THE ROLE OF THE. ZAMINDARS IN BENGAL ( 1 7 0 7 - 1 7 7 2 )
T h e s i s s u b m i t t e d f o r t h e D e g r e e o f D o c t o r o f P h i l o s o p h y a t . t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f London
by
SHIRIN AKBTAR
S c h o o l o f O r i e n t a l and A f r i c a n S t u d i e s F e b r u a r y , 1 9 7 3 .
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
To Dr*K®N*Chaudhuri, i n t r i b u t e t o h i s i n s p i r i n g g u i d a n c e , i t i s a c k n o w l e d g e d t h a t t h e s t r i d e s made
u n d e r h i s s u p e r v i s i o n c u l m i n a t e d i n t h e p r e s e n t study®
I am e x t r e m e l y g r a t e f u l to>-him f o r h i s i l l u m i n a t i n g c r i t i c i s m a n d s u s t a i n e d i n t e r e s t *
To M a j o r J . B . H a r r i s o n who h e l p e d me a t t h e
i n i t i a l , s t a g e o f . my w o r k , I owe a d e b t o f a p p r e c i a t i o n ® I w o u l d l i k e t o t h a n k Mr#Shah Shu;j j a t u l l a h f o r h i s
a s s i s t a n c e ® ' • - '?•;
I am g r a t e f u l t o t h e B r i t i s h C o u n c i l f o r , f i n a n c i a l a s s i s t a n c e ® . I am a l s o i n d e b t e d t o M r s *Y in 0®L i u f o r . h e r e n c o u r a g e m e n t a n d co u n se l®
F i n a l l y , my t h a n k s a r e due t o t h e s t a f f o f t h e . S c h o o l o f O r i e n t a l an d A f r i c a n S t u d i e s a n d t h e I n d i a
O f f i e e / L i b r a r y f o r t h e i r c o - o p e r a t i o n *
ABSTRACT
T h i s work i s . a s t u d y o f t h e d i f f e r e n t r o l e s o f t h e z a m i n d a r s i n B e n g a l d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d 1707-1772*
I t r e v i e w s t h e o p e r a t i o n a l a s p e c t s o f t h e r e v e n u e ,
m i l i t a r y , p o l i c e and J u d i c i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e Mughals i n t h e p r o v i n c e o f B e n g a l and ex a m in e s how t h e z a m i n d a r s f i t t e d i n t o t h a t s t r u c t u r e and d i s c h a r g e d t h e i r d u t i e s .
The k e y i s s u e s and a p p r o a c h e s h a v e bee n s t u d i e d a g a i n s t t h e b a c k g r o u n d o f ( i ) t h e Mughal p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m a t t h e z e n i t h o f i t s p o w e r , ( i i ) t h e d e c l i n i n g d a y s o f t h e i m p e r i a l
a u t h o r i t y when v i r t u a l l y an autonomous Mawabi was e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e p r o v i n c e , and ( i i i ) t h e em ergence o f t h e B a s t I n d i a Company a s a p o l i t i c a l f o r c e .
The o p e n i n g c h a p t e r d e a l s w i t h t h e p e r i p h e r a l a s p e c t s o f t h e z a m i n d a r i s y s t e m w h ic h h a v e some b e a r i n g s on t h e r o l e o f t h e z a m i n d a r s . I t a l s o a t t e m p t s a t a c l a s s i
f i c a t i o n f o r b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a s w e l l as J u d g i n g one c a t e g o r y o f z a m i n d a r s a g a i n s t o t h e r s o f t h e same g e n r e .
C h a p t e r I I a n a l y s e s t h e g e n e s i s o f t h e z a m i n d a r i s and t h e m o b i l i t y w i t h i n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l p a t t e r n o f t h e z a m i n d a r c l a s s a s a r e s u l t o f some h i s t o r i c a l f o r c e s a t work.
C h a p t e r I I I d w e l l s on t h e r e v e n u e m anagement, w h ic h a l s o e m b r a c e s some a l l i e d r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s , s u c h a s t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f a g r i c u l t u r e , r e c l a m a t i o n o f t h e w aste.
l a n d s and t h e m a i n t e n a n c e o f t h e r o a d s , b r i d g e s and embankments*
I n C h a p t e r IV , t h e m i l i t a r y o b l i g a t i o n s o f t h e z a m i n d a r s w i t h t h e i r a t t e n d a n t i m p l i c a t i o n s a r e d i s c u s s e d
and t h e r o l e s o f t h e z a m i n d a r s a r e e v a l u a t e d i n t h i s c o n t e x t * C h a p t e r V i s d e v o t e d t o t h e q u e s t i o n o f e n f o r c i n g l a w and o r d e r i n t h e t e r r i t o r i e s o f t h e z a m i n d a r s and t h e
r o l e o f t h e z a m i n d a r s a s t h e c u s t o d i a n o f p e a c e .
The i s s u e i n v o l v e d i n e n f o r c i n g law and o r d e r i n t u r n p r o m p t s i n q u i r i e s i n t o t h e r i g h t t o a d m i n i s t e r J u s t i c e g r a n t e d t o t h e z a m i n d a r s . C h a p t e r VI i s a d d r e s s e d t o t h i s p r o b l e m and e x a m in e s f u r t h e r t h e im p a c t o f t h e r o l e o f t h e z a m i n d a r s a s J u d g e - m a g i s t r a t e on t h e i r s u b j e c t s .
. TABLE OF CONTENTS'
L i s t o f A b b re v ia tio n s - P r e f a c e
Chapter* I ( i n t r o d u c t o r y : Zam indar an d Z am indari C h a p te r I I - 'S ta b ility and Change i n t h e I'"
• \ Z a m in d a r.c l a s s -- ( i t i . . ' C h a p te r I I I / The . Z am indars and th e !R e v e n u e
Management • > "■
C h a p te r IV The Z am in d ars1 M i l i t a r y Power1 and O b lig a tio n s . ( : ‘
Gharpter V The ’Z am indarsJ i P b l i e e F u n c tio n s
C h a p te r VI - The R o le .o f t h e 1 Z am indars i n t h e ' * - A d m in is tr a tio n o f - d u s t i c e
C o n c l u s i o n
A ppendices 1 ■
G l o s s a r y !■
B i b l i o g r a p h y
k
ABBREVIATIONS
A in A i n - i - A k b a . r i . Abul F a z l , T r . H . S . J a r r e t t A. O.R. A s i a t i c Q u a r t e r l y Review
■ iirm iti iiw»ji%iiio r Tm nn— w m iij^iw flJiini.ijHii nnm n ■ w lJ li a ^ K a B M W w e n ii a « w w n « « u g
A^R. A s i a t i c R e s e a r c h e s
B a h a r i s t a n Ba h a r i s t a n - d - G h a y b i T M i r z a N a t h a n , T r . M . I . B o r a h Bs,P.G. B e n g a l D i s t r i c t G a z e t t e e r s
B e n g a l D i s t r i c t R e c o r d s
B.M. ADD.MSS B r i t i s h Museum A d d i t i o n a l M a n u s c r i p t s B.P.C* B e n g a l P u b l i c C o n s u l t a t i o n s
B . P . F . B e n g a l P a s t and P r e s e n t
B .R . B oard o f Revenue
Board o f Revenue C o n s u l t a t i o n s
B*R.M.P. B oard o f Revenue M i s c e l l a n e o u s P r o c e e d i n g s B . R . P . Board o f Revenue P r o c e e d i n g s
B . R . J . C . B oard o f R evenue and J u d i c i a l C o n s u l t a t i o n s B*8.C . B e n g a l S e c r e t C o n s u l t a t i o n s
C.C* C om m ittee o f C i r c u i t
C.C-K* C o m m itte e o f C i r c u i t a t K a s i m b a z a r C .C .R . C a l c u t t a C om m ittee o f Revenue
C^C.R^M* C o n t r o l l i n g C o u n c i l o f Revenue a t M u r s h id a b a d C.C +R .P . C a l c u t t a C om m ittee o f Revenue P r o c e e d i n g s C.N*L* C o m m itte e o f New Lands
C. P . C . C a l e n d a r o f P e r s i a n C o r r e s p o n d e n c e S&E*
D a c c a F a c t o r y R e c o r d s
E a s t e r n B e n g a l D i s t r i c t G a z e t t e e r swgffi n mhwu n u i n ii in.iM i iimiin «ie m u 'l l m jiwwBtenttMllano ■jt m i i ^ i ^ w q wnnr>iaaiTi,,’T'^ r - .-fflr ?T^-rr^r,i fc
E a s t e r n B e n g a l and A s s am D i s t r i c t G a z e t t e e r s
— w w iuwi K w i w w —ww j i ' m wu a iw f WBu r wafwiuMTiinniwi w w n m u m m a mihih i u k i i h i i n i i w> miwi ^ m b l m i nw u ijjB<yipmuwM»w^&natB*Mii&a
G eorge V a n s i t t a r t P a p e r Home M i s c e l l a n e o u s S e r i e s
The I n d i a n Economic and S o c i a l H i s t o r y Review[— i - r — — i* n i ! | | | ' ■■ i i ■ i 1 nrnr~OTTTiTr ' 'T m u h h i < ii ii i i i iii ii i ii iiii ii i iiiii i iw ii /Ti r r t i T ^ w Ti i riiiiWfinii'iiiiiw i M im i P f l i i i i t r t f i i w i n n w ^ i W M w O ' i iiiiii i i i M W i i i w n M i i m m M iii ii i i i i i i h» m i i i w j h i i h i
The I n d i a n H i s t o r y C o n g r e s s I n d i a n H i s t o r i c a l Q u a r t e r l y
J o u r n a l o f t h e Ame r i c a n O r i e n t a l S o c i e t y
au m w w 1— WWWH«|w|im f , i j imuua u.Wii i^ g ta a wamwwtnij t t w —w w m r w i n n » « >— Qfawipnwu.riiiu iMUiWWWUWiriSWW* n in m i i hiip h h
J o u r n a l A s i a t i c S o c i e t y o f B e n g a l The J o u r n a l o f S o u t h A s i a n S t u d i e s J o u r n a l o f t h e R o y a l A s i a t i c S o c i e t y
