n t h a t o f h i s C a b in e t c o lle a g u e s . S in c e h i s s a la r y as w e l l as th e en " tire exp en se o f th e I n d i a O f f i c e
w ere v i r t u a l l y f r e e fro m p a r lia m e n t a r y c o n t r o l a n ' a d v e rs e c r i t i c i s m o f h is a u t h o r i t y i n p a r lia m e n t o r i n th e p r e s s c o u ld r a r e l y im p a ir h i s e f f e c t i v e su p re m a cy o v e r I n d ia n a f f a i r s , n e v e r t h e le s s , a S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e f o r I n d i a needed t o he a p o l i t i c i a n o f f o r e s i g h t w it h a v a s t k n o w le d g e o f I n d i a , h e r p e o p le and t h e i r p r o b le m s .
H a m ilt o n 's c a p a b i l i t y o f h o ld in g th e p o s t o f th e S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e s h o u ld n o t be ju d g e d fro m h is a p p r e n t ic e s h ip as a n o v ic e a t th e I n d i a O f f i c e as U n d e r S e c r e t a r y . B u t h i s c a r e e r d u r in g th e s e v e n te e n y e a r s p r e c e d in g h is a p p o in tm e n t as S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e d id n o t i n d i c a t e h is p o s s e s s io n o f th o s e t a l e n t s o f s t a t e s m a n s h ip w h ic h w ere n e c e s s a r y f o r a p u b l i c p o s t o f s u c h im p o r ta n c e . H is c lo s e a s s o c ia t io n w i t h S a lis b u r y ^ and h i s r i g i d a lle g ia n c e to r i g h t w in g C o n s e r v a tiv e p o l i c i e s were th e m a in re a s o n s f o r h is s e le c t io n f o r th e p o s t . A fe w m o n th s b e fo r e h is a p p o in tm e n t H a m ilt o n 's a t t i t u d e was r e f l e c t e d i n h i s speech i n th e House o f Commons i n s u p p o r t o f th e a b o l i t i o n o f th e p r o t e c t i v e t a r i f f on E n g lis h c o t t o n g o o d s im p o r te d i n I n d i a . He h e ld t h a t , as th e E n g lis h p e o p le h a d /'s h e d b lo o d andjmoney" f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g a
G overnm ent i f i I n d i a , th e "G o v e rn m e n t o f t h i s c o u n tr y s h o u ld ta k e c a re t h a t I n d i a d id n o t s e t a f i s c a l syste m h o s t i l e to v a s t i n t e r -
e s t s i n t h i s c o u n t r y , a n d w h ic h c o u ld n o t be t o l e r a t e d i n t h i s c o u n t r y " . 2
^See S a l is b u r y to H a m ilto n , 22 A p r i l 1878 and 16 A u g u s t 1 8 9 2 , S . P , , C h r i s t C h u rc h L i b r a r y , O x f o r d , V o l. d/ 2 7 .
^ H a n s a rd , 3 0 , 21 F e b r u a r y 1895> c o ls . 1 3 5 7 -5 8 *
H ence, when H a m ilt o n ’ s a p p o in tm e n t was announced soon a f t e r w a r d s , th e r e was a g e n e r a l u p r o a r i n th e l i b e r a l and r a d i c a l B r i t i s h p r e s s
a g a in s t i t . The D a i l y Hews wr o t e : "We have a lr e a d y p o in t e d o u t th e re a s o n f o r r e g a r d in g L o r d G eorge H a m ilto n as th e w o r s t p o s s ib le S e c r e ta r y o f ^ t a t e f o r I n d i a . A t a g r e a t c r i s i s when th e b u lk o f th e C o n s e r v a tiv e p a r t y i n th e House o f Commons s u b o r d in a te d f a c t i o n to th e w e lfa r e o f I n d i a , L o rd G e o rg e , w it h th e a s s e n t o f L o r d
S a l is b u r y , s u b o r d in a t e d th e w e lf a r e o f I n d i a to th e i n t e r e s t o f f a c t i o n . ” '1’ The S t a r commented i n t h e same to n e : " L o r d G eorge
H a m ilto n w i l l make t h e w o r s t S e c r e t a r y f o r I n d i a we c o u ld im a g in e ” . The M a n c h e s te r G u a rd ia n w r o te * ’’L o r d G eorge H a m ilto n ’ s a p p o in tm e n t
to th e I n d i a O f f i c e w i l l no d o u b t s c a n d a liz e -the yo u ng T o r i e s . . . . ” 3
B u t The T im e s and th e S ta n d a rd to o k H a m ilt o n ’ s a p p o in tm e n t w it h o u t c r i t i c i s m and b o th h o ped t h a t he w o u ld be a b le to u t i l i z e a t th e I n d i a O f f i c e h i s p r e v io u s e x p e r ie n c e i n t h a t d e p a rtm e n t. 4
H a m ilto n e n te r e d th e I n d i a O f f i c e a t a p e r io d when p ro b le m s i n I n d i a w ere g i g a n t i c and th e p o l i t i c a l p r e s s u r e a t home was h e a v y . T h e re was a g r i c u l t u r a l a id e co n o m ic d e p r e s s io n . A new
^1 J u l y 1 8 9 5 , q u o te d i n I n d i a ( L o n d o n ), A u g u s t 1895*
2n . d . , q u o te d i n i b i d . 3n . d . , q u o te d i n i b i d .
4n . d . , c i t e d i n i b i d . 5
V. A n s te y , The E conom ic D e v e lo p m e n t o f I n d i a . London 1 9 5 6 , p . 4 5 6 .
a s s e s s m e n t o f la n d re v e n u e i n th e C e n t r a l P r o v in c e s and i n th e P r e s id e n c ie s o f Bombay and M ad ra s was a d d in g a f r e s h b u rd e n c f
t a x a t i o n to th e a g r i c u l t u r a l p o p u la t io n who w ere a lr e a d y i n d e b t . The w a rs on th e N o r th W e s te rn F r o n t i e r had a b s o rb e d a l o t o f th e I n d ia n re v e n u e . The c o n s t r u c t i o n o f i r r i g a t i o n a l w o rk s had been n e g le c t e d w h ile th e r a p id r a il w a y e x te n s io n s o f f e r e d no s u b s t a n t i a l b e n e f i t to th e p o o r p e a s a n ts . Though th e d e c e n n ia l r e p o r t on th e m o r a l and m a t e r ia l p r o g r e s s o f I n d i a was to c la im v a r io u s im p ro v e m e n ts i n th e c o u n try '*' th e two g r e a t fa m in e s o f 1 8 9 6 -7 and 1 8 9 9 -1 9 0 0 w ere to expose th e d e s t i t u t e c o n d i t i o n o f th e a g r i c u l t u r a l m asses.
