T H E P U R I S T I C M O V E M E N T IN S I N H A L E S E ( 1 9 2 2- 19 70 )
Arabala K o d i tuwaklcug© G u n a s e n a
T h e s i s S u b m i t t e d l o r the D e g r e e D o c t o r of* P h i l o s o p h y i n the U n i v e r s i t y of* L o n d o n
1976
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A B S T R A C T
T h e p r e s e n t s t u d y Is a n a t t e m p t to e x a m i n e c r i t i c a l l y the S i n h a l e s e p u r i s t i c m o v e m e n t e x t e n d i n g f r o m th e 1 9 20 ' s to 1 9 7 0» w h i c h w a s i n a u g u r a t e d b y M u n i d a s a K u m a r a t u n g a a n d h a d as its o b j e c t i v e the r e s u s c i t a t i o n i n its w h o l e n e s s of* the f r a m e w o r k o f c l a s s i c a l S i n h a l e s e g r a m m a r a n d style. A b r i e f d i s c u s s i o n o f the n a t u r e o f S i n h a l e s e d i g l o s s i a w i t h o c c a s i o n a l r e l e v a n t r e f e r e n c e to o t h e r d i g l o s s i c s i t u a t i o n s is i n c l u d e d i n c h a p t e r I b o t h to i l l u s t r a t e the g e n e r a l c h a r a c t e r of S i n h a l e s e a n d to s h o w h o w it c o u l d b © c o n d u c i v e to the r i s e a n d c o n t i n u a n c e
of p u r i s t i c e n d e a v o u r . T h e sa m e c h a p t e r a l s o p r e s e n t s a t h u m b n a i l s k e t c h of the h i s t o r y of S i n h a l e s e i n
o r d e r to e s t a b l i s h th e h i s t o r i c a l o r i g i n s o f the d i c h o t o m y e x i s t i n g b e t w e e n w r i t t e n a n d s p o k e n S i n h a lese. T h e s e c o n d c h a p t e r d i s c u s s e s the h i s t o r i c a l a n d l i n g u i s t i c b a c k g r o u n d f r o m the end of th e f i f
t e e n t h c e n t u r y w h i c h b r i n g s to a n end the c l a s s i c a l p e r i o d of S i n h a l e s e w r i t i n g , a n d w h i c h the m o d e r n p u r i s t s r e g a r d e d as i n c e p t i n g a p e r i o d of l i n g u i s t i c d e c a d e n c e . T h e f i r s t b e g i n n i n g s of p u r i s t i c r e v i v a
l i s m c a n b e s e e n i n the l a t t e r h a l f of the e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y a n d m u c h of the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y w i t h t h e i r n a t i v i s t i c t e n d e n c y . T h e s e a r e d e a l t w i t h i n c h a p t e r
Ill, C h a p t e r I V Is d e v o t e d to d i s c u s s i n g the e m e r g e n c e of K u m a r a t u n g a , his l i n g u i s t i c o b j e c t i v e s a n d the i n c e p t i o n of h i s H e f a H a v u l a (Pure S i n h a l e s e F r a t e r n i t y ) . T h e f r a t e r n i t y ’s c o n c e p t i o n o f l a n g u a g e a n d its p r o p e r d e v e l o p m e n t t o g e t h e r w i t h its d e f i n i t i o n of g r a m m a r a n d c o r r e c t n e s s a r e t a k e n i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n in c h a p t e r V. C h a p t e r V I is a n a n a l y s i s of the g r a m m a t i c a l w o r k s of the m o v e m e n t w h i c h w e r e d e s i g n e d to t e a c h t h e H e l e s e d o c t r i n e of p e r f e c t i o n . T h e a c t i v i t i e s o f the f o l l o w e r s o f K u m a r a t u n g a a n d t h e i r z e a l o u s e n d e a v o u r to p r o p a g a t e hi s l i n g u i s t i c c r e d o a r e d e a l t w i t h in c h a p t e r VII, T h e f i n a l c h a p t e r d i s c u s s e s , f i rs tl y, the r e c e n t a t t e m p t o f the H e f a H a v u l a to o b t a i n a u t h o r i t a t i v e r e c o g n i t i o n o f its s p e c i a l l i n g u i s t i c f e a t u r e s b y u s i n g g o v e r n m e n t a l b a c k i n g to ge t t h e m i n t r o d u c e d i n t o the s t a t e — s p o n s o r e d S t a n d a r d S i n h a l e s e G r a m m a r a n d the s e r i e s o f S i n h a l e s e s c h o o l text b oo k s . S e c o n d l y , it d i s c u s s e s the c a u s e s w h i c h l e d to the d e c l i n e a n d
of
d y i n g o u t / t h e H e l a m o v e m e n t . T w o a p p e n d i c e s a r e I n c l u d e d to i l l u s t r a t e s o m e o f the p o i n t s d i s c u s s e d .
A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T S
I s h o u l d l i k e to t h a n k Mr. C. H. B. R e y n o l d s u n d e r w h o s e s u p e r v i s i o n th i s w o r k w a s u n d e r t a k e n , f o r the m e t i c u l o u s c a r e w i t h w h i c h he e x a m i n e d it a n d fo r the v e r y v a l u a b l e c r i t i c i s m w h i c h di d m u c h to i m p r o v e its q u a l i t y . He w a s a l w a y s u n s p a r i n g of h i s t i m e a n d e v e r r e a d y w i t h h e l p f u l a d v i c e . I owe it to h i s g e n e r o u s e x e r t i o n s o n m y b e h a l f that I w as a b l e to o b t a i n a p l a c e at t h e S c h o o l o f O r i e n t a l a n d A f r i c a n S t u d i e s to b e g i n m y r e s e a r c h a n d to c o n t i n u e it t h r o u g h m a n y a n d u n f o r e s e e n d i f f i c u l t i e s . T o Mr. R e y n o l d s t h e r e f o r © I r e m a i n d e e p l y i n d e b t e d .
T h a n k s a r e a l s o d u e to Dr. M, W, S u g a t h a p a l a D e S i l v a w h o f i r s t i n t r o d u c e d m e to the s t u d y of
l i n g u i s t i c s a n d w as l a r g e l y i n s t r u m e n t a l i n o b t a i n i n g a n o p p o r t u n i t y f o r m e to p r o s e c u t e m y r e s e a r c h s t u d i e s i n E n g l a n d , X a m d e e p l y g r a t e f u l f o r hi s u n f a i l i n g k i n d n e s s , w h e n k i n d n e s s w a s n e e d e d , a n d f o r th e a d v i c e a n d g r e a t e n c o u r a g e m e n t h e w a s a b l e to g i v e m e to
p r o c e e d i n m y w o r k .
I s h o u l d a l s o l i k e to e x p r e s s m y s i n c e r e
t h a n k s a n d g r a t i t u d e to P r o f e s s o r s E, R. S a r a c h c h a n d r a a n d K, W, G o o n e w a r d e n a f o r t h e i r a d v i c e a n d e n c o u r a g e m e n t .
T o m y f r i e n d s i n Sri La n k a , Dr. G. D, W i j a y a - w a r d h a n a and Mr. G, M. D. F e r n a n d o 1 owe a d e e p d e b t
o f g r a t i t u d e f o r t h e a l a c r i t y w i t h w h i c h t h e y s u p p l i e d me r e g u l a r l y w i t h th e b o o k s a n d p e r i o d i c a l s 1 c o u l d n o t o b t a i n he r e .
Dr. P. V. P r e m a r a t n e w a s a b l e to g i v e m e m u c h v a l u a b l e h e l p i n d i s c u s s i o n . I s h o u l d l ik e to t h a n k h i m m o s t s i n c e r e l y .
F i n a l l y , to m y w i f e S u j a t a who, w h i l e e n g a g i n g i n s i m i l a r a c a d e m i c r e s e a r c h , o b t a i n e d f o r m e r e l e a s e f r o m the p r e s s u r e s of e v e r y p r o b l e m a t i c c i r c u m s t a n c e a n d the l e i s u r e a n d p e a c e of m i n d w i t h o u t w h i c h s t u d y w o u l d b e i m p o s s i b l e , as w e l l as fo r the g r e a t s t r e n g t h a n d I n s p i r a t i o n she a l w a y s g a v e me X o f f e r m y m o s t h e a r t f e l t t h a n k s . W o r d s c a n n o t e x p r e s s the s u m of a l l I owe to her, a n d m y d e e p e s t g r a t i t u d e m u s t a l w a y s r e m a i n u n s a i d .