L e t t e r Copy Book o f t h e R e s i d e n t a t t h e D u r b a r L e t t e r Cony Book o f t h e S u p e r v i s o r o f Ra .i s h a h i
^^■■wrTTniniTTTimi^wrif»imMniMiTrrMMCT«nifJii^«rw^MTiawmBiTTTfrirwrmMw>i^iTrmiifcri»rnwroiTiiiiw>w^Miiil>i^niiTimMiiiiTWiw<iMi*ii*>aiTTir<ii<ifMirpTT-'iiTrwni»«i*iiiiMwiiiiiii><i> fliW nmi-—niiriw rinm^nn 11
M i r a t - i - A h m a d i « A l i Muhammad Khan, Tr# M*F*Lokhand w a l a
M*R,F. M u r s h i d a h a d F a c t o r y R e c o r d s
P.C*C#D, P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e Com m ittee o f C i r c u i t a t D ac ca P«C»C»K» P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e C om mittee o f C i r c u i t a t
K a s i m h a z a r
P.C«C.R.M. P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e C o n t r o l l i n g C o u n c i l o f Revenue a t M u r s h id a b a d
P*C«N*L* P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e C om m ittee o f New L a n d s Q . J » E « The Q u a r t e r l y J o u r n a l o f E co n o m ics
M a d R i a d - a l - S a l a t i n , Ghulam H u s a i n S a l i m , T r . A b d u s ' S a l am -
S e i r S e i r - a l - M n t a k h k h e r i n T Ghulam H u s s a i n T a b a t a b a i 1- ' T r . .Ha^i M u s t a f a
S»A»B« A S t a t i s t i c a l A ccount o f B e n g a l S e l e c t Com m ittee
S e l e c t C o m m ittee C o n s u l t a t i o n s
T a w a r i k h - i - B a n g a l a h . S a l i m A l l a h , T r . F. G ladw in West Benga l D i s t r i c t R e c o r d s .
B e n g a l s a l . . , * ,
B i g h a s , k a t h a s and c h a t a k s . , , B s . k s . g s . c s . B i g h a s , k a t h a s V g a n d a s ' 'and cawras,.
R ^ . a s . g s . c s . Rupees-,, a n n a s , g a n d a s and c a w r a s . ;;
R s . as , p s . R u p e e s , . a n n a s , p a i s . .. : : S.C.C#
r,B.D*R.
B. S.
Bs . k s . chs
The Mughal c o n q u e s t o f B e n g a l d i d n o t b r i n g a b o u t any r e v o l u t i o n a r y c h a n g e s i n t h e e x i s t i n g a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s e t u p . The s u b a h w i t h i t s f a i r l y d i s t i n c t p h y s i o g r a p h y ,
s i t u a t e d a t a d i s t a n c e fr o m t h e i m p e r i a l c a p i t a l and s u r r o u n d e d by h a l f - s u b d u e d n e i g h b o u r s , c o u l d n o t be b r o u g h t u n d e r t h o r ough a d m i n i s t r a t i v e c o n t r o l o f t h e c e n t r a l g o v e r n m e n t . The p o l i c y o f t h e Mughal s o v e r e i g n s o f c o l l e c t i n g l a n d r e v e n u e d i r e c t l y fro m t h e p e a s a n t s a s f o l l o w e d i n t h e Upper I n d i a , c o u l d n o t be i m p l e m e n t e d i n B engal# T h u s t h e b a s i s o f
r e v e n u e s e t t l e m e n t t h e r e r e m a i n e d more z a m i n d a r i t h a n r a i v a t - w a r i . The p a r t i a l i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e r a i y a t w a r i s e t t l e m e n t e f f e c t e d i n some p a r t s o f t h e s u b a h a t t h e b e h e s t o f M u rs h id Q u l i Khan d i d n o t s u r v i v e t h e Nawab1s d e a t h l o n g . From t h e l a t e r p a r t o f t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y t i l l t h e m i d d l e o f t h e
e i g h t e e n t h and a l i t t l e b e y o n d , t h e e m p h a s i s i n t h e z a m i n d a r i t e n u r e v i s i b l y moved away fro m t h e n o t i o n o f c o n t r a c t t o t h a t o f s t a t u s .
The e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y was a p e r i o d o f t r i a l i n t h e h i s t o r y o f I n d i a a s a w h o le and B e n g a l i n p a r t i c u l a r . F o u r f a c t o r s d o m i n a t e d t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e p e r i o d s t h e
g r a d u a l e r o s i o n o f t h e Mughal p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m , t h e a t t e m p t s
8
o f t h e p r o v i n c i a l pow ers t o a c h i e v e v i r t u a l i n d e p e n d e n c e , t h e M a r a t h a d e p r e d a t i o n s , and t h e a s c e n d a n c y o f t h e E n g l i s h E a s t I n d i a Company* T h e s e h i s t o r i c a l f o r c e s a t work
"brought f o r t h marked c h a n g e s i n t h e r e v e n u e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e p r o v i n c e o f Bengal.#
The t r a d i t i o n a l and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l a r r a n g e m e n t s r e f l e c t t h e n a t u r e o f t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f t h e z e m i n d a r c l a s s * I n i t i a l l y t h e r o l e o f t h e z a m i n d a r s was a l i m i t e d o n e , stemming f o r t h e s e a r c h f o r r e v e n u e p e r s o n n e l and p o l i t i c a l a l l i e s * But t h e f r o n t i e r s and c h a r a c t e r s o f t h e i r r o l e c h a n g e d u n d e r t h e v a r y i n g c i r c u m s t a n c e s . New r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s , new t e r m s o f r e f e r e n c e c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e c h a n g i n g p a t t e r n . Many p o w e r f u l z a m i n d a r s d e v e l o p e d new i n s t r u m e n t s o f c o n t r o l . The g o v e r n m e n t r e c o g n i z e d t h e i r
a u t h o r i t y o c c a s i o n a l l y b e s t o w i n g upon them t i t l e s and k h i l a t s . Many i n f l u e n t i a l z a m i n d a r s f o r a y e d i n t o t h e r e a l m o f
p o l i t i c s where t h e y c h a l l e n g e d t h e Nawabs and t h e E a s t I n d i a Company i n a n a t t e m p t t o m a i n t a i n t h e i r t e r r i t o r i a l autonomy and economic p r i v i l e g e s . But i n t h e l o n g r u n t h e z a m i n d a r s had t o g i v e i n b e f o r e t h e m o u n t in g p r e s s u r e o f t h e new r u l e r s .
I n t h e r e c e n t p a s t t h e a g r a r i a n h i s t o r y o f Mughal I n d i a h a s a t t r a c t e d t h e a t t e n t i o n o f a h o s t o f s c h o l a r s * Of
t h e s e m e n t i o n s h o u l d b e made o f W .H .M o r e la n d , I . H a b i b , 8 . N .H a s a n ,
9
B . R * G r o v e r , B . S . C o t a , and N . A . S i d d i q i . D e s p i t e i t s w e a l t h o f i n f o r m a t i o n and a n a l y t i c a l , r e v i e w W .H .M o r e la n d1 s The
A g r a r i a n S y ste m o f Moslem I n d i a i s n o t a c o m p r e h e n s i v e s t u d y o f t h e Mughal l a n d r e v e n u e h i s t o r y * H i s o b s e r v a t i o n h a s
g i v e n r i s e t o t h e c o n t r o v e r s i e s a s t o w h e t h e r t h e word
z e m i n d a r c a r r i e d t h e same s i g n i f i c a n c e i n t h e Mughal p e r i o d a s i n t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , and w h e t h e r t h e z a m i n d a r s e x i s t e d i n a l l p a r t s o f t h e Mughal Empire* T h e s e p o i n t s h a v e b e e n t a k e n up by I . H a b i b * H i s a r t i c l e “The Z a m i n d a r s i n t h e A i n11 and t h e book e n t i t l e d The A g r a r i a n s y s t e m o f Mughal I n d i ^ d w e l l i n g on many o f t h e t e n u r i a l r i g h t s o f t h e z a m i n d a r s and t h e i r r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e g o v e r n m e n t and t h e p e a s a n t s , h a v e e s t a b l i s h e d t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e z a m i n d a r s i n t h e r e v e n u e h i s t o r y o f Mughal I n d i a * H i s u s e o f e x t e n s i v e P e r s i a n s o u r c e s h a s b r o a d e n e d t h e s c o p e o f t h e s t u d y o f t h e Mughal A g r a r i a n system* N. A . S i d d i q i1 s Land Revenue A d m in is
t r a t i o n u n d e r t h e M u g h a ls , a n o t h e r s t u d y b a s e d on P e r s i a n s o u r c e m a t e r i a l , h e l p s g r e a t l y i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e w o r k i n g o f t h e Mughal z a m i n d a r i i n s t i t u t i o n * B u t i n s p i t e o f t h e v a l u a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n and c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s o f many a g r a r i a n p r o b l e m s o f p r e - B r i t i s h I n d i a , t h e s e w orks d e a l w i t h t h e w hole o f I n d i a and a r e i n a d e q u a t e i n e a s t i n g l i g h t on t h e l a n d r e v e n u e h i s t o r y o f B e n g a l and e v e n more s o on t h e l a n d e d a r i s t o c r a c y .