I n d ia n p ro b le m s had r e p e r c u s s io n s in E n g la n d . The s t a r t i n g o f C o n g re s s p ro p a g a n d a w o rk in E n g la n d i n 1887 th r o u g h th e p r i v a t e a g en cy o f D a d a b h a i N a o r o ji l a i d th e f o u n d a t io n f o r a p e rm a n e n t s o u rc e o f o p p o s it io n to th e I n d ia n p o l i c i e s o f th e S e c r e ta r y o f S ta t e f o r I n d i a . I n 1888 t h i s p ro p a g a n d a w o rk was e x te n d e d and W illia m D ig b y was a p p o in te d a f u l l tim e p a id a g e n t o f th e I n d ia n N a t io n a l C o n g re s s . 2 The one man ag en cy was soon fo u n d to be i n
a d e q u a te f o r th e i n c r e a s in g vo lu m e o f w ork and i n 1889 a c o m m itte e was fo rm e d u n d e r th e name o f th e B r i t i s h C o m m itte e o f th e I n d ia n N a t io n a l C o n g re s s , c o n s is t in g o f S i r W i l li a m W e d d e rb u m as C h a irm a n , M r. V. C. B o n n e rje e as S e c r e t a r y and M e s s rs . W .S .C a in e , M .P ., G eorge
^ M o ra l and M a t e r ia l P r o g r e s s R e p o r t , 1 9 0 1 -1 9 0 2 . 2I n d i a . Decem ber 1 8 9 0 .
Y u le , N a o r o j i , W .B.S .M c L a re n , M .P . and J . E . E l l i s , M .P . as m e m b e rs.^ The I n d i a n N a t io n a l C o n g re ss h a d g r a n t e d an a n n u a l
sum o f R s . 4 5 ,0 0 0 to f in a n c e th e w ork o f th e C o m m itte e . The o b j e c t i v e o f th e C o m m itte e was to f i g h t a g a in s t th e b u r e a u c r a t ic c o n t r o l o f th e S e c r e t a r y o f S ta t e f o r I n d i a , whose su p re m a cy seemed immune fro m p a r lia m e n t a r y c r i t i c i s m , a n d to la u n c h a con
t i n u i n g movement o f o p p o s it io n fr o m th e p l a t f o r m , i n th e p r e s s and i n p a r lia m e n t . E x te n s iv e p ro p a g a n d a was c a r r i e d on a l l o v e r E n g la n d t h r o u g h l e c t u r e s and th e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f l i t e r a t u r e on
I n d ia n p r o b le m s . P ro m in e n t s p e a k e rs l i k e C h a r le s B r a d la u g h a n d D ig b y , b e s id e s I n d ia n le a d e r s l i k e N a o r o j i and B o n n e r je e , to o k
a c t i v e p a r t s . W ith r e g a r d to th e p r e s s , in F e b r u a r y 1890 th e B r i t i s h C om m itte e began t o p u b l i s h a n e w s p a p e r named I n d i a i n
o r d e r to s u p p ly t r u s t w o r t h y in f o r m a t io n a b o u t I n d i a to th e B r i t i s h p u b l i c . I n th e w o rd s o f W edd.erburn, I n d i a was th e " s to r e - h o u s e
fro m w h ic h arms and m a t e r ia l s a re s u p p lie d to a l l th o s e who a re w i l l i n g to s t r i k e a b lo w on b e h a lf o f I n d i a ” . ^ H a m ilto n c o n s id e r e d
I n d i a a " p e r n i c io u s l i t t l e r a g ” , ^ f o r th e n e w s p a p e r a t t a c k e d h is
I b i d . The o f f i c e o f th e C om m ittee was h o use d a t 25 C ra v e n S t r e e t , S tr a n d , L o nd o n , W .C ., I n 1892 i t was rem oved to 85 P a la c e C ham bers, W e s tm in s te r , L o nd o n , S .W ..
pW. W e d d e rb u rn , A l la n O c ta v ia n Hume: F a t h e r o f th e I n d ia n N a t io n a l C o n g re s s , London 1 9 1 3 , p . 8 8 .
h b i d . . p . 9 7 .
4 \
H a m ilto n t o C u rz o n , 22 J a n u a r y 1 9 0 5 , H a m ilto n P a p e rs ( h e r e a f t e r E . P . ) .
I n d ia n p o l i c i e s th r o u g h o u t h i s w h o le p e r io d o f o f f i c e .
2 n n l8 9 3 , to f u l f i l th e program m e o f th e B r i t i s h C o m m itte e c f . the C o n g re s s , V e d d e rb u m , C a in e and I T a o r o ji, th e n members o f th e House o f Commons, s e t up an I n d ia n P a r lia m e n t a r y C o m m itte e c o n s is t in g o f members "who a re w i l l i n g t o c o o p e ra te on th e b ro a d g ro u n d s o f a j u s t and s y m p a th e tic p o l i c y to w a rd s I n d i a " . ^ W edder- b u rn became i t s C h a im a n . A c o n s id e r a b le num ber o f members o f
th e House o f Commons, m o s t ly l i b e r a l s and r a d i c a l s , jo in e d i t and w i t h i n a y e a r o f i~ ts f o r m a t io n th e C o m m itte e * s im p o rta n c e i n p a r lia m e n t became a s u b je c t o f c o n c e rn in th e C o n s e r v a tiv e p r e s s . By 1896 th e t o t a l m e m be rsh ip o f th e I n d ia n P a r lia m e n t a r y C o m m itte e ro s e to one h u n d re d . 2 T h is C o m m itte e c o m p le te ly changed
th e scene i n th e Commons on the o c c a s io n o f d e b a te s on I n d ia n a f f a i r s . O n ly th r e e o r f o u r je a r s e a r l i e r d e b a te s on I n d ia n a f f a i r s i n an
a lm o s t em pty house had been a s o u rc e o f amusement to th e B r i t i s h p r e s s . The I n d ia n P a r lia m e n t a r y C o m m itte e k e p t th e house te n s e b y i n i t i a t i n g s h a r p ly c r i t i c a l and w e l l - in f o r m e d d e b a te s and q u e s tio n s on I n d ia n a d m in i s t r a t i o n , and p la c e d a s t r a i n on H a m ilto n . The
B r i t i s h C o m m itte e i n t e n s i f i e d t h e i r I n d ia n r e fo rm m ovem ent i n E n g la n d n o t o n ly b y e n l i s t i n g th e s u p p o r t o f a g r e a t s e c t io n o f th e r e t i r e d members c f th e I n d ia n C i v i l S e r v ic e and o f l i b e r a l and
^ I n d i a , A u g u s t 1 8 9 4 .