6
T A B L E OF C O N T E N T S
A b s t r a c t
A c k n o w l e d g e m e n t s C h a p t e r I
C h a p t e r II
C h a p t e r I I I
C h a p t e r IV
C h a p t e r V
C h a p t e r V I
C h a p t e r V I I
C h a p t e r V I I I
I n t r o d u c t i o n ; D i g l o s s i a S i t u a t i o n i n S i n h a l e s e
T h e
T h e H i s t o r i c a l a n d L i n g u i s t i c B a c k g r o u n d ( 1 5 0 0 - 1 7 7 0 )
T h e F i r s t B e g i n n i n g s of P u r i s m
K u m a r a t u n g a , the I n c e p t i o n of h i s H e l a H a v u l a a n d its A c t i v i t i e s
L i n g u i s t i c P h i l o s o p h y o f the H e l a H a v u l a
G r a m m a t i c a l W o r k s of the H e l a H a v u l a
T h e H e l a M o v e m e n t a f t e r K u m a r a t u n g a
R e c e n t P h a s e s of the H e l aa M o v e m e n t
2-3 4-5 8 — 52
5 3 - 7 5
76-102
1 0 3 - 1 3 9
1 4 0 - 1 7 7
178-251
252-282
2 8 3 - 3 5 6
7
C o n c l u s i o n A p p e n d i x
A p p e n d i x
3 5 7 - 3 6 2 I S o me E x a m p l e s of the A l t e r a t i o n s 3 6 3 — 378
m a d e i n the E d i t i o n s of S i n h a l e s e C l a s s i c s b y the H e l a H a v u l a
XI T h e E d i t i o n s of the S i d a t S a n g a -- 3 7 9 - 3 8 2 n a v a a n d t h e S i n h a l e s e G r a m m a r s
w r i t t e n u p to 1 9 3 5
B i b l i o g r a p h y
383-405
8
C H A P T E R I
I N T R O D U C T I O N
D I G L O S S I A : T H E S I T U A T I O N IN S I N H A L E S E
A l l l a n g u a g e s w i t h a f ai rl y l o n g h i s t o r y of ( w r i t te n ) l i t e r a t u r e d i s p l a y some d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n the l i t e r a r y a n d s p o k e n v a r i e t i e s w i t h r e g a r d to p h o n o logy, m o r p h o l o g y and, s o m e t i m e s , syntax. In a l i t e r a t e s o c i e t y , e s p e c i a l l y in one that is e d u c a t e d to a k n o w l e d g e a n d a n a p p r e c i a t i o n of the w r i t i n g s o f the past, th e w r i t t e n a n d the s p o k e n l a n g u a g e m a y d e v e l o p at
d i f f e r e n t r a t e s a n d m a y c o me to d i v e r g e f r o m one a n o t h e r c o n s i d e r a b l y in v o c a b u l a r y a n d g r a m m a r . T h e l o n g e r the p e r i o d d u r i n g w h i c h a l a n g u a g e ha s b e e n c o m m i t t e d to w r i t i n g (and u s e d f o r l i t e r a r y a c t i v i t i e s ) the g r e a t e r m a y b e the d i s c r e p a n c y b e t w e e n the two r e g i s t e r s .
L a n g u a g e s of t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y v u l n e r a b l e to p u r i s t i c e n d e a v o u r s . T h e r e a s o n s f o r this a r e o b vi o u s . F i r s t l y , w r i t t e n r e c o r d s h a v e a c o m p a r a t i v e l y g r e a t e r d e g r e e of p e r m a n e n c e a n d s u b s e q u e n t w r i t e r s t e n d to l o o k u p o n t he m as m o d e l s of
9
e x c e l l e n c e , p a r t i c u l a r l y in the i d i o m a n d st y l e . B e i n g t a n g i b l e r e c o r d s w h i c h a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r s u c h r e f e r e n c e , w r i t t e n w o r k s h a v e a t e n d e n c y to i m p o s e r e s t r i c t i o n s on th e n o r m a l l i n g u i s t i c e v o l u t i o n that ta k e s p l a c e i n a ny s p e e c h c o m m u n i t y . In l a n g u a g e s w h i c h p o s s e s s a l e n g t h y l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n , t h e r e f o r e , it is p o s s i b l e to d i s c e r n s o m e c l e a v a g e b e t w e e n the l a n g u a g e of l i t e r a t u r e a n d the s p o k e n l a n g u a g e of the p e o p l e in q u e s t i o n . T h e ty p e s of c l e a v a g e s that c a n a r i s e w i t h the a d v e n t o f the l i t e - r a r y a c t i v i t y h a v e b e e n c l a s s i f i e d b y M.W, S u g a t h a p a l a De S i l v a i n 19 6 7 a n d m o r e f u l l y in 1975#^
I n o r d e r to e s t a b l i s h the p l a c e t h a t S i n h a l e s e o o c u p i e s a m o n g l a n g u a g e s w h i c h are c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y s u c h c l e a v a g e s , it is p e r t i n e n t to g i v e h e r e a b r i e f s u m m a r y of De S i l v a ' s t h e s i s . F r o m the p o i n t of v i e w o f th e r e l a t i o n s h i p that o b t a i n s b e t w e e n s p o k e n an d w r i t t e n l a n g u a g e s , he m a k e s a f i v e - f o l d c l a s s i f i c a t i o n
to w h i c h h e ha s g i v e n the f o l l o w i n g n a m e s : (i) c o n g r u e n t type, (ii) r e s t r i c t e d s t a n d a r d type, (iii) i n t e r - r e g i o n a l s t a n d a r d type, (lv) g r a p h i c s t a n d a r d ty p e a n d (v) d i v e r g e n t
1# M. ¥. S u g a t h a p a l a De S ilva, 'Effects o f P u r i s m on the E v o l u t i o n of the W r i t t e n L a n g u a g e : C a s e H i s t o r y of the S i t u a t i o n i n S i n h a l e s e ' , L i n g u i s t i c s 3 6 (1967), pp. 5-17? ' P r o b l e m s o f L i t e r a c y in D i g l o s s i c C o m m u n i t ies ', L i t e r a c y D i s c u s s i o n : U N E S C O S p e c i a l N u m b e r i n M o t h e r - t o n g u e L i t e r a c y (f o r t h c o m i n g ) .
1 o
type. B e i n g the p r o d u c t o f w r i t i n g f or the f i r s t time w h a t h e c a l l s c o n g r u e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p n a t u r a l l y i m p l i e s the a b s e n c e of a l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n a n d t h e r e f o r e this p a r t i c u l a r t yp e n e e d n o t d e t a i n us h ere. In the c o u r s e of t im e the w r i t t e n l a n g u a g e e i t h e r i n its g r a m m a r a n d s t y l e o r i n its m a n n e r of g r a p h i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of s o u n d o r i n b o t h m a y c o r r e s p o n d to the l i n g u i s t i c h a b i t s o b t a i n i n g i n a p a r t i c u l a r p a r t of the w i d e r l i n g u i s t i c c o m m u n i t y , i n w h i c h ca s e the r e l a t i o n s h i p m a y b e c a l l e d a r e s t r i c t e d s t a n d a r d type; or it m a y c o r r e s p o n d to a n e u t r a l s t a n d a r d s p e e c h e q u a l l y s h a r e d b y a ll e d u c a t e d
s p e a k e r s i n w h i c h c as e the r e l a t i o n s h i p m i g h t r e f l e c t a n i n t e r - r e g i o n a l s t a n d a r d . In the c a se of C h i n e s e w h e r e the w r i t t e n l a n g u a g e is c a p a b l e of r e p r e s e n t i n g , b e c a u s e o f its n o n - p h o n e t i c c h a r a c t e r of r e p r e s e n t a
tion, a ll f o r ms of s p e e c h r e g a r d l e s s of t h e i r p h o n e t i c
1. A r a b i c is a g o o d e x a m p l e . T he g r a m m a r o f w r i t t e n A r a b i c is d i f f e r e n t f r o m the g r a m m a r of e v e r y s i n g l e r e g i o n a l v a r i e t y o f A r a b i c , b ut the g r a m m a r of the w r i t t e n l a n g u a g e is u s e d f or i n t e r - c o m m u n i c a t i o n b y p e o p l e b e l o n g i n g to d i f f e r e n t r e gi on s, a n d it is a l s o u s e d i n r a d i o n e w s c a s t i n g etc. c o m m u n i c a t e d to a n u m b e r o f a r e a s at one t i m e ( F o r d e t a i l s see, C. A. F e r g u s o n , ’D i g l o s s i a * } W o r d , vol. 15 (1959), pp. 3 2 5 - 3 ^ 0 % r e p r i n t e d in L a n g u a g e in S o c i a l C o n t e x t , ed. P i e r P a o l o G i g l i o l i , 1972, pp. 2 3 2 - 2 5 1 ? see
a l s o P e t e r T r u d g i l l , S o c l o 1 i n g u i s t i e s , 197^* PP»
1 1 8
-
1 2 0).