The z a m i n d a r s o c c u p i e d a n i m p o r t a n t p l a c e i n t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e , economic and s o c i a l h i s t o r y o f r u r a l Bengal#
T h e i r l i f e and e x p l o i t s w hich c o l o u r e d t h e i m a g i n a t i o n o f so many, a r e e n g a g i n g l y p r e s e n t e d i n s t o r i e s , poems and f o l k
songs* B u t l i t t l e h a s b e e n d one f o r a c o r r e c t a p p r a i s a l o f t h e i r h i s t o r i c a l r o l e * I n t h e p a s t few y e a r s a t r e n d c a n be s e e n among t h e s c h o l a r s t o c o n c e n t r a t e t h e i r s t u d i e s on t h e l o c a l h i s t o r y o f t h e Subah o f B e n g a l , B i h a r and
O r i s s a # The London U n i v e r s i t y t h e s e s by A . M . S e r a j u d d i n , K*M.Mohsin, A.B*M*Mahmood, and K# P . M i s h r a i l l u s t r a t e such
t r e n d * T h e i r s t u d i e s h e l p t o a g r e a t e x t e n t i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s e t - u p a t l o c a l l e v e l s , t h e l o c a l f o r c e s
a t work and t h e v a r y i n g c u s t o m s and p r a c t i c e s w h i c h i n f l u e n c e d t h e g e n e r a l p o l i c y m aking o f t h e government* A.B.M.Mahmood1s
s t u d y - t h e o n l y t h e s i s d e a l i n g w i t h a z a m i n d a r i o f B e n g a l h a s , h o w e v e r , b e e n l i m i t e d t o t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e l a n d
r e v e n u e h i s t o r y s o l e l y o f t h e R a j s h a h i z a m i n d a r i f r o m t h e commencement o f t h e B r i t i s h p e r i o d ( 1 7 6 5 - 1 7 9 3 ) • The work d o e s n o t p r e s e n t a f u l l p i c t u r e o f t h e v a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f a
z a m i n d a r i * A c o m p r e h e n s i v e s t u d y on t h e r o l e o f t h e z a m i n d a r s o f B e n g a l i s n e c e s s a r y and i m p o r t a n t b o t h i n i t s own r i g h t
t o s u p p l e m e n t t h e l o c a l h i s t o r y , and t o com plem ent t h e p o l i t i c a l , and economic h i s t o r y o f t h e s u b a h d u r i n g t h e d e c l i n i n g d a y s o f t h e Mughal r u l e and t h e t r a n s i t i o n o f t h e
11
E a s t I n d i a Company f r o m i t s c o m m e r c ia l e n t e r p r i s e t o t h e r u l e r o f t h e c o u n t r y *
The p r e s e n t s t u d y h a s b e e n l i m i t e d t o t h e p e r i o d fr o m 1 7 0 7 , t h e y e a r o f t h e d e a t h o f Em peror A u r a n g z e b , t o 1 7 7 2 , when t h e E n g l i s h E a s t I n d i a Company assumed d i r e c t l y t h e f u l l D iw a n i power o f t h e Subah o f B e n g a l , B i h a r and O r i s s a . T h i s h a s b e e n done a s a m a t t e r o f c o n v e n i e n c e * I t may, h o w e v e r , be p o i n t e d o u t t h a t d u r i n g t h e i n t e r v e n i n g p e r i o d b e t w e e n t h e a s s u m p t i o n o f t h e D iw ani and t h e p r o m u l - g a t i o n o f t h e P e r m a n e n t S e t t l e m e n t o f 1793? b h e c o n t i n u a l c h a n g e s o f t h e C om p an y 's p o l i c i e s on t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e and r e v e n u e m a t t e r s h a d u n s e t t l i n g e f f e c t s on t h e z a m i n d a r s , - t h e i r p o s i t i o n became g r a d u a l l y u n c e r t a i n and t h e i r r o l e l i m i t e d .
B e n g a l i n i t s c o n t e m p o r a r y s e n s e d e n o t e d t h e Mughal S u b a h ^ o f B e n g a l , B i h a r and O r i s s a . To d e a l w i t h t h e
s u b a h i n i t s e n t i r e t y would h a v e meant i g n o r i n g t h e r e g i o n a l d i v e r s i t y i n i t s component p a r t s . I n o r d e r t o a v o i d making
s w e e p in g g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s and im p o s in g a p a t c h e d - u p u n i f o r m i t y , I h a v e c o n f i n e d my a t t e n t i o n e x c l u s i v e l y t o B e n g a l p r o p e r , now t h e p r o v i n c e o f West B e n g a l and t h e n e w l y fo rm e d s t a t e o f B a n g l a d e s h . N e v e r t h e l e s s , i n many c a s e s , s t u d i e s on t h e r e s i d u a l p a r t s o f t h e s u b ^ h h a v e b e e n i n c o r p o r a t e d and p r e s e n t e d t o g i v e a c l e a r e r vie w o f t h e s i t u a t i o n .
12
The work: aims a t an e v a l u a t i o n of t h e r o l e o f t h e z a m i n d a r s d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d m e n tio n e d above w i t h o u t
b e i n g enmeshed i n some o f t h e h i g h l y c o n t r o v e r s i a l and much- d i s c u s s e d land, r i g h t s o f t h e z a m in d a r s * Even a c u r s o r y r e v i e w o f t h e s u b j e c t makes i t c l e a r t h a t many o f t h e f u n c t i o n s o f t h e z a m i n d a r s were i n t r i c a t e l y i n v o l v e d , i n s e p a r a b l e i n r e l a t i o n t o o t h e r d u t i e s - b u t by no means c o n v e r g e n t
on a common r e s p o n s i b i l i t y *
The s t u d y i s b a s e d m o s t l y on t h e o r i g i n a l s o u r c e s . F o r a s t u d y o f t h i s t y p e t h e f a m i l y a r c h i v e s o f t h e z a m i n d a r s a r e o f immense i m p o r t a n c e . U n f o r t u n a t e l y t h e p r a c t i c e o f k e e p i n g d i a r i e s o r w r i t i n g b i o g r a p h i e s was n o t a s p o p u l a r among t h e l a n d l o r d s o f I n d i a i n t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y a s i t was i n E n g l a n d . A g a in , t h e
i n d i v i d u a l z a m i n d a r i r e c o r d s a s f a r b a c k a s t h e p e r i o d u n d e r s t u d y e i t h e r h a v e p e r i s h e d o r i n a few c a s e s where t h e y s t i l l e x i s t i n t h e p o s s e s s i o n o f some a r e n o t r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e f o r r e s e a r c h . However some o f t h e s a n a d s r e f e r r e d t o i n t h e s e c o n d a r y w o rk s r e l a t i n g t o t h e Burdwan z a m i n d a r i were k i n d l y p l a c e d a t my d i s p o s a l by Hajkumar P.O. Mahtab o f t h e Burdwan f a m i l y .
Of t h e P e r s i a n s o u r c e s t h e B r i t i s h Museum Add.
M a n u s c r i p t s c o n t a i n i n g d a s t u r - a l - a m a l ( a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
p r o c e d u r e s ) , s a n a d s and p a r w a n a s o f t h e Mughal gov ern m e n t h a v e
13
"been f o u n d u s e f u l , E x t e n s i v e u s e h a s a l s o b e e n made o f t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y p r i n t e d P e r s i a n works w h ic h h a v e b e e n t r a n s l a t e d . The Bahar i s t a n - i - G h a v b i « t h e T a w a r i k h - B a n g a l a h y t h e R i a d - a l - B a l a t i n , t h e H u n t a k h a b u u l - h u b a b T t h e M i r a t - i - A h m a d i . and t h e S e i r - a l - M u t a k h k h e r i n c o n t a i n i n g i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e
c e n t r a l and p r o v i n c i a l g o v e r n m e n ts o f t h e Mughals were o f immense v a l u e t o t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y . The a c c o u n t s o f t h e E u r o p e a n t r a v e l l e r s and c o n t e m p o r a r y w r i t e r s w ere u t i l i z e d i n s u p p l e m e n t i n g t h e d o c u m e n ta r y e v i d e n c e .