^ I b i d . , A p r i l 1 8 9 6 .
p h i l a n t h r o p i c E n g lis h m e n , b u t a ls o b y in d u c in g th e N a t io n a l L i b e r a l F e d e r a t io n and th e S o c ia l D e m o c ra tic F e d e r a t io n to
in c lu d e th e q u e s tio n o f I n d ia n r e fo r m i n t h e i r p o l i t i c a l m a n ife s to s ." * ' The p r e s e n t t h e s i s i s a s tu d y c f fa m in e and a g r i c u l t u r a l
p o l i c i e s d u r in g H a m ilt o n 's a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . I t d e a ls w it h H a m ilt o n 's X J O lic ie s a g a in s t th e b a c k g ro u n d o f th o s e o f E lg in and C u rz o n . The l a t t e r ' s v i c e r o y a l t y (1 8 9 9 -1 9 0 5 ) spans much o f H a m ilt o n 's te n u r e o f o f f i c e . The p r e s e n t s tu d y a ls o aim s to c a s t l i g h t cn th e a t t i t u d e o f th e B r i t i s h p u b l i c to w a rd s fa m in e and a g r a r ia n d i s t r e s s in I n d i a , w it h p a r t i c u l a r r e fe r e n c e to t h e q u e s t io n o f w h e th e r th e y p u t f o r w a rd a n y c o n s t r u c t i v e r e m e d ia l p o l i c y c o n t r a r y t o th o s e p u rs u e d b y t h e i r t r u s t e e s i n C a lc u t t a and W h i t e h a l l .
I n d i a i s a p r e d o m in a n t ly a g r i c u l t u r a l c o u n t r y and th e b u lk o f h e r p e o p le depends on a g r i c u l t u r e f o r s u b s is t e n c e . The monsoon i s a l l - i m p o r t a n t . D ro u g h t c a u s e s a d e c lin e in th e h a r v e s t , fa m in e and u n s p e a k a b le d i s t r e s s . F a m ine s have o c c u r r e d in I n d i a s in c e
tim e im m e m o ria l. D e t a i l s c f fa m in e s d u r in g p r e - B r i t i s h tim e s a re l a c i i i n g b u t e v id e n c e s u g g e s ts t h a t g r e a t fa m in e o c c u r r e d i n I n d i a once in f i f t y y e a r s . 2 D u r in g t h e p e r io d from th e b e g in n in g cf th e
e le v e n th c e n tu r y to th e end o f th e s e v e n te e n th I n d i a s u f f e r e d
I n d i a , 5 December’ 1 8 9 0 .
2 fe m b n A j Uk
a
,
L o v e d a y f H i s t o r y and E c o n o m ic s o f / I n d i a » •<. London 1914>p . 2 5 . 1
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f o u r t e e n fa m in e s . The o c c u r re n c e o f fa m in e was m ore common i n tie e ig h t e e n t h and n in e t e e n t h c e n t u r ie s . D u r in g th e p e r io d o f th e E a s t I n d i a C om pany's r u l e i n I n d i a (1 7 6 5 -1 8 5 8 ) th e r e w ere tw e lv e fa m in e s and f o u r " s e v e r e s c a r c i t i e s " i n I n d i a . 2
Fam ine c o n d it io n s p r e v a i l e d even m ore f r e q u e n t l y in the second h a l f o f th e n in e t e e n t h c e n t u r y .
I n tim e s o f H in d u and Kuhamnadan r u l e th e g o v e rn m e n t w ould come fo r w a r d t o r e lie v e th e d i s t r e s s . P e o p le w ere e m p lo ye d i n th e c o n s t r u c t io n o f ro a d s and c a n a ls . C h ild r e n , th e s ic k and th e o ld w ere s e rv e d w it h f r e e m e a ls fr o m th e s t a t e k it c h e n ( l a r g e r k h a n a ) * R e m is s io n s o f la n d re v e n u e w ere g r a n te d as an i n d i r e c t r e l i e f t o th e p e a s a n ts . D e s p ite th e f r e q u e n c y o f fa m in e s d u r in g th e a d m in is t r a t io n o f th e E a s t I n d i a Company fa m in e p o l i c y had n o t been an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f th e r e g u l a r a d m in i s t r a t i o n .
The f o r m u la t io n o f B r i t i s h fa m in e p o l i c y and th e I m p e r ia l g o v e r n m e n t's r e g u l a r a t t e n t i o n to a g r i c u l t u r a l d is t r e s s v i r t u a l l y d a te s fro m I8 6 0 , when a fa m in e b ro k e c u t i n t h e N o r t h Y /e s te rn P r o v in c e s and f o r th e f i r s t tim e an o f f i c e r , C o lo n e l B a ir d S m ith , was d e p u te d b y th e G ove rn m en t o f I n d i a to i n v e s t i g a t e i t . ^ T h is fa m in e was
-jk . D ig b y , P ro s p e ro u s B r i t i s h I n d i a , London 1901* p . 1 2 3 .
^ R e p o rt o f th e Fam ine C o m m is s io n , 1 9 0 1 , P . Q . ( l I . C . ) , 1 9 0 2 , V o l . 7 0 , p . l ; see a ls o R e p o r t o f th e F a m ine C o m m is s io n , 1 8 8 0 , P . P . ( E . C . ) , 1 8 8 0 , V o l. 52, 3 P t s . , P t I , p a r a s 4 2 -4 8 .
H . S . S r iv a s t a v a , The H i s t o r y o f I n d i a n F a m in e s . 1 8 5 8 -1 9 1 8 , A g ra 1 9 6 8 , p p . 1 3 -2 9 .
^ B a ir d S m it h 's R e p o r t on th e F e lin e o f 1 8 6 0 -1 , IC R , R D .IJ o .(2 ) 8 6 3 .
N o r t h e r n I n d i a was a l a r g e m a r k e t f o r E n g lis h c o t t o n g o o d s . I n 1 8 5 9 -6 0
f o l lo w e d b y s e v e r a l g r e a t fa m in e s , i n O r is s a ( 1 8 6 6 ) , B e n g a l (1 8 7 3 -4 ) and M adras and Bombay ( 1 8 7 6 - 7 ) . A R o y a l C o m m issio n was s e t up f o r th e f i r s t tim e to e n q u ir e i n t o th e l a s t . I t s d e t a il e d r e p o r t s and re c o m m e n d a tio n s l a i d down th e g u id in g p r i n c i p l e s o f fa m in e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n I n d i a .
S e v e r a l w o rk s o f re s e a r c h i n t o th e fa m in e p o l i c y o f th e G overnm ent o f I n d i a have been p u b lis h e d . W illia m D ig b y 's
P r o s p e ro u s B r i t i s h I n d i a . London 1 9 0 1 , th o u g h i t d e a ls m a in ly
p i t h th e econom ic d i s t r e s s o f t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l p o p u l a t i o n , s u p p lie s in f o r m a t io n on th e in c id e n c e o f I n d ia n fa m in e s . A. Love d a y 's
H is t o r y and E co n om ics o f F a m in e s i n I n d i a , London 1 9 1 4 , i s a
g e n e ra l, w e ll-d o c u m e n te d s u rv e y on th e fa m in e p o l i c y o f th e G o v e rn m ent o f I n d i a d u r in g "the second h a l f o f -the n in e t e e n t h c e n tu r y . C f th e re c e n t w orks,- B . I - i. B h a t ia 1 s F a m in e s i n I n d i a , 1860-1945?