11
d i f f e r e n c e s , the r e l a t i o n s h i p w o u l d be of a g r a p h i c s t a n d a r d type. i T h e f a ct that h i g h l i t e r a r y g r a m m a r
etc. of, f o r i n s t a n c e , E n g l i s h r e p r e s e n t s the e d u c a t e d s o u t h e r n v a r i e t y of E n g l i s h (British) s p e e c h f o r the m o s t p a r t w o u l d p l a c e the r e l a t i o n s h i p that e x i s t s b e t w e e n s p o k e n a n d w r i t t e n E n g l i s h in the r e s t r i c t e d
s t a n d a r d type. W r i t t e n H i n d i , b y a n d la r g e , r e p r e s e n t s the g r a m m a r of K h a r i b o l i . C l a s s i c a l A r a b i c w h i c h is u s e d b y al l e d u c a t e d A r a b s r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e i r r e g i o n a l v a r i a t i o n s w o u l d p l a c e A r a b i c i n the i n t e r - r e g i o n a l
s t a n d a r d type. As m e n t i o n e d a b ove, C h i n e s e is a c l a s s i c e x a m p l e of the g r a p h i c s t a n d a r d type r e l a t i o n s h i p .
S i n h a l e s e w h i c h is the s u b j e c t of this t h e s i s s h o w s the f u n c t i o n a l d i v e r g e n c e b e t w e e n the l i t e r a r y a n d n o n - l i t e r a r y u s a g e s m a x i m a l l y a n d e x h i b i t s a d i v e r g e n t type of r e l a t i o n s h i p . Xt is e v i d e n t that v e r y f e w l a n g u a g e s h a v e the s a m e f u n c t i o n a l d i v e r g e n c e as S i n h a l e s e ; p e r h a p s
1, W r i t t e n a n d s p o k e n C h i n e s e are m o r e i n d e p e n d e n t of one a n o t h e r . W h a t a r e c o n v e n t i o n a l l y r e f e r r e d to as d i f f e r e n t 'diale c t s ' of C h i n e s e ( M a n d a r i n , C a n t o n e se , etc.) a re w r i t t e n in e s s e n t i a l l y the s a m e way.
I'he c o m m o n i d e o g r a p h s a re i n t e r p r e t e d a n d a r t i c u l a t e d a c c o r d i n g to e a c h v a r i e t y . E d u c a t e d s p e a k e r s of
M a n d a r i n a n d C a n t o n e s e a r e thus a b l e to c o m m u n i c a t e w i t h one a n o t h e r i n w r i t i n g , a l t h o u g h t h e y m a y not b e a b l e to do so in sp e e c h .
1 2
T a m i l a nd T e l u g u ar e the n e a r e s t g e o g r a p h i c a l l a n g u a g e s of this type.
L a n g u a g e s w h e r e d i s t i n c t sets o f c o d i f i e d r u l e s o b t a i n f o r l i t e r a r y u s a g e w h i c h d i s t i n g u i s h it f r o m c o l l o q u i a l u s a g e a r e c a l l e d d i g l o s s i c l a n g u a g e s . T h e t e r m d i g l o s s i a ( m o d e l e d o n the F r e n c h d i g l o s s i e )
1
w a s f i r st i n v e n t e d b y C h a r l e s A. F e r g u s o n i n 1959. 'The c l a s s i c d e f i n i t i o n o f d i g l o s s i a that F e r g u s o n g i v e s is as f o l l o w s : ' D i g l o s s i a is a r e l a t i v e l y s t a b l e l a n g u a g e s i t u a t i o n i n w h i c h , i n a d d i t i o n to the p r i m a r y d i a l e c t s o f the l a n g u a g e ( w h i c h m a y inclvide a s t a n d a r d o r r e g i o n a l s t a n d a r d s ) , t h e r e is a v e r y d i v e r g e n t , h i g h l y c o d i f i e d
( o f t e n g r a m m a t i c a l l y m o r e c o m p l e x ) s u p e r p o s e d v a r i e t y , t h e v e h i c l e of a l a r g e a n d r e s p e c t e d b o d y o f w r i t t e n l i t e r a t u r e , e i t h e r of a n e a r l i e r p e r i o d or i n a n o t h e r s p e e c h c o m m u n i t y , w h i c h is l e a r n e d l a r g e l y b y f o r m a l e d u c a t i o n a n d is u s e d f o r m o s t w r i t t e n a n d f o r m a l s p o k e n p u r p o s e s b u t is not u s e d b y a n y s e c t o r of the c o m m u n i t y f o r o r d i n a r y c o n v e r s a t i o n ' . 2 F e r g u s o n ' s s t u d y w a s
1, C, A. F e r g u s o n , ' D i g lo s s i a ' , W o r d , vol. 15 (1959)»
pp. 3 2 5 — 3^0? r e p r i n t e d i n L a n g u a g e a n d S o c i a l C o n t e x t , ed. P i e r P a o l o G i g l i o l i , 1972, pp. 2 3 2 — 251.
2. C, A. F e r g u s o n , op. cit., pp. 2 4 4 - 2 4 5 .
d e v o t e d to the a n a l y s i s of f o u r d i g l o s s i c c o m m u n i t i e s , n a m e l y , A r a b i c , G r ee k, H a i t i a n (C r e o l e ) a n d S w i s s
G e r m a n , ^ Xt is c l e a r f r o m F e r g u s o n ' s p a p e r that d i g l o s s i a s i g n i f i e s a f u n c t i o n a l c l e a v a g e a n d i n that s e n s e it is a s o c i a l p h e n o m e n o n , r a t h e r t h a n p u r e l y a l i n g u i s t i c one. 2 As h e ha s o b s e r v e d , in m a n y s p e e c h
c o m m u n i t i e s tw o o r m o r e v a r i e t i e s of the s a m e l a n g u a g e a r e u s e d b y s o m e s p e a k e r s u n d e r d i f f e r e n t c o n d i t i o n s . T h e m o s t f r e q u e n t l y c i t e d e x a m p l e is the s t a n d a r d l a n g
u a g e v e r s u s r e g i o n a l d i a l e c t . B ut w h a t h e r e he p r e s e n t is one p a r t i c u l a r k i n d of s t a n d a r d i s a t i o n w h e r e two v a r i e t i e s of a l a n g u a g e e x i s t si d e b y s i d e a nd ar e
1, F o r d e t a i l s , see C. A, F e r g u s o n , ' D i g l o s s i a 1, in L a n g u a g e a n d S o c i a l C o n t e x t , ed. P i e r P a o l o G i g l i o l i
1972
T
ppT "233^W f.