But most o f t h e m a t e r i a l h a s b e e n drawn from t h e v o l u m i n o u s r e c o r d s o f t h e E a s t I n d i a Company s y s t e m a t i c a l l y p r e s e r v e d i n t h e B r i t i s h Museum, t h e I n d i a O f f i c e L i b r a r y and t h e B o d l e i n L i b r a r y , O x fo r d , The g a p s i n t h e
o f f i c i a l d o c u m e n ts o f t h e Mughal government i n B e n g a l h av e b e e n b r e a c h e d by t h e v a l u a b l e r e v e n u e l i t e r a t u r e o f t h e e a r l y B r i t i s h p e r i o d . Of t h e e a r l y m a n u s c r i p t s o u r c e s o f t h e
E a s t I n d i a Company, t h e D i a r y and C o n s u l t a t i o n s o f t h e E n g l i s h C o u n c i l a t C a l c u t t a c a t a l o g u e d a s B e n g a l P u b l i c
C o n s u l t a t i o n s i n t h e I n d i a O f f i c e L i b r a r y d e s e r v e p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n . R e c o r d i n g d a y - t o - d a y e v e n t s fro m an e a r l y d a t e o f 170**, t h e s e m a n u s c r i p t s a r e m in e s o f i n f o r m a t i o n f o r a s t u d y o f t h e e a r l y e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y B e n g a l . T h e s e a s i d e , t h e F a c t o r y R e c o r d s , t h e S e l e c t Com m ittee C o n s u l t a t i o n s , t h e Home M i s c e l l a n e o u s S e r i e s , t h e B e n g a l Revenue C o n s u l t a t i o n s ,
I k
t h e B o ard o f R evenue P r o c e e d i n g s , , and t h e P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e Mu r s h i d a b a d C o u n c i l w e re e x t e n s i v e l y u t i l i z e d . S i n c e t h e s e r e c o r d s c o n t a i n i m p o r t a n t m i n u t e s , o b s e r v a t i o n s and l e t t e r s o f t h e B r i t i s h and n a t i v e o f f i c e r s a s w e l l a s many p e t i t i o n s f r o m t h e z a m i n d a r s , t h e i r i m p o r t a n c e i n w r i t i n g any h i s t o r y o f B e n g a l c a n h a r d l y be m i n i m i z e d . The . t a i n A c c o u n t s ,
c a t a l o g u e d a s t h e H a s t i n g s P a p e r s ( a l s o B r i t i s h Museum
A d d i t i o n a l M a n u s c r i p t s ) s u p p l y monjh u s e f u l s t a t i s t i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e D i s t r i c t s o f B e n g a l where t h e am in s were s e n t . The c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n t h e C o u r t o f D i r e c t o r s and F o r t W i l l i a m , and t h e R e p o r t s o f t h e P a r l i a m e n t a r y C o m m itte e s
a p p o i n t e d t o e n q u i r e i n t o t h e a f f a i r s o f t h e E a s t I n d i a
Company were a l s o f o u n d u s e f u l . A n o th e r i n f o r m a t i v e s o u r c e i s t h e D i s t r i c t R e c o r d s . B e n g a l D i s t r i c t R e c o r d s o f C h i t t a gong, D i n a j p u r , M id n a p u r , R a n g p u r , and S y l h e t p u b l i s h e d by W . K . F i r r a i n g e r r e v e a l mU&Jrv i m p o r t a n t i n f o r m a t i o n .
Of t h e s e c o n d a r y s o u r c e s m e n t i o n s h o u l d be made o f t h e D i s t r i c t h i s t o r i e s , s u c h as t h e Memorandum on t h e Revenue H i s t o r y o f C h i t t a g o n g . A G e o g r a p h i c a l , S t a t i s t i c a l
and H i s t o r i c a l D e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e D in a .ip u r D i s t r i c t , A R e p o r t on t h e D i s t r i c t o f R a n g p u r . The D i s t r i c t o f Bak argan.1 . A R e p o r t on t h e D i s t r i c t o f J e s s o r e ? H i s t o r y o f M i d n a p u r , and A H i s t o r y o f M u r s h id a b a d D i s t r i c t . W r i t t e n by t h e B r i t i s h o f f i c e r s
s e r v i n g i n t h e d i f f e r e n t D i s t r i c t s o f B e n g a l , t h e s e works
t h o u g h l i m i t e d i n t h e i r s c o p e a r e v a l u a b l e f o r any l o c a l
s t u d i e s . . ' '
L a s t l y , t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y B e n g a l i l i t e r a t u r e , y e t a n o t h e r s o u r c e o f immense i m p o r t a n c e h a s a l s o b e e n u t i l i z e d . Many a s p e c t s o f l i f e s p i c e d w i t h p o e t i c i m a g i n a t i o n o r
masked by l i t e r a r y e x t r a v a g a n c e f e a t u r e p r o m i n e n t l y i n t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y l i t e r a t u r e . B u t r. i f we b r u s h a s i d e much o f t h e r h e t o r i c i n d i a t r i b e s and p a n e g y r i c s , a p i c t u r e o f t h e s o c i e t y i s p r e s e n t e d . From i t t h e s o c i o - e c o n o m i c h i s t o r y o f t h e p e r i o d c a n be r e c o n s t r u c t e d .
I n t h e q u o t a t i o n o f e x t r a c t s fr o m t h e Company R e c o r d s , t h e i n d i s c r i m i n a t e u s e o f c a p i t a l l e t t e r s h a s n o t b e e n r e p r o d u c e d . And f i n a l l y , t h e t e r m D i s t r i c t h a s b e e n u s e d k e e p i n g i n vie w i t s c u r r e n t m eaning and a p p l i c a t i o n i n d e n o t i n g modern b o u n d a r i e s . , The z a m i n d a r i e s h a v e b e e n l o c a t e d a c c o r d i n g l y * .
16
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTORY
ZAMINDAR AND ZAMINDARI
W i t h t h e c o n q u e s t o f I n d i a , t h e Mughal g o v ern m e n t h a d t o e n s u r e t h e r e c e i p t o f a c o n s t a n t f l o w o f income f o r
i t s s u r v i v a l * T h i s c o u l d he done by c a r r y i n g t h e s t a t e d u e s fro m d i f f e r e n t p a r t s o f t h e E m pire t o t h e c e n t r a l s e a t o f t h e go v ern m e n t and t h e n r e d i s t r i b u t e them f o r t h e m a i n t e n a n c e o f t h e d i f f e r e n t c a d r e s o f a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s t a f f - a m e a s u r e w h ic h c o u l d c a u s e d e l a y and d i f f i c u l t i e s . T h e s e d i f f i c u l t i e s c o u l d b e a v e r t e d by e m p lo y in g t h e l o c a l c h i e f s t o c o l l e c t t h e t a x e s and hand them o v e r t o t h e gov ern m e n t a f t e r t a l c i n g t h e i r s h a r e . A c t i n g on t h i s p r i n c i p l e , t h e House o f Timux1 u t i l i s e d t h e
e x i s t i n g S e p a r a t i s t , l o e a l i s t and p a r o c h i a l * i n f l u e n c e t o s e r v e t h a t e n d . T h i s was o f t e n l i k e l y t o c a u s e e r o s i o n o f power o f t h e c e n t r a l g o v e r n m e n t. But t h e a l t e r n a t i v e a g a i n s t t h i s e v i l was t h e b u r e a u c r a t i c s o l u t i o n w h i c h was d i f f i c u l t t o
a c h i e v e and r e q u i r e d s u b s t a n t i a l r e s t r u e t u r i a l g o f t h e b a s i c p a t t e r n o f t h e e x i s t i n g l a n d t e n u r e and t a x s y s t e m . P a r t i c u l a r l y b e f o r e t h e d i s i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e E m pire s e t i n , s u c h
e v i l s a s i n e v i t a b l y f o l l o w e d i n t h e t r a i n o f programme o f
z a m i n d a r i t e n u r e Seemed i n s i g n i f i c a n t i n t h e l i g h t o f e x t r a -
o r d i n a r y b e n e f i t s e n j o y e d by t h e Mughal s .