A S tu d y i n Some A s p e c ts o f th e E conom ic H is t o r y o f I n d i a . Hew Y o rk 1 9 6 3 , makes th e w id e s t u s e o f s o u rc e m a t e r ia l s and o f f e r s an
e co no m ic i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e fa m in e s i n I n d i a . A r e c e n t w ork b y H . S . S r iv a s t a v a , The H i s t o r y o f f ' I n d ia n F a m in e s , 1 8 3 8 -1 9 1 8 ,
la r g e s to c k s o f E n g lis h c o tt o n goods w ere l y i n g u n s o ld a t th e C a lc u t t a go down. Hence th e E u ro pe a n m e rc h a n ts a p p e a le d to th e G overnm ent o f I n d i a t o i n v e s t i g a t e th e c a u s e s o f such d e p r e s s io n . B a ir d S m ith was d e p u te d to do t h a t and he d is c o v e r e d th e p r e v a le n c e o f a c u te fa m in e th e r e and th e lo s s o f p u r c h a s in g p o w e r o f th e
pe q p le .
A g ra 1 9 ^8 , d e a ls e s p e c i a l l y w it h th e o r g a n is a t io n o f r e l i e f o p e r a t io n s and th e e v o lu t i o n o f th e fa m in e c o d e s , b e s id e s g iv i n g a g e n e r a l a c c o u n t o f th e fa m in e and a g r i c u l t u r a l p o l i c i e s o f t h e G overnm ent o f I n d i a fr o m 1858 to 1 9 1 8 . S tu d ie s o f p a r t i c u l a r
fa m in e s a p p e a r i n t h r e e r e c e n t London d o c t o r a l th e s e s . E.C .I-T oulton h a s c o n s id e r e d th e B e n g a l fa m in e o f 1 8 7 3 -4 u n d e r th e l i b e r a l v ic e r o y a l t y o f iT o r th b r o o k ,^ and L . M . G u jr a l th e M a d ra s and Bombay fa m in e o f 1 8 7 6 -7 u n d e r Hie T o r y v i c e r o y a l t y o f L y t t o n . 2 P . L . M a lh o t r a
3
h a s c o n s id e r e d some a s p e c ts o f th e fa m in e o f 1896- 7 > th e s u b je c t o f th e f i r s t c h a p te r o f th e p r e s e n t t h e s i s .
H ow ever f r e s h f a c t s re m a in t o be ic v e a le d and a new i n t e r p r e t a t i o n to be made w it h r e g a rd to th e 1 8 9 6 -7 fa m in e p o l i c y . F u r th e r m o r e e x c e p t f o r f . 'I . H o l d e m e s s 1 s o f f i c i a l o b s e r v a tio n s i n
1902 4 110 d e t a i l e d s tu d y h a s y e t been made c f t h e fa m in e o f 1899-
1 9 0 0 , th e s u b je c t o f th e se co nd c h a p t e r o f th e p r e s e n t t h e s i s . W ith r e g a r d to th e p o l i c i e s on th e p e rm a n e n t f i n a n c i a l p r o v is i o n
f o r th e p r e v e n t io n o f fa m in e , d e t a il e d s tu d y i s a ls o r e q u ir e d to
L o r d N o r th b r o o k ’ s I n d ia n A d m in i s t r a t i o n 1 8 7 2 -7 6 , now p u b lis h e d , London 1 9 6 $ .
2" I n t e r n a l A d m in is t r a t io n o f L o r d L y t t o n , w i t h s p e c ia l r e fe r e n c e to S o c ia l and E co n om ic P o l i c y , 1 3 7 6 -1 8 S 0 ", u n p u b lis h e d 1 9 5 8 , C h . I I . 5 "The I n t e r n a l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f L o rd E lg in i n I n d i a , 1 8 9 4 -1 8 9 8 ",
u n p u b lis h e d , i 9 6 0 , C h .IY .
^ " I n d i a n Fftciiao o f 1&99u 7 S o Q ie ty o f A r t e , V o l. 5 0 , 1 9 0 2 .
r e v e a l th e u n d e r c u r r e n t s o f e v e n ts b e h in d th e im p o s it io n c f
th e fa m in e t a x i n 1878 and th e c r e a t io n o f th e Fam ine R e l i e f and In s u r a n c e F u n d . The t h i r d c h a p t e r o f th e p r e s e n t t h e s is i s an a tte m p t in t h i s d i r e c t i o n . II . C u m p s to n 's ,!Some E a r ly I n d ia n
1 N a t i o n a l i s t s and t h e i r a l l i e s in th e B r i t i s h P a r lia m e n t , 1 8 5 1 -1 9 0 6 ” has p r o je c t e d a f i e l d o f s tu d y w h ic h r e q u ir e s e x t e n s io n . T h e re i s no w orh on th e B r i t i s h Commi tt e e o f th e I n d ia n n a t i o n a l C o n g re ss and th e I n d ia n P a r lia m e n t a r y C o m m itte e o r th e a c t i v i t i e s o f th e B r i t i s h p u b l i c on I n d ia n p r o b le m s . The f o u r t h c h a p t e r o f t ie p r e s e n t t h e s i s i s in te n d e d to c o v e r some o f th e s e a s p e c ts . B. C h a n d ra ’ s The B-ise end G ro w th o f E co n om ic N a t io n a lis m i n I n d i a ; E co n om ic P o l i c i e s o f I n d ia n N a t io n a l L e a d e r s h ip , 168C -19Q 5 . New D e l h i 1 9 6 6 , has e x p la in e d th e b a s ic p r i n c i p l e o f th e demands o f th e I n d ia n N a t io n a l C o n g re s s , R .C .D u t-t and th e r e t i r e d A n g lo - I n d ia n c f f i c i a l s
i n E n g la n d w it h r e g a r d to th e la n d t a x in I n d i a , b u t h a s l e f t a w id e gap i n e x a m in in g th e o b j e c t i v e j u s t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e i r demands.
S e c tio n I o f d ie f i f t h c h a p t e r o f die p r e s e n t t h e s i s i s d e v o te d to f i l l i n g t h i s gap and th e r e m a in in g two s e c t io n s c f th e same c h a p te r e xa m in e th e m ea sure s o f th e g o v e rn m e n t i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n .
h n r l i s h H i s t o r i c a l R e v ie w . L X X V I, A p r i l 19S I, p p . 2 7 9 -9 7 .