2. I n 1 9 6 2, F e r g u s o n v e n t u r e s to e m p h a s i z e the s o c i o — l i n g u i s t i c n a t u r e of the c o n c e p t . To p u t it si m p l y , one t y p e o f l a n g u a g e is a l l o w e d in s o m e s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n s a n d a n o t h e r t y p e of l a n g u a g e is u s e d i n o t h e r s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n s w h i c h p r o h i b i t s the u s e of the f o rm er . F o r d e t a i l s , s e e C, A, F e r g u s o n , ' P r o b l em s of t e a c h i n g l a n g u a g e s w i t h d i g l o s s i a ' , i n M o n o g r a p h S e r i e s o n L a n g u a g e s a n d L i n g u i s t i c s , e d s . E, D, W o o d w o r t h a n d R, J, D± P i e t r o , W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . s G e o r g e
t o w n U n i v e r s i t y P ress, 1 9 6 2, pp. 1 6 3 ““177*
a s s i g n e d to h a v e a d e f i n i t e r o l e to play, i .e., l i t e r a r y a n d c o l l o q u i a l . G e n e r a l l y s p e a k i n g , d i g l o s s i a is a k i n d of b i l i n g u a l i s m i n w h i c h a s p e e c h c o m m u n i t y
m a y u s e two v a r i e t i e s of the same l a n g u a g e , u n d e r d i f f e r e n t c o n d i t i o n s o r f or d i f f e r e n t p u r p o s e s *
T h e two l i n g u i s t i c v a r i e t i e s i n a d i g l o s s i c s i t u a t i o n a r e c o n s i d e r e d b y s p e a k e r s to b e d i s c r e t e , a l t h o u g h this is u s u a l l y no t a l t o g e t h e r th e ca s e in p r a c t i c e , a n d c o m p r i s e a s t a n d a r d i z e d h i g h v a r i e t y a n d a l o w v a r i e t y w h i c h is a l s o s t a n d a r d i z e d b u t m a y b e s u b j e c t to g e o g r a p h i c a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n . It is e v i d e n t t h a t the d i g l o s s i c s i t u a t i o n i n s p e e c h c o m m u n i t i e s is w i d e s p r e a d a n d the r e l a t i o n s h i p
b e t w e e n the t w o v a r i e t i e s i n v o l v e d m a y b e at d i f f e r e n t r a t e s . I n the ca s e o f so m e l a n g u a g e s w i t h d i g l o s s i a , w r i t t e n l a n g u a g e has the q u a l i t i e s of a s e c o n d l a n g u a g e i n m a n y r e s p e c t s w h i c h t a k e s m a n y y e a r s of f o r m a l e d u c a t i o n ( e x a m p l e : S i n h a l e s e , T a m i l a n d T e l u g u ) .
E x a m p l e s of l a n g u a g e c o m m u n i t i e s w h i c h a re d i g l o s s i c , t o g e t h e r w i t h the n a m e s u s e d, are the f o l l o w i n g s
15
H i g h L o w
A r a b ± c B e n g a l i G r e e k
- C l a s s i c a l C o l l o q u i a l - S a d h u B h a s a C a l i t B h a s a
K a t h a r e v o u s a Dhimotilci H a i t i a n C r e o l e - F r e n c h C r e o l e K a n n a d a
S w i ss G e r m a n S i n h a l e s e
- L i t e r a r y C o l l o q u i a l - L i t e r a r y C o l l o q u i a l
- H o c h d e u t s c h S c h w e i z e r d e u t s c h
T e l u g u
T a m i l L i t e r a r y
Li t e r a r y
C o l l o q u i a l C o l l o q u i a l
T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t f e a t u r e of the d i g l o s s i c c o m m u n i ties se e m s to be the s p e c i a l i z a t i o n of f u n c t i o n of the two v a r i e t i e s , a n d the d e g r e e of s p e c i a l i z a t i o n tends to v a r y f r o m c o m m u n i t y to c o m m u n i t y a c c o r d i n g to the s o c i o - l i n g u i s t i c p a r a m e t e r s i nv o l v e d .
a n d e v e n t u a t e in d i f f e r e n t l a n g u a g e s i t u a t i o n s . Of the f o u r l a n g u a g e s c i t e d b y F e r g u s o n as e x a m p l e s f or this s o c i o - l i n g u i s t i c p h e n o m e n o n , A r a b i c d i g l o s s i a seems to r e a c h as fa r b a c k as the k n o w l e d g e of A r a b i c goes, 1
a n d the s i t u a t i o n i n m o d e r n G r e e k seems to h a v e r o o ts
1* C. A, F e r g u s o n , ' D i g l o s s i a 1, in L a n g u a g e a n d S o c i a l C o n t e x t , ed. P i e r P a o l o G i g l i o l i (1972 ) , pp"I 2 3 7 - 2 3 9 .
D i g l o s s i a m a y d e v e l o p f r o m v a r i o u s o r i g i n s
16
g o i n g b a c k m a n y c e n t u r i e s * But it is e v i d e n t that
G r e e k d i g l o s s i a b e c a m e f u l l y d e v e l o p e d at the b e g i n n i n g of the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y w i t h the r e n a i s s a n c e of
G r e e k l i t e r a t u r e w h i c h sa w the r e s u s c i t a t i o n of the l i t e r a r y g e n r e s of a n c i e n t G r e e k . 1 D i g l o s s i a i n S wiss G e r m a n has d e v e l o p e d as a r es u l t of l o n g r e l i g i o u s a n d p o l i t i c a l i s o l a t i o n f r o m the c e nt re s of G e r m a n l i n g u i s t i c s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n , 2 w h i l e H a i t i a n C r e o l e has a r i s e n f r o m p i d g i n F r e n c h , w i t h s t a n d a r d F r e n c h l a t e r c o m i n g to p l a y the r o l e of the s u p e r p o s e d v a r i e t y . 3
In d i g l o s s i c s i t u a t i o n s , the h i g h v a r i e t y (i.e., the l i t e r a r y ) h a s g r e a t e r p r e s t i g e t h a n the low, a n d is o f t e n r e g a r d e d as m or e b e a u t i f u l an d
1. C. F. a n d F, M. V o e g e l i n , 'Greek', in A n t h r o p o l o g i cal Li n g u i s t i e s , vol. 7» no. 8 (19 6 5), pp. 1 5 8 - 17 6. 2. W i l l i a m G. M o u l t o n , 'What s t a n d a r d fo r d i g l o s s i a ?
T h e case of G e r m a n S w i t z e r l a n d ' , in M o n o g r a p h Se r i e s o n L a n g u a g e a n d L i n g u i s t i c s , no. 15 (1 9 6 2), pp. 133-^8.
3. C. A. F e r g u s o n , ' D i g l o s s i a ' , in L a n g u a g e a n d S o c i a l C o n t e x t , ©d. P i e r P a o l o G i g l i o l i (1972) , ppl 2 ^6 - 2 4 8 ; W i l l i a m A, S t e w a r t , ' F u n c t i o n a l D i s t r i b u t i o n of
C r e o l e F r e n c h in H a i t i ' , M o n o g r a p h S e r i e s on L a n g u a g e a n d L i n g u i s t i e s , pp. 1 4 9 -1 6 2 .
17
g e n u i n e , e v e n if* it is le s s i n t e l l i g i b l e * In A r a b i c a n d G r e e k b o t h of w h i c h p o s s e s s a l e n g t h y l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n w h e r e the a n c i e n t or c l a s s i c a l o v e r s h a d o w s the m o d e r n , it m a y e v e n be c o n s i d e r e d g o o d f o r m to w r i t e a n e d i t o r i a l or p o e m c o n t a i n i n g a r c h a i c g r a m m a t i c a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s w h i c h no one can e a s i l y u n d e r s t a n d * A l t h o u g h the A r a b i c s p e e c h c o m m u n i t y is v e r y l a r g e
n u m e r i c a l l y , a n d s p r e a d o v e r a va s t e x p a n s e s p a t i a l l y , h i g h r e g a r d fo r the c l a s s i c a l u s a g e an d g r a m m a t i c a l f e a t u r e s a r e r e l a t i v e l y u n i f o r m t h r o u g h o u t . 1 A r a b s
fe el that the c l a s s i c a l v a r i e t y is the m o s t b e a u t i f u l , h i g h l y d e v e l o p e d a nd the m o s t elegant. C o n s e q u e n t l y , f o r m a n y p u r p o s e s e v e n the i l l i t e r a t e p e a s a n t w i l l p r e f e r a c l a s s i c a l s o u n d i n g h i g h l y l i t e r a r y A r a b i c w h i c h he o n l y p a r t i a l l y u n d e r s t a n d s * 2 T h e s u p e r i o r i t y
of the c l a s s i c a l v a r i e t y i n the A r a b i c s p e e c h c o m m u n i t y is m a i n t a i n e d on the b a s i s of r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s a n d a t t i t u d e s * T h e l a n g u a g e of the K o r a n has b e e n f o r
1. C. A. F e r g u s on , ’M y t h s a b o u t A r a b i c ’, in J, A,
F i s h m a n (ed.) R e a d i n g s in the S o c i o l o g y of L a n g u a g e (1968), pp. 37 5 - 3 8 1 *
2, Ibid., p. 377.