The a s s i g n m e n t o f l a n d on c o n d i t i o n o f payment o f r e v e n u e o r m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e t o t h e s t a t e was an o l d p r a c t i c e i n I n d i a * Under t h e H in d u r u l e , t h e b h u i y a s , b h u m i s ,
c h a u d h u r l s ? m a n d a ls ( o r muqaddams) and o t h e r s were t h e a g e n t s o f t h e crown f o r t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f t h e s h a r e o f p r o d u c e
c l a i m e d by t h e s t a t e * T h e s e i n t e r m e d i a r y l a n d e d i n t e r e s t s t h o u g h r e m o v a b le a t t h e p l e a s u r e o f t h e c r o w n , t e n d e d t o become h e r e d i t a r y and t h e r e b y “t r a n s f o r m e d t h e i r r i g h t t o t h e r e v e n u e i n t o a r i g h t i n t h e l a n d I t s e l f. 111 By t h e t i m e t h e Muslims came t o power some o f t h e s e h e r e d i t a r y t e n u r e - h o l d e r s had a l r e a d y d e v e l o p e d i n t o an o v e r l o r d c l a s s by d e p r e s s i n g t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e p e a s a n t i n t o t h a t o f a t e n a n t . The Mughal r e v e n u e p o l i c y was a t t u n e d t o t h i s a n c i e n t f i s c a l p r a c t i c e . The a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e Muslim t h e o r y o f s o v e r e i g n t y c l a i m i n g
t h a t a l l l a n d s b e l o n g e d t o t h e crown, d i d n o t s u b s t a n t i a l l y a l t e r t h e s i t u a t i o n . The a s s i g n m e n t o f l a n d s t o t h e f o r m e r Mings and c h i e f s , and f a r m i n g o f l a n d t a x were f o l l o w e d . 2 Two
r e m a r k a b l e c h a n g e s - t h e enhancem ent o f t h e s t a t e 1 s s h a r e o f .
1 . R . K . M u k h e r j e e . “Land T e n u r e 11, E n c y c l o p a e d i a o f t h e So c i a lV f / — mi I tM tiiiw WM» l. ■ J ,p | iTjagttUJ. .
Sc i e n c e s . IX-X, 110$ G . D . F i e l d , I n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e Regu
l a t i o n s o f B e n g a l Code T 2 8 5 See a l s o J . S h o r e1 s M i n u t e ,
A p r i l 2 , 1 7 8 8 , W .K .F i r m i n g e r ( e d . ) , The F i f t h Repo r t I I ,
7 3 8.
2 . F . B e r n i e r . T r a v e l s i n t h e Mughal Empir e . A . C o n s t a b l e ( t r , ) , ./ ^ r r i 1 m— —‘r ~ ^ i— ) T m m i “ n t r • mo r r if i~ n i ■f ir tm n n r n i Mw f m.ri r i nii* i inni*-m— f . /
2 2 ^ - 2 2 5 , W .H .M o relan d , From Akbar t o A u r a n g z e b , 2 k7 - 2 ^ 8 . ..
■;:..the‘-p roduce' -t o r«'|f*o r m o r e . u p t o and t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f c a s h , ;7-
7^77 ' 7 '■■• 7 ‘ , ' 7 \ , “ ' 7 ... 1 , , 7 '77-
;x ,;p.aymeht i n s t e a d o f c r o p - s h d r i n g w e r e . e f f e c t e d . - 7 > 7 The Mughal .s o v e r e i g n s ' a t t e m p t e d t o c o n t r o l t h e /, 7 '7 ;r 7 r e v e n u e management by p l a c i n g o f f i c i a l s - t h r o u g h o u t t h e , 7 ,7 : ' ’a d m i n i s t r a t i v e ' d i v i s i o n s ,pf th e , E m p i r e . / D e s p i t e t h i s , t h e 7- v 7
d i r e c t c q n t a c t W ith t h e p e a s a n t s t h r o u g h t h e a m i l s - t h e >777
^77./77> ■-■7-/:V7 777/- . ■. 7-2'" ; : : 7'- ^ ‘ • ' ■. ■- ;v7/
7 i m p b r i a l r e v e n u e v c o l l e c t o r s y . ' c o u l d n o t be f u l l y : m a t e r i a l i z e d . • :v -T-he - v ^ rip g a te ^ 7 'p h y ;s i c . a l f e a t u r e s , d i f f e r e n t a g r i c u l t u r a l . 7
c o n d i t i o n s , d i v e r s e s o c i a l custom s, and' r e v e n u e p r a c t i c e s o f t h e -- :;
7 e # t p r i s i v . Q y f l ^ •t h e t a s k v e r y d i f f i c u l t . : The immense 7 . 7 p r o b le m o f l a n d - r e v e n u e management i n / I n d i a - h a s b e e n a p t l y 7 7
■ ’ : 7 7' 7‘ . ' :/ r ’ ■ ''' ■ 3 . • 7' ' . . : ■■ . - , ' "77
d e s c r i b e d .by;-Baden-P.owell:, * « ’ •; .7
7 7 ; ,”The l i a n d - t a K 1 i n E n g la n d , i s 7 o n l y one i t e m , and 7:/
h o t , a v e r y / l a r g e -qhe, among . a,..host o f o t h e r t a x e s ; 7 7
7 7 i t f a l l s on a - s m a l l7 c l a s s . I n I n d i a t h e . l a n d - :
,7v r e v ehue.Yis a t o t a l l / d i f f e r e n t t h i n g . ./With/ t h e 'v77;
7 . / / n e c e s s i t y 7 vf o r f a i r l y ; a d j u s t i n g t h e amount o f , % 7 ;
; re ,v e n u e 7 v h ic h e a c h c l a s s o f l a n d h a s t o ; p a y , comes
t h e n e c e s s i t y o f t h o r o u g h l y t u a d e r s t a n d i n g , t h e , 7 7
7 7 >•; a ^ r i c u i t u r a l - - c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e c o m t r y , ; t h e c a s t e , 7.v b f - t h e p e o p l e a s i t a f f e c t s t h e i r c u l t i v a t i n g , ... 7 7 ;;
' 7' c a p a c i t y * , t h e modes o f h o l d i n g l a n d , t h e i n t e r e s t s ’ 777 e a c h7c l a s s ; h a s i n t h e la n d * and on what c l a s s e s , • 7: 7 .; c ahd t d v w h a t e x t e n t on e a c h r e s p e c t i v e l y , t h e 777
,7 r e v e n u e b u r d e n i s t o ' f a L l . l*7 : .7" 7 f 7 f 7
; 1 . BfH., B a d e n - P d w e i l , The -Land-Bystems o f B r i t i s h I n d i a.- I , ; 7-77.
1 8 2 - 1 8 3 ; .* R . l C M u k h e r j e e , “Land T e n u r e0 f - E n c y c l o p a e d i a . 7:7
•.*.* «*IX—X , I 1 1 . > r . ./ ■ ' ' - ,;--''.V7'
'.2>..Abul- Fazlj, A i n - i - A k b a r i T H.7B, J a r r e t t ( t r . . ) , 1 1 , 7: ; 7
7 3 . B.;H,BadenrrPowell, The. Lahd-Sy s t e m s . . . . 1 , 2 5 - 2 6 . 7 7
'■ ■' ' V/V,:,. ■ ■■■■ ' ‘ : '■ _ V 1 9
The Mughal f a u . i d a r s , s h i k d a r s o r a m i l s . w i t h no c l o s e exper-* /.
i e n c e o f t h e com plex r e v e n u e s y s t e m o f t h e n a t i v e s , had t o / 7 ;
;l;eave t h e d e t a i l e d management o f re v e n u e , a f f a i r s t o t h e ; i
e x i s f i n g i n t e r m . e d i a r y a g e n t s . : ■
7/ f Some m e a s u r e s , t a i l o r e d t o t h e i m p e r i a l n e e d s o f t h e
;Mughals b r e d a c l a s s o f l a n d e d i n t e r e s t . The ' a n c i e n t p o l i c y • o f . g r a n t i n g l a n d a s a m i l i t a r y re w a rd o r t o e n c o u r a g e e n l i s t m e n t 7 was a m m e d i a t e l y a d a p t e d t o t h e Mughal i m p e r i a l r e q u i r e m e n t s . vV .h Land was, a s s i g n e d t o t h e m i l i t a r y c h i e f s or/ t h e i r p r i n c i p a l , \v:
c o h o r t s ; s u b j e c t , t o r e n d e r i n g m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e s . : Many o f / t h e m ; a s t i m e w e n t . o n , commuted t h e i r l i a b i l i t y f o r a q u i t r e n t . The p l a n t i n g o f d e f e n d e r s a t some s t r a t e g i c p o i n t s watis--
a c h i e v e d , by; o f f e r i n g l a n d s t o p r o s p e c t i v e ; p a r t i s a n s w i t h t h d ; . s t i p u l a t i o n t h a t t h e y m a i n t a i n armed r e t a i n e r s t o r e s i s t
an i n v a d e r . , Ah a d d i t i o n a l s p u r t o t h e l a n d e d i n t e r e s t was -ht.
v f u t n l s h e d by t h e ; g r a n t s o f l a n d s t o t h e r e c l a i m e r o f w a s t e s . / / 7 The a s s i g n m e n t o f l a n d c a r r i e d w i t h i f c e r t a i n : 7;
^ r ' e s p o n s i b i l i t l ces>f.. The p r o t e c t i o n o f l i f e and p r o p e r t y - a : ; f u n c t i o n o f t h e s t a t e , was t o be f o u n d i n t h e l o c a l l a n d e d
;;,b lt^ !s f^ 7 k ;w h o d e r i v e d t h e i r s t r e n g t h and a u t h o r i t y p a r t l y >
f r o m t h e . s h a r e . o f t h e p r o d u c e o f t h e , p e a s a n t s and p a r t l y fro m >
t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l s u p e r i o r p o s i t i o n , i n t h e s o c i e t y . The l a n d e d a r i s t o c r a c y a f f o r d i i i g t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l need f o r
p r o t e c t i o n a n d ; s e t t l e m e n t o f d i s p u t e c o u l d e n f o r c e d e c i s i o n s . /•:
T h e . Mughal s. fo u n d i t c o n v e n i e n t t o wade t h r o u g h t h e m o ra s s >
20
o f r e v e n u e , p o l i c e and j u d i c i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s e x p r e s s e d
■ • 1
i n t h e z a m i n d a r i i n s t i t u t i o n .