THE FAMINE OF 1 8 9 6 -7
W it h in a y e a r o f H a m ilt o n ’ s b e c o m in g th e h ead c f th e I n d i a O f f i c e I n d i a was g r ip p e d w i t h a s e v e re fa m in e f a r m ore s e r io u s
th a n t h a t o f 1 8 7 6 -7 * From th e a d m in i s t r a t i v e p o i n t o f v ie w th e fa m in e o f 1 8 9 6 -7 was d i f f e r e n t fr o m th e p r e c e d in g fa m in e s . I n th e f o r m e r fa m in e s th e r e was no p r e p la n n e d and u n if o r m sys te m o f fam ine a d m in i s t r a t i o n . A f t e r th e fa m in e o f 1 8 7 6 -7 tw o im p o r t a n t a rra n g e m e n ts w ere made to d e a l w it h th e f u t u r e fa m in e s . F i r s t , th e f o r m a t io n o f th e F a m ine R e l i e f and In s u r a n c e Fund i n 1 8 7 7 -8 was in te n d e d to p r o v id e a fu n d f o r fa m in e r e l i e f i n y e a r s o f fa m in e and f o r th e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f p r o t e c t i v e p u b l i c w o rk s as p r e v e n t iv e m e a sure s i n n o n - fa m in e y e a rs .'* ' S e c o n d ly , th e F a m in e C om m ission o f 1880 p r e s c r ib e d 2 f o r th e f o r m u la t io n o f u n if o r m code
i n s t r u c t i o n s to be f o l lo w e d b y a l l th e l o c a l g o v e rn m e n ts so t h a t th e y m ig h t be v i g i l a n t o f an im p e n d in g fa m in e and t a c k le th e s i t u a t i o n e f f e c t i v e l y when i t a p p e a re d . I n 1883 th e l o c a l g o v e r n - m e n ts fo rm e d F a m ine C odes, w h ic h w ere r e v is e d i n 1893 and i n 1 8 9 5 - 6 .3
1F o r d e t a i l s see C h a p te r I I I .
^ R e p o rt o f th e Fam ine C o m m is s io n , 1 8 8 0 , P t . I , p a r a 1 1 2 , P .P . ( H .C .) 1 8 8 0 , V o l. 5 2 . T h is C om m ission was s e t up b y th e G overnm ent o f I n d i a a f t e r th e g r e a t fa m in e o f 1876- 7 .
*7
See N .W .P . & 0 . Fam ine Code ( r e v is e d ) 1 8 9 5 , I n d i a F am ine P r o c e e d in g ^ ( h e r e a f t e r r e f e r r e d t o as I n d i a Fam. P r o c . ) 1 8 9 6 , V o l. 4 9 8 2 , p p . 5 1 -1 1 4 ; B e n g a l F am ine Code ( r e v is e d ) 1 8 9 5 , i b i d . , p p . 1 3 9 -1 9 0 ; C e n t r a l P r o v in c e F a m in e Code ( r e v is e d ) 1 8 9 6 , i b i d . , p p . 5 2 5 -6 0 0 ; Bombay F a m ine Code ( r e v is e d ) 1 8 9 6 , i b i d . , p p . 9 2 3 -9 8 2 ; M adras F am ine Code ( r e v is e d ) 1 8 9 6 , I n d i a Fam. P r o c . , V o l. 5205, 1 8 9 7 , p p . 3 5 8 9 -5 7 0 2 ; see a ls o H . S . S r iv a s t a v a , The H i s t o r y o f I n d ia n F a m in e s 1 8 5 8 -1 9 1 8 ( A g ra 1 9 6 8 ) , p p . 1 6 8 -1 8 4 .
The Fam ine Code p r o v id e d t h a t i n o r d in a r y tim e s i n e a ch v i l l a g e t h e r e was t o be a g o v e rn m e n t a g e n t, o r P a t w a r i, who was to r e p o r t p e r i o d i c a l l y upon t h e c r o p s , r a i n f a l l , r is e and f a l l i n p r i c e s o f fo o d g r a in and a n y o t h e r m a t t e r w o r t h y o f n o t ic e to h i s im m e d ia te s u p e r i o r , th e K a n u n g o . The Kanungo was
to s u b m it a l l th e & e r e p o r t s t o th e s u b - d i v i s i o n a l o f f i c e r , fro m whom th e y w ere to be p a s s e d to th e C o l l e c t o r o f th e d i s t r i c t
and th e n on t o th e C o m m is s io n e r o f th e D i v i s i o n , who was th e h ig h e s t e x e c u t iv e o f f i c e r b e lo w th e G o v e rn o r o r L ie u t e n a n t G o v e rn o r. From th e C o m m is s io n e r a l l r e c o r d s w ere to be s e n t t o th e D i r e c t o r o f Land Revenue and A g r i c u l t u r e o f th e p r o v in c e c o n c e rn e d . He w o u ld p e r i o d i c a l l y t e s t th e a c c u ra c y o f th e r e p o r t s and n o te any im p e r f e c t i o n and s u g g e s t m e a su re s f o r im p ro v e m e n t o f "the s y s te m . S e c o n d ly , e v e r y C o l l e c t o r was t o ke e p a l i s t o f p u b l i c w o rk s f o r h i s d i s t r i c t . P u b lic w o rk s w ere t o be d iv id e d in t o two c la s s e s ,
(a ) w o rk s s p e c i a l l y in t e n d e d f o r th e r e l i e f o f th e a g r i c u l t u r a l p o p u la t io n i n th e v i c i n i t y o f t h e i r v i l l a g e s , and ( b ) w o rk s o f
a l a r g e r c h a r a c t e r n o t d e s ig n e d f o r th e a g r i c u l t u r a l p o p u la t io n n e a r t h e i r homes b u t p a r t o f a r e g u l a r program m e o f a d m in i s t r a t i v e w o rk s . The l i s t s o f th e s e w o rk s and th e num ber o f p e o p le f o r whom th e y w o u ld p r o v id e e m p lo ym e n t w ere to be a n n u a lly r e v is e d b y th e P u b lic W orks D e p a rtm e n t, whose b u s in e s s was to a s s e s s th e s u f f i c ie n c y and s u i t a b i l i t y o f th e w o rk s a n c tio n e d . T h is r e v is e d l i s t was to be s e n t t o th e C o m m is s io n e r.
B u t when s c a r c i t y became im m in e n t th e n s p e c ia l z e p o r ts w ere a t once to be made as t o p r o s p e c ts o f c r o p s , movement o f p e o p le , c o n d i t i o n o f g r a in s t o c k , f a i l u r e o f f o d d e r and m o r t a l i t y o f c a t t l e . Upon th e r e c e ip t o f th e s e r e p o r t s e v e r y C o m m is s io n e r was t o p u t f o r w a r d p ro p o s e d m e a s u re s o f r e l i e f , th e e x t r a e x p e n d itu r e t o be i n c u r r e d , t h e s o u rc e fro m w h ic h i t c o u ld be d e f r a y e d , th e r e m is s io n o f re v e n u e to be m ade, t h e ad van ce to th e r a y a t s to be s a n c tio n e d , t h e num ber o f t e s t r e l i e f w o rk s to be opened and th e em ploym ent o f a d d i t i o n a l s t a f f r e q u ir e d . When th e a c t u a l fa m in e o c c u r r e d th e n o rd e rs w ere t o be s e n t to e v e ry d i s t r i c t o f f i c e r as to o b je c t s and m e th o d s o f e x p e n d itu r e a id i t s a d m in i s t r a t i o n to th e s p e c ia l c o n s id e r a t io n o f s a v in g l i f e . A t th e same tim e th e
P u b li c W orks D e p a rtm e n t was to be o o n ta c te d so t h a t n e c e s s a r y
s u p p le m e n ta ry w o rk s m ig h t be o p en e d and c l a s s i f i e d , a n d , when o p e n e d , r e p o r t s w ere to be c o n s t a n t l y and p e r i o d i c a l l y s e n t on th e c o n d it io n o f th o s e s e e k in g r e l i e f , on th e p r i c e o f f o o d , on th e s u f f i c i e n c y o f wages p a id and on t h e l e g u l a t i o n f o r ih e t r a n s f e r o f w o rk s fro m one p la c e t o a n o th e r . R e p o r t was a ls o to be made on ihe s a n i t a t i o n o f r e l i e f cam ps, m a rk e t a rra n g e m e n ts and h o s p i t a l a cco m m o d a tio n.