18
s o m e 1200 y e a r s a m o d e l f o r the l i t e r a r y l a n g u a g e and is s t i l l r e g a r d e d as the i d e a l of l i n g u i s t i c a n d
l i t e r a r y p e r f e c t i o n . H e n c e the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of the s u p e r p o s e d v a r i e t y w i t h the r e l i g i o n in A r a b i c s p e e c h c o m m u n i t y se e m s to be p a r a m o u n t i n m a i n t a i n i n g the A r a b i c d i g l o s s i a . A l t h o u g h the c l a s s i c a l A r a b i c is
s t i l l the p r e d o m i n a n t w r i t t e n l a n g u a g e , c o l l o q u i a l A r a b i c c a n n o w a l so be w r i t t e n , e s p e c i a l l y i n n o v e l s a n d n e w s p a p e r s , a nd a l so t h e r e is a t e n d e n c y f o r d i f f e r e n t s t a n d a r d s b a s e d on r e g i o n a l l ow v a r i e t i e s to a r i s e in e a c h c o u n tr y. On the o t h e r h an d , a l t h o u g h it is p o s s i b l e to s p e a k the h i g h v a r i e t y , th i s is
b e c o m i n g i n c r e a s i n g l y less u s ual.
T h e G r e e k d i g l o s s i a , t h o u g h it s e e ms to h a v e r o o t s g o i n g b a c k m a n y c e n t u r i e s , b e c a m e f u l l y d e v e l o p e d at the b e g i n n i n g of the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y w i t h the G r e e k l i t e r a r y r e v iv al . 2 As a r e s u l t of this r e n a i s s a n c e a l i t e r a r y l a n g u a g e , K a t h a r e v o u s a , b a s e d in
1. P e t e r T r u d g i l l , S o c i o 1 i n g u i s t i e s , 197^» PP # 117-119.
2, C, F, a n d F, M. V o e g o l i n , 'Greek', i n A n t h r o p o l o g i c a l L i n g u i s t i c s , vol. 7, no. 8 (1 9 6 5), PP * 1 5 9 — 1 60.
19
l a r g e part on p r e v i o u s l i n g u i s t i c h a b i t s of l i t e r a r y Gr e e k , w a s c r e a t e d. 1 As the b o d y of l i t e r a t u r e in G r e e c e r e p r e s e n t s a l o n g time span, it w a s p o s s i b l e f or the w r i t e r s of the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y to u t i l i z e w o r d s a n d g r a m m a t i c a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s of a d i s t a n t a n d g l o r i o u s p e r i o d of G r e e k l i t e r a r y h is t o r y . T he
d i v e r g e n c y b e t w e e n the l i t e r a r y (high v a r i e t y ) l a n g u a g e a nd the s p o k e n ( D h im ot ik l) is p e r p e t u a t e d in the l a n g u a g e situation of m o d e r n Greek. T h e s i t u a t i o n c r e a t e d b y the s e p a r a t e e x i s t e n c e of the K a t h a r e v o u s a a n d the D h i m o t i k i h as f r e q u e n t l y b e c o m e a n e m o t i o n a l p o l i t i c a l issue. 2 A l s o i n G r e e k the us e of two
v a r i e t i e s - h i g h v a r i e t y ( K a t h a r e v o u s a ) a n d l o w v a r i e t y ( D h i m o t i k i ) - seems to b e c l o s e l y l i n k e d w i t h r e l i g i o u s
1 . It is p e r t i n e n t to m e n t i o n h e r e that i n c r e a t i n g
a n o f f i c i a l w r i t t e n or l i t e r a r y l a n g u a g e f o r the n e w G r e e k n a t i o n , m a n y of the r e s p o n s i b l e a u t h o r i t i e s s e e m to h a v e t a k e n the line that G r e e k h a d not
c h a n g e d si n c e the N e w T e s t a m e n t times, a n d that all the a p p a r e n t c h a n g e s w e r e s i m p l y i g n o r e n t, s l o v e n l y s p e e c h w h i c h c o u l d be r e m e d i e d b y e d u c a t i o n ; the o n l y p u r e g r a m m a r w a s the g r a m m a r of a n c i e n t G reek.
F o r d e t a i l s , see C, F. an d F, M, V o e g e l i n , op* cit., pp. 1 6 0-1 7 0.
2, C. F. a n d F. M. V o e g e l i n , op. cit,, pp. 16 0 - 1 6 2 ,
20
b e l i e f s a n d a t t i t u d e s . I n G r e e k the l a n g u a g e o f the N e w T e s t a m e n t is felt to be e s s e n t i a l l y the sa m e as the K a t h a r e v o u s a , a n d t h e r e w a s s e ri ou s r i o t i n g1 in G r e e c e wh e n , in 1903, the N e w T e s t a m e n t w a s t r a n s l a t e d into D h i m o t i k i . ^
K a t h a r e v o u s a , the h i g h v a r i e t y , s e r v e s as the o f f i c i a l t o n g u e of the G r e e k state. It is s p o k e n o n l y o n f o r m a l o c c a s i o n s s u c h as in G r e e k o r t h o d o x l i t u r g y , i n the G r e e k p a r l i a m e n t a n d i n a c a d e m i c l e c t u r e s , bu t it is u s e d a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y f o r o f f i c i a l a n d s c i e n t i fic w r i t i n g s as w e l l as b y m o s t n e w s p a p e r s . T h e
f u n c t i o n of the D h i m o t i k i is m o re g e n e r a l i n that its s p h e r e is i n t h o s e a r e a s no t d e s i g n a t e d f o r K a t h a r e - v o u s a , ~ It se e m s that K a t h a r e v o u s a has b e e n m o d i f i e d s u c c e s s i v e l y m a n y t im e s in t o a c l o s e r a g r e e m e n t w i t h the s p o k e n l a n g u a g e ( D h i mo t i ki ), f ro m w h i c h , h ow e v e r , it s t i l l d i f f e r s m a r k e d l y in c e r t a i n s a c r o s a n c t d e t a i l s
1. C, A, F e r g u s o n , ' D i g l o s s i a 1, in W o r d , vol. 15 (1959)»
pp. 325 - 3 ^ 0 $ r e p r i n t e d in L a n g u a g e a n d S o c i a l C o n t e x t , (ad,) P i e r P a o l o G i g l i o l i (79'72 J P P . 2 3 7 - 2 3 8 .
2. F o r a c o n t r a s t i v e s t u d y of the l i n g u i s t i c m a r k s of
K a t h a r e v o u s a a n d D h i m o t i k i , see F, W. H o u s e h o l d e r , Jr., ' G reek D i g l o s s i a ' , i n M o n o g r a p h S e r i e s o n L a n g u a g e s a n d L i n g u i s t i c s , no. 15 91 962 ) ,"777. 1 0 9 -132.
21
of4 s p e l l i n g 1, m o r p h o l o g y a n d v o c a b u l a r y .
It s h o u l d be m e n t i o n e d that s e v e r a l a t t e m p t s h a v e b e e n m a d e r e c e n t l y t o w a r d s c o n v e r g i n g K a t h a r e v o u s a a n d D h i m o t i k i in t o a s i n g l e s t a n d a r d b a s e d o n the low v a r i e t y ( D h i m o t i k i ) . T h e f o r m of D h i m o t i k i c h o s e n
f o r this r o l e b y its a d h e r e n t s is a m i x e d l a n g u a g e w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l e a d m i x t u r e f r o m the h i g h v a r i e t y ( K a t h a r e v o u s a ) , U n l i k e i n some d i g l o s s i c s i t u a t i o n s , D h i m o t i k i has a c o n s i d e r a b l e b o d y of l i t e r a t u r e w r i t t e n in it a n d p o s s e s s e s s e v e r a l g r a m m a r s . 1 U n d e r the L i b e r a l
G r e e k g o v e r n m e n t of the 1960's this f o r m of D h i m o t i k i w a s m a d e the l a n g u a g e of I n s t r u c t i o n in s ch o o l s , bu t w i t h the m i l i t a r y c o u p i n 1 9 6 7, this t r e n d s eems to h a v e b e e n r e v e r s e d - b y g o v e r n m e n t d e c r e e D h i m o t i k i h a s b e e n r e p l a c e d b y K a t h a r e v o u s a in the s c h o o l s .2
T h e d i g l o s s i a in T a m i l is q u i t e s i m i l a r to the a b o v e m e n t i o n e d s i t u a t i o n s of A r a b i c a n d m o d e r n G reek, T a m i l a l s o is m a r k e d f o r h a v i n g a l e n g t h y l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n w h i c h p o s s e s s e s a s i z a b l e b o d y of l i t e r a t u r e