D e f i n i t i o n o f z a m in d a r and z a m i n d a r i
■■" ■ , ' - 2 .
The t e r m z a m i n d a r h a s p a s s e d i n t o h i s t o r i c a l
v o c a b u l a r y o f I n d i a t o d e n o t e a l a n d e d c l a s s . The a p p e l l a t i o n i t s e l f lackS^g c l a r i t y and a p r e c i s e d e f i n i t i o n ; l i t e r a l l y
i t mieans h o l d e r „o f I d n d w i t h o u t s i g n i f y i n g any s p e c i f i c t y p e o f r i g h t i n t h e l a n d . !,The p o s s e s s o r s of z a m i n d a r i r i g h t s 11, t o
■ 3 ■ ‘ . '
q u o t e H a b i b , ■ "w ere n o t p o s s e s s o r s o f a. v i s i b l e a r t i c l e o f p r o p e r t y , l i k e - any o t h e r , b u t o f a t i t l e t o a c o n s t a n t s h a r e i n t h e p r o d u c e o f t h e s o c i e t y. 11 I n t h e r e v e n u e p r a c t i c e o f t h e ’ Mughal E m p i r e , z a m i n d a r came t o s i g n i f y a p e r s o n who h e l d a p o r t i o n o f l a n d r e g i s t e r e d i n t h e I d a a l s a ( r e v e n u e
d e p a r t m e n t ) a s h i s z a m i n d a r i , and was a n s w e r a b l e f o r t h e f i x e d amount o f r e v e n u e due t o t h e s t a t e fro m t h a t l a n d . I n t h i s s e n s e z a m i n d a r s were f a r m e r s o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t r e v e n u e i . e . , i n t e r m e d i a r i e s b e t w e e n t h e g o v e r n m e n t, and t h e i n f e r i o r
r e v e n u e f a r m e r s and r a i v a t s ( p e a s a n t s ^ .
; 1 . A . C o n s t a b l e ( t r . ) T r a v e l s . . . 2 2 5 ; B . H . B a d e n - P o w e l l , The L and -By s te m s . . . . j,1 8 3 »
2 . From t h e P e r s i a n words,' zamin m eaning l a n d , and d a r w h ic h i s an i n f l e x i o n o f t h e v e r b d a s h t a n , d e n o t i n g t o h a v e , h o l d o r p o s s e s s .
3 , I . H a b i b . The A gra r i a n S yste m o f Mughal I n d i a . 18^; See a l s o B . H . B a d e n - P o w e l l , uI s t h e S t a t e t h e owner o f a l l Land i n I n d i a , 11 A . Q . R . . J u l y , 1 8 9 ^ 5 7*
2i
I n Mughal I n d i a t h e z a m i n d a r i s y s t e m p r e v a i l e d
1 2
b o t h i n t h e R h a l s a l a n d and . i a g i r l a n d . r e a s o n i s n o t f a r t o s e e k . D u r i n g t h e Mughal r u l e * l a n d g r a n t s i n l i e u o f immediate' c a s h p a y m e n ts had b e e n f r e q u e n t l y u s e d t o
r e m u n e r a t e t h e i r o f f i c i a l s . 3 S o o n e r o r l a t e r some o f t h e a s s i g n e e s commuted t h e i r l i a b i l i t y o f m anaging and c o l l e c t i n g t h e r e v e n u e s o f t h e i r . i a g i r s t o c o n t r a c t o r s i n r e t u r n f o r a f i x e d sum, The d i f f e r e n c e , b e t w e e n t h e z a m i n d a r s i n t h e K h a l s a and t h o s e i n t h e .i ascir l a n d s l a y i n t h e f a c t t h a t t h e l a t t e r h a d t o p a y t h e i r r e v e n u e s t o t h e .1 a g i r d a r s ( h o l d e r s o f t k e - i a g i r s ) i n s t e a d o f p a y i n g d i r e c t l y t o t h e g o v e r n m e n t. b
I t a p p e a r s t h a t t h e a p p e l l a t i o n z a m i n d a r was a s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d t r a n s l a t i o n from t h e c u r r e n t n a t i v e t e r m s s i g n i f y i n g t h e h e r e d i t a r y l a n d h o l d e r s i n p r e - M u g h a l I n d i a . The t e r m b h u m i, bhaumik o r b h u i v a w h ich l i t e r a l l y means a l a n d h o l d e r was i n g e n e r a l u s e i n B e n g a l I n t h e p e r i o d
p r e c e d i n g t h e Mughal r u l e . T h i s e x p l a i n s why t h e c o u n t r y
1 . Land t h e r e v e n u e s from w hich was d i r e c t l y c o l l e c t e d by t h e crown.
2. Land t h e - r e v e n u e s from w h ic h were a s s i g n e d t o a n o t h e r by t h e crown,
3; W .H .M oreland, The A g r a r i a n Syste m o f Moslem I n d i a . 9 3. l+.EN.Hasan, " Z a m i n d a r s u n d e r t h e M u g h a lsn , R.E,Fry^$ceriberg
( * ) > Land C o n t r o l and S o c i a l S t r u c t u r e i n I n d i a n
H i s t o r y . 1 8; N . K . S i n h a , The Economic H i s t o r y o f B e n g a l ,
1 1, 2.
22
was c a l l e d by some a s t h e ' B a r a B h u iy a Mulk* ( c o u n t r y o f t h e
1
t w e l v e b h u i y a s ) . I n O r i s s a t o o , t h e n a t i v e l a n d l o r d s b o r e t h e t i t l e s o f bhu i y a n , bhumi o r bhupat i . 2 The d e s i g n o f t h e Mughals t o mould t h e e x i s t i n g l a n d t e n u r e i n t o a new m a c h i n e r y t o s e r v e t h e i r economic and p o l i t i c a l i n t e r e s t s p e r h a p s
n e c e s s i t a t e d t h e c o i n i n g o f a new t e r m t o s i g n i f y t h a t s y s te m . T h i s a c c o u n t s f o r t h e p o p u l a r i z a t i o n o f t h e t e r m z a m i n d a r
t h e n onward, t h o u g h t h e l i t e r a l m eaning r e m a i n e d t h e same a s b h u i y a o r bh u m i.
The z a m i n d a r i i n s t i t u t i o n a s i t t o o k s h a p e u n d e r t h e M u g h a ls , e l u d e s s p e c i f i c d e f i n i t i o n . I n f a c t , t h e z a m i n d a r i c o n n o t e s 1 a v a r i e t y o f s u p e r i o r i n t e r e s t s i n t h e l a n d o r i t s
u s u f r u c t. 1 The a p p e l l a t i o n z a m i n d a r h a v i n g a wide s p e c tr u m o f m e a n in g s i n Mughal a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , gave t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a com plex c h a r a c t e r . The z a m i n d a r became a g e n e r i c t i t l e
e m b r a c i n g p e o p l e fr o m d i f f e r e n t s t r a t a o f t h e r u l i n g h i e r a r c h y - t h e c h i e f s o f p r i n c e l y t e r r i t o r i e s l i k e r a . i a s . r a n a s . r a i s
down t o t h e i n f e r i o r r e v e n u e c o l l e c t i n g a g e n t s s u c h a s c h a u d h u r i s . muaaddams. i c k o t s and so on. ■a The u n d e r l y i n g p r i n c i p l e was p e r h a p s t o mould a l l t h e d i f f e r e n t h o l d e r s o f l a n d t e n u r e s i n t o a g r o u p o f l o y a l a g e n t s u n d e r t h e Mughal 1 . J . W i s e , l,0n t h e B a r a Bhuyas o f E a s t e r n B e n g a l 11, J . A.B.B* ,
I B ? 1*, 197? H . B o s t o n , "The Twelve Bhuyas o r L o r d s of B e n g a l 11, J . A . S . B . . N .S . 1 9 1 3, 1*3 7.
2 . A , S t i r l i n g , nAn A c c o u n t , G e o g r a p h i c a l , S t a t i s t i c a l and H i s t o r i c a l o f O r i s s a P r o p e r o r C u t t a c k 11, A.R. 1 8 2 5 , XV,222.
