THE IN T E L L E C T U A L D E V E L O P M E N T OF WU ZHIHUI:
A R E F L E C T IO N OF SOCIETY AND PO L IT IC S" IN LA TE QING AND R E P U B L IC A N C H IN A .
b y
P a u l G i l m o r e C lifford
T h e s i s p r e s e n t e d in fu lfilm e n t of th e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r th e D e g r e e of D o c to r
of P h ilo s o p h y (H isto ry ) in t h e U n i v e r s i t y of L o n d o n . v
School of O r i e n t a l and A f r i c a n S tu d ie s, U n i v e r s i t y of L ondon.
1978
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2
A b s t r a c t
T h is t h e s i s a n a l y s e s th e d e v e lo p m e n t of Wu Z h i h u i Js i d e a s and t h e i r s o c ia l and p o l i t i c a l a p p lic a tio n .until 1927. T h r o u g h t h i s b i o g r a p h ic a l a p p r o a c h th e in te n tio n i s to a l s o r e a c h out and a c h ie v e a n u n d e r s ta n d in g of h i s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s and so co m e to b r o a d e r c o n c lu s io n s about th e p e r io d of r a p id and fu n d a m e n ta l i n t e l l e c t u a l ch an g e in w hich he l i v e d . A f t e r e s t a b li s h i n g W uJs p h ilo s o p h ic a l b a s i s , h is D a r w i n i s m , K ro p o tk in ite a n a r c h i s t c o m m u n is m and h is m a t e r i a l i s t l i f e v i e w , t h e r e follow s an a n a l y s i s of h i s u to p ian g o a ls and h i s view of th e m e c h a n i c s of s o c i a l r e v o lu tio n . T h e n t h e s e t h e o r e t i c a l p o s itio n s a r e r e l a t e d to h i s p o l i t i c a l p r a c t i c e b e tw e e n 1890 and 1927 w ith s p e c i a l a tte n tio n b e in g paid to th e d e g r e e of f id e lity of t r a n s m i s s i o n of t h e s e id e a s to th e
C h in e s e c o n te x t. H is d e v e lo p m e n t f ro m c o n s e r v a t i v e r e f o r m e r to n a ti o n a l i s t r e v o l u ti o n a r y and t h e n to a n a r c h i s t s u p p o r t e r of th e R e v o lu tio n of 1911
i s t r a c e d w ith s p e c i a l r e f e r e n c e t o h i s New C e n tu r y m a g a z in e in P a r i s . H is a c t i v i t i e s in th e e a r l y y e a r s of th e R e p u b lic a r e e x a m in e d w ith a n a l y s i s of h is r o l e w ith in th e N a tio n a lis t P a r t y a f t e r 1924 and th e o r ig i n s of h is f i e r c e a n t i - c o m m u n i s m . F i n a l l y tw o s e c t i o n s a r e d ev o ted t o W uJs c o n tr ib u tio n to e d u c a tio n in C h in a .
T he m a in p r o b l e m a t i c - p r e s e n t e d i s th e r e l a t i o n s h i p in Wu Z h i h u i Ts th o u g ht b e tw e e n n a t i o n a l i s m , th e k ey i d e o lo g ic a l e l e m e n t in m o d e r n C h in a , and a n a r c h i s m . How could a p a t r i o t i c C h in e s e
g e n u in e ly e m b r a c e E u r o p e a n a n a r c h i s m w ithout in s o m e w ay d i s t o r t i n g o r a d ap tin g i t ? A d a p ta tio n of a n a r c h i s m to th e n e e d s of n atio n b u ild in g
p ro v e d i m p o s s i b l e and fu n d a m e n ta l r e v i s i o n s w hich o c c u r r e d in i t s in tr o d u c tio n by Wu t o C hina ne g ated its e s s e n t i a l i n t e l l e c t u a l a t t r a c t i o n ; o p p o sitio n to a l l g o v e r n m e n t . Beyond b e in g a c a s e s tu d y of th e im p a c t of fo re ig n id e a s on C h in a , t h i s t h e s i s o ffe rs a g e n e r a l c r i ti q u e of th e t h e o r e t i c a l w e a k n e s s e s of a n a r c h i s m .