I n a d d i t i o n to th e s e a rra n g e m e n ts th e F am ine Code e n v is a g e d p r o v id i n g g r a t u i t o u s r e l i e f t o th o s e men, women and c h ild r e n who, e i t h e r b y
age o r i n f i r m i t y , w ere p h y s i c a l l y in c a p a b le o f d o in g w o rk i n th e g o v e rn m e n t w o rk c e n t r e s . F o r th o s e who w o u ld be a b s o l u t e l y u n a b le
eve n to coo k t h e i r own' m e a ls s t a t e p o o r h o u s e s and k it c h e n s w ere to be c o n s tr u c te d and co o ked m e a ls w ere to be s e r v e d . The F a m ine Code a ls o p r o v id e d t h a t f o r th e e f f i c i e n t a d m in i s t r a t i o n o f fa m in e r e l i e f e v e r y d i s t r i c t was to be d iv id e d i n t o s e v e r a l fa m in e c i r c l e s E a ch c i r c l e was to b e u n d e r th e c h a rg e o f a s p e c ia l o f f i c e r whose d u ty was t o s u p e r v is e a l l th e r e l i e f a rra n g e m e n ts
and t o v i s i t fro m v i l l a g e to v i l l a g e w i t h i n h i s c i r c l e to w a tc h th e m ig r a t io n fro m one v i l l a g e to a n o th e r i n o r d e r to p r e v e n t
p e rs o n s fr o m g o in g to p la c e s w here th e y w o u ld be u n a b le to s u p p o r t th e m s e lv e s .
The F am ine Code c l a s s i f i e d th o s e e m p lo ye d on g o v e rn m e n t r e l i e f w o rk s in t o f o u r g r o u p s ;
A P r o f e s s io n a l la b o u r e r s B L a b o u re rs n o t p r o f e s s io n a l C A b le b o d ie d b u t n o t l a b o u r e r D W e a k ly b u t f i t f o r l i g h t w o rk
The d a i l y wages w ere f i x e d b y th e Fam ine Code a t a r a t e e q u iv a le n t to th e e x i s t i n g m a r k e t p r i c e o f a q u a n t i t y o f fo o d g r a i n t h a t
c o u ld b a r e ly m a in t a in th e p h y s ic a l c o n d i t i o n o f th e l a b o u r e r s . T h e re was p r o v is i o n f o r a m inim um wage f o r e v e r y c a te g o r y o f w o r k e r . The r a t e o f wages f o r th e v a r io u s c a te g o rie s o f w o rk e rs and a ls o f o r g r a t u it o u s wages v a r ie d s l i g h t l y fro m one p r o v in c e to a n o t h e r .
The fa m in e o f 1 8 9 6 -7 s p re a d o v e r a lm o s t a l l I n d i a : B e n g a l, Bombay D e c c a n , C e n t r a l P r o v in c e s , N o r t h W e s te rn P r o v in c e s and Oudh, th e D eccan d i s t r i c t s o f th e M a d ra s P r e s id e n c y and th e P u n ja b . I t c o v e re d an a re a , e x c lu d in g th e N a t iv e S t a t e s , o f 2 2 5 ,0 0 0 s q u a re m ile s w i t h a p o p u la t io n o f 62 m .^ The m a in cause o f th e fa m in e was d r o u g h t. T h e re was l i t t l e r a i n i n th e s p r in g o f 1896 i n th e above m e n tio n e d a r e a s , w h ic h p r e v e n te d p lo u g h in g and s o w in g f o r th e s p r in g c ro p s l i k e w h e a t, b a r le y g ra in and p u ls e . The absence o f r a i n f a l l d u r in g t h e autum n o f 1896 had become f a t a l to th e c r o p s . T h e re was no r a i n fro m A u g u s t t o Novem ber 1 8 9 6 , d u r in g w h ic h p e r io d m ore th a n one t h i r d o f t h e r a i n f a l l was u s u a l l y ex
p e c te d . The f a i l u r e o f th e r a i n f a l l d e s tr o y e d th e g r o w in g autum n fo o d c ro p s l i k e m i l l e t , r i c e , a n d p u ls e , th e y i e l d o f w h ic h on u n i r r i g a t e d la n d s was e s t im a t e d to range fro m n o t h in g t o n e a r ly h a l f an a ve ra g e c r o p . 2 O f th e a f f e c t e d a re a s th e o o n d it io n o f
th e C e n t r a l P r o v in c e s and th e N o r t h W e s te rn P r o v in c e s and Oudh was m o st a c u te . B o th th e p r o v in c e s had b e en s u f f e r i n g fro m d e f i c i e n t r a i n f a l l and bad h a r v e s t s in c e 1893* 3 I n th e C e n t r a l P r o v in c e s th e
^ R e p o rt o f th e F a m in e C om m ission ( h e r e a f t e r r e f e r r e d to a s R .F . C . ) 1 8 9 8 , p a r a 3 3 9 , P .P . ( H .C .) 1 8 9 9 , V o l. 3 1 . See A p p x. A , Map I , a t th e b a c k f o r t h i s a r e a w here fa m in e c o n d it io n s p r e v a i l e d .
A
G.G. i n C. to S . o f S . , 23 D ecem ber (F a m in e N o. 64J 1 8 9 6 , I n d i a Fam. P r o c . , 1 8 9 6 , V o l. 4 9 8 2 , p p . 1 5 7 5 -7 .
3
A n o te on th e c ro p s o f t h e C .P . d u r in g th e t h r e e y e a r s 1 8 9 2 -3 t o 1 8 9 4 -5 , I n d i a Fam. P r o c . , 1 8 9 6 , V o l . 4 9 8 2 , p p . 4 4 9 -7 7 ; R e s o l.