3 . I . H a b i b , “The Z a m in d a r s i n t h e A i n " , I . H . C . . 1 9 5 8 . 322; S.
N .H a s a n , “ Z a m in d a rs u n d e r t h e Mughals'1, R . E . F r y k e n b e r g ( e d . ) Land C o n t r o l & S o c i a l S t r u c t u r e ... 18.
23
" b u r e a u c r a c y . T h u s “ a c h a i n o f l o c a l d e s p o t i s m s , c o v e r i n g t h e w hole E m p i r e , h e r e s e m i - i n d e p e n d e n t , t h e r e f a i r l y s u b d u e d ,
1
h e r e r e p r e s e n t e d by c h i e f s , t h e r e by o r d i n a r y z a m i n d a r s 11,
#«•
b e i n g t i e d o r g a n i c a l l y and i n e v i t a b l y t o t h e t a s k - o r i e n t e d
b u r e a u c r a t i c e n t i t i e s s u c h a s t h e s u b a h d a r s , f a u . i d a r s . p a n u n g o s , s h i k d a r s . a m i l s and a a z i s were h a r n e s s e d i n t o t h e i m p e r i a l
s e r v i c e o f t h e M u g h als. By p l a c i n g t h e au tonom ous t r i b u t a r y c h i e f s and t h e o r d i n a r y r e v e n u e f a r m e r s u n d e r a common
d e n o m i n a t i o n , t h e Mughal gov ern m e n t a t t e m p t e d t o d e p r e s s t h e s t a t u s o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l p r i n c e l i n g s . B u t i n a c t u a l p r a c t i c e , t h e s e p a r a t e e n t i t y o f t h e autonomous c h i e f s was a c know ledged by t h e E m p e r o r s . The r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n t h e r u l i n g a u t h o r i t y and t h e s e z a m i n d a r s was b a s e d s p e c i a l l y on m i l i t a r y and
p o l i t i c a l i n t e r e s t s r a t h e r t h a n on f i s c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s w hich m a i n l y c h a r a c t e r i z e d t h e b u l k o f t h e z a m i n d a r c l a s s . 2 A p a r t
fro m t h i s , t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e i n t e r m e d i a r y and p e t t y z a m i n d a r s b e i n g w i t h i n t h e d i r e c t a d m i n i s t r a t i v e c o n t r o l was q u i t e
d i f f e r e n t . S t a t i o n i n g a c h a i n o f i m p e r i a l o f f i c e r s t h e Mughal r u l e r s s o u g h t t o k e e p t h e s e z a m i n d a r s u n d e r s u r v e i l l a n c e . 3
1 . I . H a b i b , The mAgrari&nJ3j£§t em 1 8 ^ .
2 . '182-189 5.... _ ■ ~ N . A . S i d d i q i ,
Land Rev e n u e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n un d e r ' t h e M ughals , 2 2 .
3. B.M.Add. MSS 1 7 7 9 , 2 1 7 a - 2 l 8 a ; B.M.Add. MSS 19505, 7a;
I . H a b i b , £ ^ A g | ^ i m _ S x ^ t ; a m , 1 7 3 ; P . S a r a n , Th§
P r o y i n c i a l Government o f t h e M ughals , 1 1 1 *
I t i s t o be n o t e d t h a t t h e t e r m z a m i n d a r d i d n o t c a r r y t h e same s i g n i f i c a n c e i n a l l p a r t s o f t h e Umpire* I n N o r t h e r n , I n d i a t i l l t h e e i g h t e e n t h . c e n t h r y t h e a p p e l l a t i o n
z a m i n d a r was c o n f i n e d ' t o t h o s e c h i e f s whose p o s s e s s i o n o f p r o p e r t y was denoted, by a p a r t i c u l a r t i t l e a n t e c e d e n t t o
Muslim ru L e . The z a m i n d a r s i n B e n g a l were d i s t i n c t fr o m t h e
■ ■ ■ \ "■■■ ' V'}: 2
v i l l a g e z a m i n d a r s o f B u n d e l k h a n d , b u t c l o s e l y r e s e m b l e d t h e
. ■■ * ■ V ' 3 ■■ T ■ ' ;
t a l u k d a r s of:.U pper I n d i a . I n t h e subah o f B e n g a l i t s e l f , t h e ' z a m i h d a r i t e n u r e o f ’ B e n g a l and t h a t o f B i h a r d i f f e r e d t o some V ■/"' ' V' -V •
e x t e n t . The n a t u r e o f z a m i n d a r i t e n u r e was marked n o t o n l y by p r o y i n c I a l p r a c t i c e s b u t by. r e g i o n a l p r a c t i c e s t o o . "T h u s,
■ V , , \ ■ . / ;v . • . . • 5 . : • ■ ’
i n R u n g p u r , we h a v e w h a t , s a i d G l a z i e r ,
" f o r want of. b e t t e r t e r m s , may be. s t y l e d t h e serai -
f e u d a t o T y - e s t a t . e s , s u c h a s B y k u n t p o r e and t h e C h a k l a s , h e l d by t h e R a j a h o f Coo’c h B e h a r ; t h e s u b - f e u d a t o r y . o r t h e r e s t o f Coochwara, h e l d by d e s c e n d a n t s o f
' G o o c h .B e h a r o f f i c e r s , who had a c e n t u r y b e f o r e b e e n , i n d u c t e d - b y t h e Moguls i n t o t h e i r e s t a t e s a s
z e m i n d a r s ; t h e new p u r c h a s e r s , s u c h a s B aharbund . and S o r o o p p o r e , who c o u l d p r e t e n d t o no r i g h t s beyond
any l i m i t a t i o n s t h e Government m i g h t h a v e c h o s e n t o h a v e e n t e r e d i n t h e i r d e e d s o f p o s s e s s i o n ; t h e l a r g e z e m i n d a r s , o w n e r s o f what had b e e n p r i n c i p a l i t i e s , such a s E d r a k p o r e and D i n a g e p o r e ; and l a s t l y , t h e s m a l l e r o n e s , w h ic h w ere g e n e r a l l y h o l d e r s o f t a l o o k s , w h ic h
• h a d b e e n s e p a r a t e d from t h e l a r g e r e s t a t e s . "
1 . W. H. Mo r e l a n d , "The Aar a r l a n S y s te m . . . , 191 ~192,19*+ ♦
•.j * * i *
2 . InisBundalkhahd t h e -zamindars were t h e a c t u a l t i l l e r s of t h e s o i l . " - ‘ .
3. C . D . F i e l d . I n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e R e g u l a t i o n s . . . 19.
*4. J . S h o r e * s M i n u t e , A p r i l 2 ,1 7 8 8 and S e p t . 1 8 ,1 7 8 9 ? W.K.
. F i r m i n g e r . C e d . ) The F i f t h R e p o r t ^ I I T^78~M3Q. 7MS-7Lf7.
5. E . G . G l a z i e r , A R e p o r t' on t h e D i s t r i c t o f R a n g p u r . 1,3 6.
25
T y p e s o f t h e z a m i n d a r s
A c l a s s i f i c a t i o n p u r p o r t i n g t o show t h e c a r d i n a l i n g r e d i e n t s and t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r s o f t h e z a m i n d a r c l a s s o f B e n g a l w i l l f a c i l i t a t e n o t o n l y a b e t t e r u n d e r
s t a n d i n g o f t h e z a m i n d a r i i n s t i t u t i o n b u t a l s o r e s o l v i n g
p a r t i a l l y t h e s e m a n t i c c o n f u s i o n c e n t e r i n g a r o u n d i t . B e c a u s e o f t h e com plex n a t u r e o f t h e z a m i n d a r i i n s t i t u t i o n t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n b a s e d m a i n l y on f i s c a l and s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l a s p e c t s a r e n o t a lw a y s s h a r p i n t h e i r d e l i n e a t i o n s . I n many c a s e s , t h e b o r d e r , l i n e o f one c a t e g o r y s l i d e s o v e r t h e o t h e r .
Almost a l l t h e z a m i n d a r s were s u b j e c t e d t o some s o r t o f f i n a n c i a l o b l i g a t i o n s by t h e s t a t e . I f t h i s p r i m a r y bond o f r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n t h e z a m i n d a r s and t h e i m p e r i a l
a u t h o r i t y i s t a k e n a s a c r i t e r i o n f o r z a m i n d a r i , one c o u l d p u t t h e M a h a r a j a o f Kueh B i h a r o r t h e H a j a b a h a d u r o f Burditf a n ,
and D evi B a s a n t a , a p e t t y z a m i n d a r o f C h i t t a g o n g p a y i n g o n l y one r u p e e and two a n n a s a s t h e .iama o f h i s z a m i n d a r i
b r a c k e t e d t o g e t h e r . But t h e m o n e t a r y c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f t h e z a m i n d a r s d i f f e r e d n o t o n l y i n amount b u t a l s o i n n a t u r e - one b e i n g t r i b u t e ( o r p e s h k a s h ) , and t h e o t h e r l a n d r e v e n u e
( o r m a l - w a . i i b ) .2
T h e r e were z a m i n d a r s who a s a t o k e n o f n o m in a l a l l e g i a n c e p a i d a - f i x e d t r i b u t e o r p e s h k a s h t o t h e M ughals.