4
C o n ten ts P a g e
A b s t r a c t 2
A c k n o w le d g e m e n ts 6
E x planatory note on r o m a n i s a t i o n 7
INTRODUCTION 8
CHAPTER. 1. P H ILO S O P H IC A L BASIS 15
a . E a r l y Id e a s 15
b . S c ie n c e and M a t e r i a l i s m 21
c# M u tu a l A id 33
d . R e lig io n 44
e . N a tio n a l E s s e n c e , C u l t u r a l C o n s e r v a t i s m and
a New L ife View 55
C H A P T E R 2 . SOCIAL R E V O LU TIO N 113
a . The U topian G oal 113
b . The M e c h a n ic s of S o c ia l P r o g r e s s 122
c . I n d u s t r i a l i s m : T h e F u n c tio n of S c ie n ce and
T e c h n o lo g y 128
d . S y n d ic a lis m 132
CH A PTE R 3 . P O L IT IC A L IDEAS (1). 1890-1903 159
a* C o n s e r v a t iv e R e f o r m i s m 159
b . J a p a n . 1901-1902 171
c . T he S u b a o , S h an g h ai, 180
CH A PTE R 4 . P O L IT IC A L IDEAS (2). 1903-1911 '■ 198
a* L i b e r t a r i a n O p p o sitio n t o A u th o r ity 198
b . A n ti-Q in g P o s i t i o n 210
c . R e v o l u t i o n a r y M e th o d s; P r o p a g a n d a ,
A s s a s s i n a t i o n and U p r i s i n g s 223
d . S u p p ort f o r Sun Y a t - s e n 236
e . O p p o sitio n to th e C o n s titu tio n a lis ts 246
P a g e
C H A PTE R 5. P O L IT IC A L IDEAS (3). 1911-1927 270
a* T he R e v o lu tio n of 1911 271
b* T h e M o v e m e n t f o r S o c ia l R e f o r m 272
c# The C h in e s e S o c ia lis t P a r t y 286
d . The M ay F o u r t h M o v e m e n t 293
e» N a tio n a lis m and th e G uom indang 294
f. A n t i - c o m m u n i s m 298
CH A PTE R 6. PH ILOSO PH Y OF EDUCATION 319
a . E d u c a tio n and R e v o lu tio n . 319
b . R e a s o n s f o r Study and th e C ontent of E d u c a t io n 327 c . E d u c a t io n , N a tio n a lis m and the G u o m in d an g 334
CH A P T E R 7. ED UCATION A L P R A C T IC E 341
a . T he J a p a n e s e M o d el 341
b . M i l i t a r y E d u c a tio n 342
c . D e m o c r a t i c E d u c a tio n 345
d . T he W o rk -S tu d y M o v e m e n t 348
CONCLUSION 375
A p p e n d ic e s
1 . F r o n t i s p i e c e b y Wu Z h ihu i f o r th e j o u r n a l
X in z h o n g h u a 393
2 . C a r t o o n s f r o m th e New C e n tu r y a tta c k in g B r i t i s h
s ty l e d e m o c r a c y 3 94
3. T a b le f r o m th e New C e n tu r y c o m p a r i n g a n a r c h i s t
s o c i a l i s m w ith n a tio n a lis m and d e m o c r a c y 395 4 . C a r to o n s f r o m th e New C e n tu r y s a t i r i z i n g th e
E m p e r o r and E m p r e s s D ow ager 3 96
5. T a b le of th e m e m b e r s h i p of th e J in d e h u i. 3 97
6. A B r i e f ch ro n o lo g y of Wu Z h ih u i 3 98
BIBLIOGRAPHY 399
6
A c k n o w le d g e m e n ts
I w is h t o s in g le out D r . C h a r l e s A . C u rw e n f o r s p e c i a l th a n k s f o r h i s u n s tin tin g and m e t i c u l o u s s u p e r v i s i o n th ro u g h o u t th e
r e s e a r c h i n g and w r i ti n g of t h i s t h e s i s . I am a l s o g r e a t l y in d e b te d to P r o f e s s o r W .G . B e a s l e y f o r h i s s u p p o rt and a d v ic e o v e r m any y e a r s . D r . M a r t i n B e r n a l should a l s o be th a n k e d f o r in v a lu a b le
g u id an ce in th e fie ld of e a r l y C h in e s e s o c i a l i s m .