N .W .P . & 0 . , 20 O c to b e r (N o . 3 9 4 5 S -1 -5 8 ) 1 8 9 6 , I n d i a Fam. P r o c . , 1 8 9 7 , V o l. 5 203, p p . 7 9 - 8 7 .
c ro p p r o d u c t io n o f 1 8 96 -was 45 p e r c e n t o f th e n o r m a l, i n N o r t h W e s te rn P r o v in c e s and Oudh 60 p e r c e n t, i n B e n g a l 67 p e r c e n t ,
i n Bombay 65 p e r c e n t , In P u n ja b 75 p e r c e n t and in M a d ra s 80 p e r c e n t. The a v e ra g e l o s s o f c ro p i n t h a t y e a r was e s tim a te d
a t one t h i r d o f th e n o rm a l a v e ra g e p r o d u c t io n o r 18 t o 19m. t o n s . ^ H ig h p r ic e s o f f o o d g r a i n , i t s a c u te s c a r c i t y and th e d is t r e s s o f th e p e o p le o f th e N o r t h W e s te rn P r o v in c e s and the C e n t r a l P ro v in c e s w ere r e p o r t e d fro m J u l y and A u g u s t 1 8 9 6 . H u n g ry and e m a c ia te d men, women and c h ild r e n w e re r e p o r t e d t o be f l o c k i n g i n t o th e
s t r e e t s o f th e p r i n c i p a l to w n s and c i t i e s o f Ihe C e n t r a l P r o v in c e s and N o r th W e s te rn P r o v in c e s . 2 P e o p le r e s o r t e d t o l o o t i n g g r a in
shops and godowns i n D e l h i , A g r a , N a g p u r and M u z a ffa m a g a r and K a n p u r i n th e d e s p e ra te a tte m p t to g e t f o o d . D is t r e s s in th e Bombay P r e s id e n c y became a c u te fro m O c to b e r 3896. C r a in r i o t s to o k p la c e i n H u b l i , K a ra d , S h o la p u r and some o t h e r to w n s o f th e Bombay P r e s id e n c y . 4 D is t r e s s a ls o s p re a d o v e r B e n g a l and was e s p e c i a l l y
iT .W .H o ld e m e s s , ’’N a r r a t i v e o f t h e F a m in e s i n I n d i a i n 1 8 9 6 - 7 " , p a r a 2 7 , P .P . ( H .C .) 1 8 9 8 , V o l. 62; see a ls o R . F . C . , 1 8 9 8 , l o c . c i t . , p a r a 585.
^R a h b a r (l-lo ra d a b a d ), 8 A u g u s t 1 8 9 6 , N .W .P . & 0 . N .N .R ., 1 8 9 6 ; see a ls o A n i s - l - H i n d ( M e e r u t ) , 12 A u g u s t 1 8 9 6 , i b i d . ; B h a r a t Jewan ( B e n a r e s ) , 24 A u g u s t 1 8 9 6 , i b i d .
■ ^B .M .B h a tia , F a m ine s i n I n d i a , ( New Y o rk 1 9 6 3 ) , p . 2 4 0. I n N ag p u r t r o o p s had t o be c a lle d o u t to q u e l l th e g r a in r i o t . T e le g r . V ic e r o y to S. o f S . , 6 O c to b e r 1 8 9 6 , P .P . ( H .C .) 1 8 9 7 ., V o l. 6 4 , p « 5 .
^ N o t i f i c a t i o n o f th e Bombay G o v t. 19 Novem ber (R e v . No. Pam. 37) 1 8 9 6 , I n d i a F^m. P r o c . , 1 8 9 7 , V o l . 5203, p . 1455*
s e v e re i n B i h a r . E v e ry w h e re i n t h e a f f e c t e d a re a s th e r e was a c r y f o r d e c is iv e a c t io n on th e p a r t cf th e g o v e rn m e n t t o d e a l
w it h th e fa m in e . A l l th e v e r n a c u la r n e w s p a p e rs u r g e d th e G overnm ent o f I n d i a to open e x t e n s iv e r e l i e f w o rk s i n o r d e r to a v o id m o r t a l i t y . '
Up t o D ecem ber 1896 th e G overnm ent o f I n d i a was i n d i f f e r e n t to the a la rm r a is e d b y th e n e w s p a p e rs . E l g i n d id n o t c a n c e l h i s t o u r o f th e n a t i v e s t a t e s i n O c to b e r-N o v e m b e r 1896 d e s p it e re p e a te d a p p e a ls fro m th e I n d ia n n e w s p a p e rs . 2 O n ly on th e 1 5 t h O c to b e r 1896
d id he r e c o g n is e th e im p e n d in g s c a r c i t y and d e c la r e t h a t th e G o v e rn - m e n t o f I n d i a w o u ld ta k e a c t io n to save l i f e . 3 M o s t o f th e l o c a l
g o v e rn m e n ts w ere v e r y s lo w i n t h e i r a c t io n to r e l i e v e th e d i s t r e s s o f th e p e o p le . The G overnm ent o f th e N o r th W e s te rn P r o v in c e s and Oudh was o n ly a l i t t l e m ore p ro m p t i n o p e n in g r e l i e f w o rk . I n
th e t h i r d week o f A u g u s t 1896 th e num ber o f p e o p le on r e l i e f i n th e a f f e c t e d a re a s o f th e p r o v in c e was 2 1 ,1 7 3 o n ly . I n th e C e n t r a l P r o v in c e s no s y s te m a tic r e l i e f o p e r a t io n s were u n d e r ta k e n b y t h e G overnm ent even i n N ovem ber, when th e o n ly d e c is io n ta k e n was to
ji
R ia z - u l- A k h b a r ( G o r a k h p u r ) , 1 A u g u s t 1 8 9 6 , N .W .P . & O . N . N . R . , 1 8 9 6 ; The A zad (L u c k n o w ) 7 A u g u s t 1 8 9 6 , i b i d . ; A im o ra A k h b a r (A lm o r a ) 8 A u g u s t 1 8 9 6 ,i b i d . ; J a n i- u l - U l u m , 14 A u g u s t 1 8 9 6 , i b i d .
p
C a p i t a l , 7 O c to b e r 1 8 9 6 , Bom .IT.N .R . 1 8 9 6 ; The B e n g a le e ( C a l c u t t a ) 17 O c to b e r 1 8 9 6 , B .U .N .R ., 1 8 9 6 ; M a r a t h a , 18 O c to b e r 1 8 9 6 , Bom.
N .N .R ., 1 8 9 6 ; K e s a r i , 20 O c to b e r 1 896, i b i d . ; K i t a b a d i ( C a l c u t t a ) 11 Novem ber 1 8 9 6 , B .N .N .R ., 1 8 9 6 ; B a n g a b a s i ( C a l c u t t a ) , 14 N ovem ber 1 8 9 6 , i b i d .
■3
P r o c . o f th e G overn o r - G e n e r a l - in - C o u n c i l, 1896, V o l. 3QGCV, p . 3 8 7 .