1 . A . M . S e r a j u d d i n , The Revenue Admi n i s t r a t i o n o f C h i t t a g o n g . 303, 338.
2 . N . A . S i d d i q i , Land Revenu e . A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , 2 1 .
vT he., b e s h k a s h .iam a was n o t b a s e d on any m e a su r e m e n t o f t h e a s s e a S B a M o , * . w
N o aanungo was p l a c e d i n s u c h t e r r i t o r i e s t o r e g u l a r i z e t h e
; ' - ■'■'.V/i 7 . ‘ - ‘ . 2
r e v e n u e management a s was r e q u i r e d f o r t h e o t h e r c a t e g o r y . The number o f ~ t h e :b e s h k a s h l z a m i n d a r s i n B e n g a l was l i m i t e d :t.o t h e autonomous c h i e f s and some z a m i n d a r s o f t h e o u t l y i n g ’
' a r e a s . " i7;''7 • < 7 -
. v ■ ’ ' The m a l - w a . i i b i z a m i n d a r s on t h e o t h e r h a n d , had t ow ii— in in ■ nwi n i /
‘ p a y1 t h e d u e s o f t h e s t a t e a s s e s s e d on c u l t i v a b l e l a n d s and s a i r d u t i e s i n t h e i r z a m i n d a r i S i . T h e i r s h a r e o f t h e r e v e n u e s ' was v a r i a b l e d e p e n d i n g on t h e e s t i m a t i o n o f t h e a c t u a l y i e l d s .
, The m a l - w a q i b l z a m i n d a r s1 r i g h t s and d u t i e s a s t a x - g a t h e r e r s fro m . a l l - l a n d h o l d e r s t s u b o r d i n a t e t o t h e m , were more s p e c i f i c and s u b j e c t t o s c r u t i n y by t h e i m p e r i a l a u t h o r i t y . T h i s c a te . g p r y c o n s t i t u t e d t h e b u l k :o f t h e z a m i n d a r s i n B e n g a l and f o r m e d1 t h e b a c k b o n e o f t h e Mughal r e v e n u e s y s t e m .
B u t such a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f t h e z a m i n d a r s d o e s
•not r e v e a l a l l t h e p a l p a b l e d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e e x t e n t o f
■ th e i# o b l i g a t i o n s and autonomy e n j o y e d . D i s p a r i t y e x i s t e d
• w i t h i n t he p e shk a s h i z ami nd a r s and so was w i t h i n t h e m a l - w a . ii b i ~ 7,tam£ndars.- Birice t h e d i v e r s i t y1 o f t h e f o r m s o f z a m i n d a r i s i s . g r e a t a n d , w h e n / t a k e n oh t h e - p T o v l n c Q - w i d e b a s i s , b e w i l d e r i n g l y
s o ,7:a fra m e w d rk h a s be eh c h a r t e d t o e s t a b l i s h v a l i d u n i f o r m i t i e s 1 . 1 . K arim , M u rs h id Q u l i Khan and H i s T i m e s . N . A . S i d d i q i ,
Land Kev enue M m i n i s t r a t i o n . . . , 2 2 - 2 ^ .
, ,2, N . K . S i n h a , The Economic H i s t o r y . . . . . I I , 12. . <
by u s e o f a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . Founded on t h e c r i t e r i a o f t h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h e i r o b l i g a t i o n s , t h e d y n a m ic s o f t h e i r powers
and. p r i v i l e g e s , t h e i r r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e g o v e r n m e n t , t h e i r economic r e s o u r c e s and m i l i t a r y p o t e n t i a l i t y , and t h e r e g i o n a l c u s t o m a r y p r a c t i c e s , t h e z a m i n d a r s i n B e n g a l may be c l a s s i f i e d i n t o f o u r t y p e s - t h e autonomous c h i e f s , t h e f r o n t i e r z a m i n d a r s t h e b i g z a m i n d a r s , and t h e p e t t y o r p r i m a r y z a m i n d a r s .
The autonomous c h i e f s
T h i s g r o u p c o m p r i s e d t h e H indu c h i e f s o f g r e a t a n t i q u i t y s u c h a s t h e R a j a s o f Kuch B i h a r , Koch Ha j o , Assam, and T i p p e r a who a f t e r t h e i r c a p i t u l a t i o n t o t h e Mughals became t h e i r t r i b u t a r y s u b o r d i n a t e a l l i e s . 1 The Mughals r e c o g n i z e d t h e t r a d i t i o n a l h e r e d i t a r y r i g h t s o f t h e s e r a j a s o v e r
c e r t a i n p o r t i o n s o f t h e i r t e r r i t o r i e s b u t a p p r o p r i a t e d t h e r e s i d u a l p o r t i o n s . 2 T h e o r e t i c a l l y t h e s e p r i n c e l i n g s were b r o u g h t w i t h i n t h e f o l d o f Mughal a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s y s te m by
-.t
1 . M i r z a N a t h a n , B a h a r i s t a n - i - G h a y b i . M . I . B o r a h ( t r . ) , 1 1 , 5 2 1 ; H .B lochm ann, MKoch B i h a r , Koch H a j o , & Assam, i n t h e l o t h
& 1 7t h c e n t u r i e s , . . . u J . A . S . B . , 1 8 7 2 , 52,93$ J . N . S a r k a r ( e d . ) , H i s t o r y o f Bengal I I j " 5 l 5 $ T . R a y c h a u d h u r i , B e n g a l u n d e r Akbar and J a h a n g i r . 2.
2 . H.B lochmann, r,Koch B i h a r , Koch H a j o , & Assam, i n t h e l 6t h
& 1 7 t h C e n t u r i e s n J . A . S , B . , 1 8 7 2 , 9^$ K h a f i Khan, M u n t a k h a b - u l - R u b a b , H . M . E l l i o t & J.D o w s o n , H i s t o r y of I n d i a . V I I , 2 6 8; E . G . G l a z i e r , A R e p o r t on t h e D i s t r i c t o f R angpur I , 1 3 -1 5 .
28
c o n f e r r i n g on them t h e g e n e r i c a p p e l l a t i o n o f z a m i n d a r . But from t h e v e r y B e g i n n i n g t h e r i g h t s , p r i v i l e g e s and s t a t u s o f t h e s e c h i e f s c o n t r a s t e d s u b s t a n t i a l l y fr o m t h e r e s t o f t h e
1
z a m i n d a r s . T h e i r t i t l e t o z a m i n d a r i em anated from t h e i r l o n g s t a n d i n g l e a d e r s h i p o v e r t h e i r t e r r i t o r i e s , n o t f r o m
r e v e n u e c o n t r a c t s , r i g h t o f o c c u p a n c y o r t h e o f f i c i a l g r a n t s . I n r e s p e c t o f t h e t r i b u t a r y c h i e f s , t h e h e r e d i t a r y r i g h t t o
s u c c e s s i o n was n o t s u b j e c t t o t h e r e n e w a l by t h e Em peror; 2 t h e d i s c r e t i o n a r y power o f t h e s o v e r e i g n was e x e r c i s e d , o n l y
a s a m e a s u r e o f e x p e d i e n c y , o r when s o u g h t f o r by t h e r a . i a s t h e m s e l v e s . 3 S u c h i n t e r v e n t i o n m ig h t h a v e s u p e r s e d e d t h e r i g h t o f t h e e l d e s t son i n f a v o u r o f some o t h e r member o f
t h e f a m i l y b u t n o t o f a n o u t s i d e r . As l o n g a s t h e s e p o t e n t a t e s r e m a in e d l o y a l , made t h e p u n c t i l i o u s r e m i t t a n c e o f t h e t r i b u t e , and r e n d e r e d m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e on demand, t h e y w e re l e f t s o v e r e i g n i n a l l a f f a i r s o f t h e i r t e r r i t o r i e s . The c o n t e m p o r a r y r e c o r d s r e v e a l t h a t t h e s e c h i e f s w i t h h e l d t h e payment o f t h e i r
1* F o r i n s t a n c e i f any o f t h e s e r a . i a s was d e f e a t e d and c a p t u r e d , he was a c c o r d e d w i t h t r e a t m e n t b e f i t t i n g h i s d i g n i t y
( A z a d - a l - H u s a i n i , N a u b a h a r - i - M u r s h i d Q u l i K h a n i , J . N . S a r k a r ( t r . ) , Be n g a l Nawa b s , 7 * 8 ) .
2. K o y r o y a n1 s a n s w e r , J . H . H a r i n g t o n , E x t r a c t from H a r i n g t o n1 s A n a l y s i s o f t h e B e n g a l Reg u l a t i o n s . Hf9.
3, S a l i m A l l a h , T a w a r i k h ~ i - B a n g a l a h . F . G l a d w i n ( t r . ) , l*+2.