I a l s o ex ten d m y g r a t it u d e to a l l th e s ta f f of th e S . O . A . S . L i b r a r y , in p a r t i c u l a r J o h n L u s t , to th e H a r v a r d Y e n ch in g L i b r a r y , t o P r o f e s s o r C h en Q inghua of P e k in g U n i v e r s i t y , and m e m b e r s of th e S . O . A . S . F a r E a s t D e p a r t m e n t who gave m e th e g ro u n d in g in C h in e s e w h ich m a d e t h i s r e s e a r c h p o s s i b l e .
My th a n k s to M r s . V . W illia m s f o r th e ty p in g w h ic h i s a s b e a u tif u l a s on a p r e v i o u s o c c a s i o n .
F i n a l l y , no w o r d s ca n p r o p e r l y s u m up m y g r a t i t u d e f o r th e e n c o u r a g e m e n t and h e lp f r o m m a n y fine f r i e n d s . B ut I w is h to m a k e s p e c i a l m e n tio n of th e w a r m s u p p o r t and a ffe c tio n p r o v id e d by m y M o th e r , F a t h e r , b r o t h e r and s i s t e r .
T h i s t h e s i s i s d e d ic a te d to M ir i a m M a llo n .
E x p l a n a to r y N ote on R o m a n i s a t i o n
The f o r m of r o m a n i s a t i o n u s e d f o r C h in e s e w o r d s i s hanyu p i n y i n , w ith th e follow ing e x c e p tio n s :
1. In E n g l i s h la n g u a g e q u o ta tio n s I h av e r e t a i n e d th e r o m a n i s a t i o n u s e d by th e a u t h o r .
2. I hav e u s e d c o m m o n W e s t e r n r e n d e r i n g s of c e r t a i n C h in e s e n a m e s . F o r i n s t a n c e , f o r p e r s o n s , Sun Y a t - s e n , Chiang K * a i- s h e k , C a r s u n C h an g , and p l a c e s , T i e n t s i n , P e k in g and C a n to n .
INTRODUCTION
The h i s t o r y of m o d e r n C h in a h a s b e e n fu n d a m e n ta lly a p r o c e s s of s o c i a l f r a g m e n t a t i o n followed b y p ro lo n g e d r e c o n s t r u c t i o n and natio n b u ild in g . T he d r i v e E a s t w a r d of the c a p i t a l i s t p o w e r s le d to a c o n f ro n ta tio n b e tw e e n China and n atio n s w ith h i s t o r i c a l l y u n p a r a l l e l e d te c h n o lo g y . G iven the im b a la n c e of m i l i t a r y m ig h t, C h in a had e i t h e r to y ie ld o r be b r o k e n . The C h in e s e view of th e w o r l d , th e c u l t u r a l s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y , if not a r r o g a n c e , of h e r r u lin g c l a s s m a d e r e l a t i o n s w ith o th e r e q u iv a le n t c u l t u r e s e x t r e m e l y d iffic u lt. B ut it should be
r e m e m b e r e d th a t th e G r e a t P o w e r s w e r e not o ffe rin g to C h in a r e l a tio n s on th e b a s i s of e q u a lity , f o r I m p e r i a l i s m a r o s e f r o m e c o n o m ic f o r c e s w hich d e m a n d e d th a t C hina b e opened up, m a d e a s u b je c t m a r k e t and a s e m i - c o l o n y . U ltim a te ly t h is could c o m e ab o u t only th r o u g h r e s o r t by th e G r e a t P o w e r s to w a r ; in v a s io n , o ccu p atio n and the im p o s itio n of th e U nequal T r e a t i e s . T h is led to th e s h a t t e r i n g of C h in e s e s o c i e t y , a b re a k d o w n in s o c ia l c o h e s io n u n til th e C h in e s e p eo p le b e c a m e a ’’h e a p of lo o s e s a n d " . But a s M a r x p o in ted out, the a s s a u l t of I m p e r i a l i s m on C hina h a d i t s l i b e r a t i n g a s w e ll a s its d e s t r u c t i v e a s p e c t s . T he F i r s t Opium W a r ended th e i s o l a t i o n w hich w as th e " p r i m e co n ditio n for the" p r e s e r v a t i o n of the Old C h in a " . By b r e a k i n g down th e g r e a t d o o r of C hina and b r in g i n g , a s he put i t , the C h in e s e m u m m y in to th e open a i r , B r i t a i n had b eg un th e r e v o l u ti o n a r y
(1)
p r o c e s s in C h in a .