1. C, A. F e r g u s o n , op. cit,, p, 236.
2. P e t e r T r u d g i l l , op. cit,, p. 119*
22
going* b a c k to the p r e - C h r i s t i a n c e n t ur ie s* T h e r e are d i s t i n c t l i t e r a r y a n d c o l l o q u i a l s t yles, s h o w i n g s t r i k i n g d i f f e r e n c e s in p h o n o l o g y , m o r p h o l o g y a n d
s y n t a x J T he l i t e r a r y T a m i l se r v e s as the so l e m e d i u m o f t e n of
of w r i t i n g an d /formal s p e e c h ma k i n g , w h i l e the c o l l o q u i a l v a r i e t y is u s e d f o r o r d i n a r y c o n v e r s a t i o n . T h e two v a r i e t i e s are so d i f f e r e n t that the h i g h v a r i e t y - l i t e r a r y T a m i l - has to be l e a r n e d t h r o u g h f o r m a l e d u c a t i o n . I n m a n y r e s p e c t s , l i t e r a r y T a m i l has the q u a l i t i e s of a s e c o n d l a n g u a g e . As S h a n m u g a m P i l l a i a s s e r t s : 'Among the D r a v i d i a n l a n g u a g e s it is in the T a m i l the d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n l i t e r a r y a n d c o l l o q u i a l a r e the g r e a t e s t a n d one w o n d e r s w h e t h e r t h e two are the same l a n g u a g e at all '. 2 T h e l i t e r a r y T a m i l is f u l l of S a n s k r i t lo a n s a n d r e p l e t e w i t h a r c h a i c g r a m m a - t i c a l f e a t u r e s . *3 O c c a s i o n a l l y , a f o r m of h i g h v a r i e t y ,
1. M. S h a n m u g a m P il l a i , 'Tamil - L i t e r a r y a n d C o l l o q u i a l ' , L i n g u i s t i c D i v e r s i t y in S o u t h Asia: I n t e r n a t i o n a l
J o u r n a l of A m e r i c a n L i n g u i s t i c s , vol. 2 6, no, 3* p t . I l l ( J u l y T"9£0 ) , p p . 2 7 - 4 2 .
2. M. S h a n m u g a m P i l la i, 'M e r g e r of L i t e r a r y a n d C o l l o q u i a l T a m il ' , i n A n t h r o p o l o g i c a l L i n g u i s t i c s , vol. 7»
no. k ( 1 9 6 5 ) f pp# 98-103.
3# D u r i n g the e a r l y d e c a d e s of this c e n t u r y a p u r i s t i c m o v e m e n t , h e a d e d b y M a r a i m a l a i A d ig al , a r o s e w h i c h a d v o c a t e d the r e m o v a l of all f o r e i g n l e x i c a l i t e m s
( see M. S h a n m u g a m Pi l l a i , 'Tamil — L i t e r a r y an d
23
l i t e r a r y , f u l l of h i g h s o u n d i n g v e r b o s i t y a n d a n c i e n t g r a m m a t i c a l f e a t u r e s , c a n be seen u s e d in s p e e c h
m a k i n g , e s p e c i a l l y in p o l i t i c a l c on t e x t s . 1 It is al s o
n o t e w o r t h y that d u r i n g r e c e n t times an a t t e m p t has
b e e n m a d e b y some w r i t e r s to a d o p t the c o l l o q u i a l T a m i l as the m e d i u m f o r w r i t i n g an d f o r f o r m a l s p e a k i n g , s u c h as u n i v e r s i t y l ec t u r e s , p a r l i a m e n t a r y d e b a t e s , etc,, t h e r e b y to l e s s e n the e x i s t i n g w i d e ga p b e t w e e n the two v a r i e t i e s , ^
D i g l o s s i a i n B e n g a l i is s o m e w h a t d i f f e r e n t f r o m the s i t u a t i o n I n T a m i l . T h e h i g h v a r i e t y , li k e l i t e r a r y T am il , is c a l l e d S a d h u B h a s a ( e l eg an t L a n g u a g e ) a n d is e m p l o y e d f o r all f o rm s of w r i t i n g a n d f o r f o r m a l
s p e e c h m a k i n g , C a l i t B h a s a is the
i n f o r m a l c o n v e r s a t i o n a l m e d i u m of the e d u c a t e d as w e l l as the n o n - e d u c a t e d p eo pl e . Th e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n
C o l l o q u i a l ' , i n L i n g u i s t i c D i v e r s i t y in S o u t h A s i a : I n t e r n a t i o n a l J o u r n a l of A m e r i c a n L i n g u i s t i c s , vol. 26, no . 3*» p h II I ( J u l y 1 9 o) , p . 2 7-
1. Ibid., p. 99.
2, M, S h a n m u g a m P i ll ai , ' M erger of L i t e r a r y a nd C o l l o q u i a l T a mi l' , A n t h r o p o l o g i c a l L i n g u i s t i c s , vol. 7»
no. 4 (1 9 6 5), pp. 98- 1 0 3 ? See al s o S .V .S h a n m u g a m ,
' M o d e r n i z a t i o n in T a m i l ' , A n t h r o p o l o g i c a l L i n g u i s t i c s , vol. 1 7, no, 2 (F e b r u a r y 1975T» p p T ~ 53-^7.
24
t h e s e two v a r i e t i e s m a y be s t a t e d as p h o n o l o g i c a l m o r p h o —
1 ~
l o g i c a l a n d s y n t a c t i c . I n B e n ga l i , S a d h u B h a s a has m o r e p r e s t i g e t h a n d o e s the c o l l o q u i al . B u t the d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n the two v a r i e t i e s is not r a d i c a l as in the case of A r a b i c or T a m i l - t h o u g h the s o c i a l ro l e s a r e d i f f e r e n t , t h e y ar e not c l e a r l y d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m one a n o t h e r or m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e . 2 It Is n o t e w o r t h y that p u r e S a d h u B h a s a, unlilce c l a s s i c a l A r a b i c or l i t e r a r y T am i l , is r a r e l y spolcen. In f o r m a l c o n v e r s a t i o n s l i k e u n i v e r s i t y l e c t u r e s , p a r l i a m e n t a r y d e b a t e s a n d n e w s b r o a d c a s t s , a ty p e of Calit B h a s a is u s e d w i t h p r e d o m i n a n t l y S a d h u B h a s a v o c a b u l a r y . P u r e S a d h u B h a s a
is
is the r e c o g n i z e d n o r m f o r w r i t i n g w h i c h / c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a h e a v y i n f l u e n c e f r o m S a n s k r i t lexis, b u t in a c t u a l
p r a c t i c e the i n f l u e n c e f r o m the c o l l o q u i a l v a r i e t y ca n h a r d l y be u n d e r e s t i m a t e d . 3 I n r e l a t i v e l y r e c e n t ti m e s
1. E d w a r d C. Dimoclc, ' L i t e r a r y a n d C o l l o q u i a l B e n g a l i 1, i n L i n g u i s t i c D i v e r s i t y in S o u t h Asia: I n t e r n a t i o n a l J o u r n a l of A m e r i c a n L i n g u i s t i c s ^ v o 1, 26, n o . 3? p t . I l l ’"(J u l y 1 9 6o7 T ~ P P - zi-3~63.
2, Ibid., pp. 44 - 4 5 * 3. Ibid.
25
t h e r e h a s b e e n a m o v e m e n t w i t h i n the B e n g a l i l a n g u a g e t o w a r d s the f u s i o n of the two v a r i e t i e s . It w as
R a b i n d r a n a t h T a g o r e w h o f i r st b e g a n this m o v e m e n t
w h i c h s e e m s to h a v e b e e n p r o g r e s s i n g u n t i l the p r e s e n t day. A c c o r d i n g to S h a n m u g a m P i llai, 'there is not m u c h d i f f e r e n c e t o d a y b e t w e e n s p o k e n a n d w r i t t e n B e n g al i 1 .2
I n the d i g l o s s i c s i t u a t i o n s we h a v e d i s c u s s e d a b o v e , the h i g h v a r i e t y , as w e h a v e seen, is no t r e s t r i c t e d to w r i t i n g ; it is u s e d on m o s t f o r m a l o c c a s i o n s s u c h as b r o a d c a s t i n g , p u b l i c s p e a k i n g a n d so forth.
In this s e n s e the h i g h v a r i e t y has a f o r m a l s i g n i f i c a n c e as w e l l as a l i t e r a r y s i g n i f i c a n c e . T h e S i n h a l e s e s i t u a t i o n , h o w e v e r , d i f f e r s f r o m this.