open th e g o v e rn m e n t r e s e r v e d f o r e s t s to th e p o o r p e o p le so t h a t t h e y c o u ld g e t th e r o o t s o f t h e mohua t r e e f r e e o f c o s t . ^ The G ove rn m en t o f B e n g a l was w a t c h f u l o f th e s i t u a t i o n . E a r ly i n N ovem ber 1 8 9 6 , r e f e r r i n g t o th e s c a r c i t y i n B i h a r , A le x a n d e r M a c k e n z ie , L ie u t e n a n t G o v e rn o r o f B e n g a l,w a rn e d E l g i n , nWe have n o t d e c la r e d fa m in e o r s e r io u s d i s t r e s s y e t anyw here h u t th e w o l f i s a t th e d o o r M. 2 M a c k e n z ie p a id a v i s i t to B ih a r and on 20
N ovem ber 1 8 96 c o n f e r r e d w it h th e C o m m is s io n e rs , C o l l e c t o r s and th e le a d in g I n d ia n s o f th e l o c a l i t y and d e c id e d to make e x te n s iv e r e l i e f a rra n g e m e n ts i n t h a t r e g io n . By th e s e c o n d week o f Decem ber 1896 th e t o t a l num ber o f p e o p le on g o v e rn m e n t r e l i e f was 4 9 4 , 2 0 0 .^
D e s p ite th e above s i t u a t i o n th e G overnm ent o f I n d i a d id n o t de
c l a r e th e e x is te n c e o f a fa m in e . On th e c o n t r a r y , E l g i n w ro te
to H a m ilto n t h a t th e I n d ia n n e w s p a p e rs were e x a g g e r a tin g th e s i t u a t i o n .5
The fa m in e o f 1 8 9 6 -7 had r e p e r c u s s io n s i n E n g la n d . E v e r s in oe th e B e n g a l fa m in e o f 1 8 7 3 -4 t h e B r i t i s h p r e s s , e s p e c i a ll y i t s r a d i c a l and l i b e r a l s e c t io n , had been c o n s t a n t l y r e m in d in g th e B r i t i s h p u b l i c o f ihe c o l l e c t i v e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f th e I n d i a n and I m p e r ia l
]
R e p o r t o f th e Comm, o f th e N a g p u r D i v i s i o n 7 N ovem ber 1 8 9 6 , I n d i a Fam. P r o c . , V o l. 5 2 0 3 , 1 8 9 7 , p . 175-
^ M a c k e n z ie to E l g i n , 2 N ovem ber 3896, E*.P.
3The P io n e e r . 1 Decem ber 1 8 9 6 .
^ T e le g r . V ic e r o y t o S. o f S . , 18 D e c e m b e rl8 9 6 , P .P . ( H .C .) 1 8 9 7 ,
Vol. LXXV, p . 7.
5
E lg in to Hamilton, 23 December 1 8 9 6 , E .P .
G o v e rn m e n ts end t h e B r i t i s h p u b l i c to save th e I n d ia n p e a s a n ts fr o m fa m in e . A p p e a ls f o r p r i v a t e c h a r i t y f o r th e I n d ia n Fam ine R e l i e f Fund w ere made i n th e fa m in e s o f 1 8 7 3 -4 and 1 8 7 6 -7 on
th e i n i t i a t i v e o f H a m ilto n h i m s e l f , when he was th e U n d e r S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e f o r I n d i a , th r o u g h th e L o r d M a yo r o f London. S u b s t a n t ia l am o un ts w ere r a is e d on b o t h o c c a s io n s . B u t to th e fa m in e o f 1 8 9 6 -7 th e p u b l i c r e a c t i o n i n E n g la n d was f a r m ore s y m p a th e tic . T h is was b e c a u s e o f th e g r o w in g em ergence o f r a d i c a l and s o c i a l i s t f o r c e s and o f -the e s t a b lis h m e n t c f th e B r i t i s h C o m m itte e o f t h e I n d ia n N a t io n a l C o n g re s s .
I n v ie w o f th e g ra v e s i t u a t i o n in I n d i a e a r l y i n Decem ber th e L o r d M a yo r o f London became a n x io u s to s t a r t a c h a r i t a b l e r e l i e f f u n d f o r I n d ia n fa m in e . As such an a p p e a l c o u ld n o t be made w it h o u t th e f o r m a l a p p r o v a l o f th e I n d i a O f f i c e he a p p e a le d to H a m ilto n f o r h i s p e r m is s io n . B u t H a m ilto n re q u e s te d him to d e la y a c t io n p e n d in g th e r e c e ip t o f f u r t h e r c o m m u n ic a tio n fro m th e G overnm ent o f I n d i a . H a m ilto n in fo r m e d h im t h a t th e G overnm ent o f I n d i a was th e n s t i l l o b s e r v in g th e s i t u a t i o n w i t h hopes o f
w i n t e r r a i n , and recomm ended t h a t u n t i l th e s i t u a t i o n had more f u l l y r e v e a le d i t s e l f no a c t io n s h o u ld be ta k e n to a p p e a l f o r
_ 1
p r i v a t e c h a r i t y i n E n g la n d . The same r e p l y was s e n t to th e
^ H a m ilto n to L o rd M a yo r o f L o n d o n , 21 D ecem ber 1 8 9 6 , c i t e d i n I n d i a (L o n d o n ) , F e b r u a r y 1 8 9 7 .
L a n c a s h ir e I n d ia n C o tto n D u t ie s C o m m itte e , w h ic h s e n t a m e m o ria l to H a m ilto n s e e k in g h i s p e r m is s io n t o s t a r t a r e l i e f fu n d .'* '
The I n d ia n c o m m u n itie s in London w ere a n g e re d a t th e i n d i f f e r e n c e o f th e I n d i a O f f i c e as w e l l as o f th e G overnm ent o f I n d i a i n s t a r t i n g th e c h a r i t a b l e r e l i e f f u n d b o t h i n I n d i a and ' E n g la n d . A t a m e e tin g i n London on 28 D ecem ber p r e s id e d o v e r b y U a o r o j i , t h e y a d o p te d a r e s o l u t i o n c a l l i n g u p on th e L o r d
M a y o r o f London to open t h e M a n s io n House F u n d . An I n d ia n d e p u t a t io n was s e n t to th e I n d i a O f f i c e to re q u e s t ih e S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e to s t a r t th e r e l i e f fu n d I n E n g la n d . 2 S i r W illia m W e d d e rb u m , C h a ir
man o f th e P a r lia m e n t a r y C o m m itte e o f th e B r i t i s h C o m m itte e o f t h e C o n g re s s , s t r o n g l y c r i t i c i s e d H a m ilt o n ’ s a c t io n Mi n k e e p in g b a c k th e p r o f f e r e d a id ” . He o b s e rv e d : H. . . I a f f i r m t h a t he does so fro m a d e lu s io n and fro m a m is c o n c e p tio n o f f a c t s . . . i t i s th e same p e r s i s t e n t and p e r n ic io u s o p tim is m w i t h w h ic h th e I n d i a O f f i c e i s s a t u r a t e d and w h ic h b l i n d s s u c c e s s iv e S e c r e t a r ie s o f S ta t e t o th e r e a l c o n d i t i o n o f t h e m asses i n I n d i a ” . The S o c i a l i s t le a d e r , H e n ry Hyndman, a d v o c a te d a w id e s p re a d a g i t a t i o n
•]I n d i a O f f i c e t o L a n c a s h ir e I n d i a n C o tto n D u t ie s C o m m itte e , 22 Decem ber 3.896, c i t e d i n I n d i a . F e b r u a r y 1897-
f t * CottiTV* A/viJ A 'iSO0 t<vta*V '.
^ I n d i a , F e b r u a r y 1 8 9 7 ; see a ls o The D a i l y C h r o n i c l e -. 29 D ecem ber 1 8 9 6 . The D a i l y C h r o n ic le 29 D ecem ber 1 8 9 6 .