The b a s i c p r o b le m in C hina th is c e n tu r y h a s b e e n how to
r e i n t e g r a t e the C h in e s e p o lity (2), how to r e c o n s t r u c t a new s o c ie ty out of th e r u b b le . The m o b iliz in g f o r c e f o r th is r e b u ild in g h a s b e en n a t i o n a l i s m , b o r n of a c e n t u r y of n a tio n a l h u m ilia tio n and p a t r i o t i c r e s i s t a n c e . T h is n a ti o n a l i s t im p u ls e led to a q u e s tio n in g of the old s o c ie ty and c u l t u r e w hich had p ro v e d in a d e q u a te in th e s tr u g g l e f o r n a tio n a l s u r v i v a l . R e s i s t a n c e to th e f o re ig n t h r e a t le d n a t u r a l ly to s o c ia l r e v o lu tio n w ithin C h in a.
B u t n a tio n a lis m h a s ta k e n m a n y f o r m s in m o d e r n C h in a.
The old c u l t u r a l s t r u c t u r e h av in g b e e n d e m o l i s h e d , the ch o ic e w as open to C h in e s e i n t e l l e c t u a l s to r e b u ild u s in g th e old b r i c k s o r to i m p o r t new o n e s . N a tio n a lis m e x p r e s s e d i t s e l f both in the c u l t u r a l c o n s e r v a t i s m of th o s e who sought to u se p a r t s of the old c u l t u r e to r e i n f o r c e the new n a t i o n - s t a t e , and in th e v io len t ic o n o c la s m w hich so u g h t a c le a n b r e a k w ith the p a s t . But w h e th e r the i c o n o c l a s t s found t h e i r i n s p i r a t i o n in W e s t e r n l i b e r a l i s m , M a r x i s m o r in th e c a s e of Wu Z h ih u i, a n a r c h i s m , th e y w e r e s t i l l b a s i c a l l y s e e k in g f o r e i g n s o lu tio n s to C h in e s e p r o b l e m s . C h in a , a lb e it a New C h in a , r e m a i n e d the
c e n t r a l ob ject of t h e i r lo y a lty . T hus a key p ro b lem atic of th is stu d y is i 1) The r e l a t i o n s h i p in Wu Z h i h u i rs thought and p o li t i c a l
p r a c t i c e b e tw e e n n a tio n a lis m and a n a r c h i s m .
The a n a l y s i s of Wu*s e a r l y id e a s is ta k e n up to 1927 in o r d e r to e x a m in e fully not only h i s n a tio n a lis m but a l s o the g e n e s i s of i t s m o s t e x t r e m e f o r m , h is a n t i - c o m m u n i s m , and th e n to r e l a t e t h e s e two c u r r e n t s to h is u to p ian s o c i a l i s m .
F r o m th is o t h e r q u e s tio n s fo llo w :-
10 2) The r o le of a n a r c h i s m in th e C h in e s e p o l i t i c a l and
i n t e l l e c t u a l w o rld b e f o re and a f t e r th e R e v o lu tio n of 1911.
The C h in e s e a n a r c h i s t m o v e m e n t h a s r e m a i n e d u n e x p lo re d by C h in e s e h i s t o r i a n s l a r g e l y b e c a u s e i t s f a c t s s e r v e n e i t h e r th e C o m m u n is ts n o r the N a t i o n a l i s t s . In f a c t , a n a r c h i s m w a s the m a j o r l e f t i s t ten d e n c y in C h in a up to the M ay F o u r t h M o v em e n t.
a) W hat p a r t did th e New C e n tu r y g ro u p of a n a r c h i s t s p lay in Sun Y a t - s e n Js T o n g m e n g h u i, both in th e r e a l m of r e v o l u t i o n a r y t h e o r y and of p o litic a l s u p p o rt and o r g a n i s a t i o n ? A f t e r th e r e v o lu tio n , w hat w a s the r o le of Wu and h is c o l l
e a g u e s i n R e p u b lic p o l i t i c s ?
b) In t h is p e r i o d , how s ig n if ic a n t w a s th e c o n tr ib u tio n of a n a r c h i s m in th e s t r u g g l e w ith th e old c u l t u r e , in p r o m o tin g s c ie n ti f i c t h e o r y and m e th o d , and b r in g i n g ab o u t "thought l i b e r a t i o n " in C h in a ?
3) The i m p a c t of fo re ig n i d e a s .