1. T h e C a l i t B h a s a h a s b e c o m e a c c e p t e d as a v e h i c l e* .i. o f l i t e r a t u r e in its o w n r i g h t d u r i n g the last s e v e n t y fi v e y e a r s . It ser v e s as the l i t e r a r y s y m b o l of the n e w l y a r i s i n g u r b a n m i d d l e class, in c o n t r a s t to t r a d i t i o n a l c u l t u r e r e p r e s e n t e d b y S a d h u B h a s a (See C. A, F e r g u s o n , I n t e r n a t i o n a l J o u r n a l of A m e r i c a n L i n g u i s t i c s , vol. 26, no. 3»
pt", III (J u l y “9^0) , I n t r o d u c i n g n , p. 1 ) .
2, M, S h a n m u g a m P i l l a i , ' M erger of L i t e r a r y a n d C o l l o q u i a l Tamil.' , in A n t h r o p o l o g i c a l L i n g u i s t i c s , vol.
7, no. >+ (1965), p. 103.
26
In S i n h a l e s e it is not p o s s i b l e to s a y that the l i t e r a r y v a r i e t y (or the m o r e p r e s t i g i o u s h i g h v a r i e t y ) is e v e r u s e d in t erms of the c o d i f i e d r u l e s f o r s p e a k i n g o n a n y f o r m a l o c c a s i o n . T h e g r a m m a r of the l i t e r a r y l a n g u a g e is c o n f i n e d to w r i t i n g . B e c a u s e of this the f u n c t i o n a l s t a t u s of the h i g h v a r i e t y in S i n h a l e s e is d i f f e r e n t f r o m the f u n c t i o n a l i m p l i c a t io n s of the h i g h v a r i e t i e s d i s c u s s e d b y F e r g u s o n . S i n c e the h i g h v a r i e t y is c o n f i n e d to l i t e r a r y u s a g e only, a n d the g r a m m a r of the s p o k e n l a n g u a g e i n c l u d i n g al l f o r ms of f o r m a l s p e e c h d i f f e r s f r o m it i n a m a n n e r
that is s t a t a b l e a n d d e s c r l b a b l e , it is r e a s o n a b l e to s a y that S i n h a l e s e d i g l o s s i a is an e x a m p l e of the d i v e r g e n t type. 1
S in ha l e s e , w h i l e f i t t i n g the d e f i n i t i o n p r o v i d e d b y F er gu so n, 2 d i f f e r s s o m e
w h a t i n m a t t e r s of d e t a i l f ro m his d e f i n i n g l a n g u a g e s . T h i s d i f f e r e n c e r e s t s l a r g e l y o n the
1, M. W, S u g a t h a p a l a De Silva, 'Effects of P u r i s m on the E v o l u t i o n of the W r i t t e n L a n g u a g e : C a s e H i s t o r y of the S i t u a t i o n in S i n h a l e s e ' , L i n g u i s t i c s 3 6,
1 9 6 7, PP« 5-6,
2. See a b o v e p p # 9 _ l i #
27
the r a t h e r m o r e r e s t r i c t e d f u n c t i o n of the h i g h v a r i e t y . In S i n h al es e, the h i g h v a r i e t y , in its fu l l r e g a l i a - i.e., 'pure H ' i n
F e r g u s o n ' s w o r d s — is n e v e r u s e d in oral c o m m u n i c a t i o n e xc e p t in r e a di ng ; r e a d i n g h e r e m e a n s a f a i t h f u l
r e n d e r i n g of text as w r i t t e n , w h i c h e x c l u d e s the u s e o f w r i t t e n te x t s as the b a s i s of l e c t u r e s a n d s e r m o n s . Th u s , u n l i k e i n F e r g u s o n ' s cases, r e l i g i o u s s e r m o n s , p a r l i a m e n t a r y s p e e c h e s etc. ar e not c o n d u c t e d in the h i g h v a r i e t y . H a r d l y a s in g l e i n s t a n c e c an be f o u n d w h e r e the p a r t i c i p a n t s ' s o c i a l r a n king, s u c h as esteem,
caste, s e n i o r i t y , m o n k h o o d , etc. r e q u i r e s the u s e of the 'pure' h i g h v a r i e t y . If r e a d i n g is not co u n t e d , it c a n r e a s o n a b l y b e s a i d that h i g h S i n h a l e s e in its f u l l s p l e n d o u r Is n ot a s p o k e n l a n g u a g e at all; it is the l a n g u a g e of w r i t t e n S i n h a l e s e .
A t h u m b n a i l s k e t o h of the d i g l o s s i c c h a r a c t e r of S i n h a l e s e seems to be p e r t i n e n t h e r e 1 no t o n l y to
1, T he h i s t o r i c a l b a c k g r o u n d to S i n h a l e s e d i g l o s s i a ha s b e e n d i s c u s s e d i n d e t a i l b y M. W. S u g a t h a p a l a De Silva, 'Effects of P u r i s m o n the E v o l u t i o n of the W r i t t e n L a n g u a g e : Ca s e H i s t o r y o f the S i t u a t i o n in S i n h a l e s e ' , L i n g u i s t i c s 36, '1967* PP» 5 — 17»
' C o n v e r g e n c e i n D i g l o s s i a ; T h e S i n h a l e s e S i t u a t i o n ' ,
i l l u s t r a t e the g e n e r a l s e t t i n g of S i n h a l e s e b ut a l s o to s h o w h o w it is c o n d u c i v e to the ri s e a n d s u s t e n a n c e of p u r i s t i c e n d e a v o u r s . L i t e r a r y an d s p o k e n S i n h a l e s e ar e d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e in p h o n o l o g y , m o r p h o l o g y a nd in c e r t a i n a s p e c t s of s y n t a x as we l l . In w r i t i n g the l i t e r a r y l a n g u a g e , d i f f e r e n t s y m b o l s are e m p l o y e d fo r a s p i r a t e d a nd u n a s p i r a t e d stops w h e r e a s s u c h a d i s t i n c
t i o n d o es not ex i s t in sp e e c h . In the same way, the w r i t t e n S i n h a l e s e h a s two n a s a l symbols, one ' d e n t a l 1
a n d the o t h e r r e t r o f l e x , as o p p o s e d to one a p i c a l n a s a l in the s p o k e n l a n g u a g e . T h e r e a r e two l a t e r a l n o n - f r i c a t i v e s y m bo ls , one d e n t a l a n d the o t h e r r e t r o
flex, i n the w r i t t e n l a n g u a g e as o p p o s e d to one
a l v e o l a r s o u n d i n s pe ec h . A l t h o u g h a s y m b o l o c c u r s I n w r i t i n g to d e n o t e a p a l a t a l s t o p - p l u s - n a s a l com p l e x ,
in I n t e r n a t i o n a l J o u r n a l of D r a v i d i a n L i n g u i s t i c s , v o l T T ; no*", 1 [7 9 7 4 7, p p , 6 0 - 9 2 \ K. n"I 0. D h a r m a d a s a ' a
t hesis, ' S p o ke n a n d W r i t t e n S i n ha l e s e : A C o n t r a s t i v e Study' (M. Phil, th e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y of Y ork, 1 9 6 7) is a d e t a i l e d s t u d y of the d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n the two v a r i e t i e s I n v o l v e d i n S i n h a l e s e d i g l o s s i a , A l u c i d s u m m a r y of the d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n s p o k e n a n d w r i t t e n S i n h a l e s e has b e e n p r o v i d e d b y J, W. Gair, ' S i n h a l es e D i g l o s s i a ' , in A n t h r o p o l o g i c a l L i n g u i s t i c s , Vol. 10, no, 8 (1 9 6 8), pp. 1-1 5.
29
s u c h a s o u n d d o e s n o t o b t a i n in speech, a n d t h r e e s i b i l a n t s ym b o l s , 'dental', 'palatal' a nd ' r e t r oflex'
o b t a i n in w r i t t e n l a n g u a g e as a g a i n s t the
a l v e o l a r a n d p a l a t a l s i b i l a n t i n the s p o k e n l a n g u a g e . T h e r e is a l s o a v i s a r g a (h) s y m b o l in w r i t i n g bu t it is u s u a l l y p r o n o u n c e d as k or h. It is c l e a r that t h e s e s y m b o l s in the S i n h a l e s e a l p h a b e t a i m to r e p r e s ent S a n s k r i t d i s t i n c t i o n s in s p i t e of the c h a n g e s that h a v e t a k e n p l a c e i n the l a n g u a g e s i n c e it
b r a n c h e d of f f r o m S a n s k r i t . T h e m a i n t a i n i n g of the v o w e l s y m b o l s r , r , a i , a u , ]L:L a n d .ji is f u r t h e r p r o o f of
the S a n s k r i t n a t u r e of the a l p h a b e t . A l t h o u g h the s y m b o l s r, r ar e w r i t t e n , t h e y are r a r e l y p r o n o u n c e d d i f f e r e n t l y f r o m the w r i t t e n s y l l a b l e s ri, ri or ru, r u . 1 D i p t h o n g s ai a n d a u o c c u r i n the s p o k e n S i n h a l e s e ,
1. It is i n t e r e s t i n g to m e n t i o n the o b s e r v a t i o n m a d e b y A. M, G u n a s e k a r a i n hi s A C o m p r e h e n s i v e G r a m m a r of
the S i n h a l e s e L a n g u a g e (Colombo; G o v e r n m e n t P r i n t e r , 1 8 9 1) r e g a r d i n g the m i s p r o n u n c i a t i o n of t h e s e sym b o l s : 'In C e ylon, the f o u r l e t t e r s xl , ri a n d li are
r e s p e c t i v e l y p r o n o u n c e d as 1 p u , i p u , ij^u a n d i ^ u a n d a r e p r o n o u n c e d s i m i l a r l y b y e d u c a t e d p e r s o n s w h e n t h e y ar e i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h c o n s o n a n t s , e, g., kp l as iSXH? mr i as m r u , & c. But s t r a n g e l y e n ough, the u n e d u c a t e d p r o n o u n c e w o r d s h a v i n g s u c h l e t t e r s
c o r r e c t l y , e.g., , 'worm', as k p l m i not krunil;
^arScJ t 'sight', as d r i s t i not d r u s t i . T h i s w r o n g p r o n u n c i a t i o n m a y a c c o u n t f o r the m i s - s p e l l i n g of w o r d s l i k e m r i d u 'soft', m r i g a ©aco ' b e a s t 1 , as
. T h i s m i s t a k e in p r o n u n c i a t i o n has t a k e n su c h a d e e p ro o t that its e r a d i c a t i o n is a l m o s t i m p o s s i b l e '
(pp. 5-6),
30
as in k a u d a 'who' a nd kairatilca ’d e c e i t f u l ' , b ut all ai a n d a u d i p t h o n g s are n o t w r i t t e n w i t h the s p e c i a l s y m b o l s a n d @>3 ); o n l y t h o s e w h i c h a re S a n s k r i t i c l o an s are w r i t t e n so. I s h a l l give h e r e the s e g m e n t a l p h o n e m e s of S i n h a l e s e a n d the (written) S i n h a l e s e
a l p h a b e t r e s p e c t i v e l y .
(a) S e g m e n t a l p h o n e m e s of S i n h a l e s e
V o w e l s : a (aa), ae (eb as) , i (ii), u (uu), e ( e e ) , o (oo) , a.
C o n s o n a n t s
-Oci
£n) u.
Qj0 d
1 T h
— i 4 J3
jd0_
u J<D
>
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v o i c e l e s s stops P t t k
v o i c e d st o p s b d d 6
v o i c e l e s s aff. c
v o i c e d a ffri. J
n a s a l s m n ft
n
f l a p r
l a t e ra l 1
s p i r a n t s f s & h
s e m i v o w e l s V y
a n d h a l f n a s a l s mb a, nda, n ^ a and i k *
1. See M. V. S u g a t h a p a l a De S i l v a and W i l l i a m A. Coates, 'The S e g m e n t a l P h o n e m e s of S i n h a l e s e ' , U n i v e r s i t y of C e y l o n R e v i e w , vol. X V I I I , nos. 1 & 2 ( 1 9 0 6) "^ pp.
T5y^\7T.
(b) T h e S i n h a l e s e a l p h a b e t a nd its t r a d i t i o n a l d i v i s i o n V o w e l s : a, a, a, a, i, i, u, u, r i , r i , * l i f *;j.i,
e , e , a i , o , o , au.
C o n s on a n t s
"ri V-
* in
i
i
.it
O J4 U) o
3 i
— i
* —d
.jj
£io) rf
£) -3
T h i n or Tenues lc C t
* t p
A s p i r a t e d k h ch th0 th ph
S i b i l a n t s s s* s
A s p i r a t e h « »
■ysi
0 in
Soft or mediae S j d d b
V
A s p i r a t e d gh jh dh d h b h
N a s a l s Jl0 rVn n
» n m
L i q u i d s y i * r 1
A s p i r a t e ll
a nd in
1, A, M, Gunaseltara, op. c i t . # p. 22,
* N e v e r h a v e o c c u r r e d in S in ha l e s e . E v e n i n S a n s k r i t 11 d o e s not o c c u r at all a n d li al s o has a v e r y lo w f r e q u e n c y of* o c c u r r e n c e .
32
X n r e a d i n g l i t e r a r y texts, on© is t r a i n e d f r o m c h i l d h o o d to p r o n o u n c e the a s p i r a t e s , the v a r i o u s s i b i l a n t s a n d , t h o u g h r ar e l y , the v o w e l s an d T h e g e n e r a l b e l i e f of the e d u c a t e d p e r s o n is that the d e n t a l v e r s u s r e t r o f l e x d i s t i n c t i o n is m a i n t a i n e d in p r o n o u n c i n g
the two n a s a l s a n d the two l a t e r a ls . H o w e v e r , s uc h a d i s t i n c t i o n c an n o t b e d e t e c t e d i n n o r m a l p r o n u n c i a tion. F o r exa m p l e , the w o r d k a n a ’ear' is p r o n o u n c e d e x a c t l y as the w o r d lcana ' b l i n d 1, t h o u g h the l a t t e r is w r i t t e n w i t h a d i f f e r e n t g r a p h e m e . Xn f u n c t i o n 1 and
1 are the sa m e as n a nd n. T h e y are w r i t t e n b u t not p r o n o u n c e d d i f f e r e n t l y , so that k a l a ’time' a nd lea la
’pots' a nd m a l a ’f l o w e r ’ a n d m a l a ’dead' h a v e the same p r o n u n c i a t i o n . T h i s d i s t i n c t i o n is p u r e l y g r a p h i c . 1
T h e r e are s t r i k i n g m o r p h o l o g i c a l d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n the two v a r i e t i e s , a n d the m o s t m a r k e d m o r p h o
l o g i c a l d i f f e r e n c e s o b t a i n in the v e r b - the v e r b m o r p h o l o g y in the w r i t t e n S i n h a l e s e is m o r e c o m p l e x .
1, F o r a d e t a i l e d s t a t e m e n t of the s u b j e c t , see IC, N. 0. D h a r m a d a s a , op. cit,, pp. 75 - 1 0 ^ .
I n l i t e r a r y S i n h a l e s e v e r b s ar e i n f l e c t e d f o r p e r s o n , n u m b e r an d to a l e s s e r d e g r e e , gender, w h e r e a s in
c o l l o q u i a l S i n h a l e s e t h e s e c a t e g o r i e s ar e n o t r e q u i r e d E x a m p l e :
L i t e r a r y
k a m u icahi lcahu
lcat i k a n n e y a
'I e a t ' 'W e e a t '
1Y o u ( s g , ) eat 1 'Y o u (p i .) e a t ' 1 H e / She eats 1
■ T h e y eat 1 'He eat s 1 'She e a t s ' 1 T h e y e a t '
C o l l o q u i a l k a n a v a 1l / W e / Y o u (sg.; p i . ) / H e / S h e / T h e y e a t / s
C e r t a i n I n f l e c t i o n s , w h i c h o c c u r in b o t h v a r i e t i e s in i d e n t i c a l shape, h a v e d i f f e r e n t m e a n i n g s i n the two v a r i e t i e s .
E x a m p l e : - m u L i t e r a r y : C o l l o q u i a l : L i t e r a r y : C o l l o q u i a l :
kaparnu 'We cut' k a p a m u 'Let's cut' leap ay i 'He/She cuts' k a p a yi ' H e / S h e / T h e y
m i g h t c u t '
C o l l o q u i a l S i n h a l e s e has a l a r g e r set of s e c o n d p e r s o n