A stu d y of C h in e s e a n a r c h i s m is in v a lu a b le in d e v e lo p in g an a n a l y s i s of th e i n tr o d u c tio n of f o r e ig n id e a s in to C h in a . W hat r o l e did W u 's p e r i o d s of s tu d y and e x ile in J a p a n , B r i t a i n and F r a n c e p la y in h is i n t e l l e c t u a l f o r m a t i o n ? To w hat d e g r e e did th e new id e a s p e n e t r a t e the m in d of th e C h in e s e
r e c i p i e n t and h av in g b e e n a c c e p te d , how m u c h w e r e th ey c o n s c io u s ly o r u n c o n s c io u s ly d i s t o r t e d , a d u l t e r a t e d and a d a p te d ? We should be c a u tio u s of ta k in g p r o f e s s i o n s of i n t e l l e c t u a l faith a t fac e v a lu e . Only b y a c a r e f u l com p a r i -
p a r i s o n of the s o u r c e of th e id e a s w ith th o s e expounded b y the r e c i p i e n t c a n we a r r i v e at a t r u e a p p r a i s a l of th e f id e lity of i n t e l l e c t u a l t r a n s m i s s i o n .
4) A g e n e r a l a s s e s s m e n t of a n a r c h i s m .
The l a s t c e n t u r y saw a p h e n o m e n a l g ro w th of a n a r c h i s m w ith in , and a s a r e a c t i o n to , the newly c o n s o lid a te d n a tio n s t a t e s of E u r o p e . But it fa ile d to o f f e r , in any of i t s f o r m s , a c o h e r e n t guide to a c tio n o r a s u c c e s s f u l r o a d to a new s o c ie ty and a f t e r th e F i r s t W o rld W a r it b e c a m e a sp e n t f o r c e . Though the f a i l u r e of a n a r c h i s m in C h in a w as to s o m e e x te n t r e l a t e d to p a r t i c u l a r c o n d itio n s t h e r e , th is s tu d y w ill o f fe r a g e n e r a l c r i ti q u e of th e t h e o r e t i c a l w e a k n e s s e s of a n a r c h i s m and s o m e e x p la n a tio n of the m o tiv a tio n of a n a r c h i s t i n t e l l e c t u a l s .
F i n a l l y some- o b s e r v a t i o n s about m e th o d o lo g y . How m u c h , one m a y a s k , c a n one l e a r n about h i s t o r y fro m the stu d y of th e thought of one m a n ? M any h i s t o r i a n s h av e p r o d u c e d , a s h a s G a s s t e r in h is w o r k on C h in e s e i n t e l l e c t u a l s and th e R e v o lu tio n of 1911, (3) a m a c r o view of s o c i e t a l and i n t e l l e c t u a l c h a n g e . B u t e v en w ith in s u c h a p r o j e c t , the co m p o n e n t p a r t s m u s t- in e v ita b ly be p a r t i a l s tu d i e s of
i n d i v i d u a l s , a n a l y s i s of p e r s o n a l s t a t e m e n t s of v i e w , w h ich go to m a k e up th e s o c ie ty o r s e g m e n t of s o c ie ty b e in g s tu d ie d . The a l t e r n a t i v e , w h ich I h av e c h o s e n , is th ro u g h a m i c r o o r m o r e s p e c if ic a p p r o a c h to expand to w a r d s th e m a c r o v i e w , th a t i s to s e e k f r o m th e stu d y of th e p a r t i c u l a r to p ro d u c e an a n a l y s is fro m w hich it i s p o s s i b l e
12 to t h e o r iz e on th e in o re g e n e r a l l e v e l .
But in so d o in g , th e focus of the study m u s t be p la c e d f i r m l y in it s h i s t o r i c a l and social c o n te x t. A s M annheim h a s w r i tt e n :
" The so c io lo g y of know ledge s e e k s to c o m p r e h e n d thought in the c o n c r e t e s e ttin g of a h i s t o r i c a l - s o c i a l s itu a tio n out of w hich in d iv id u a lly d if f e r e n tia te d thought only v e r y g r a d u a lly e m e r g e s . T h u s , it is not m e n in g e n e r a l who th in k , o r ev en is o l a t e d in d iv id u a ls who do the th in k in g , but m e n in c e r t a i n g ro u p s who have d ev e lo p e d a p a r t i c u l a r s ty le of th o u g ht in a n e n d l e s s s e r i e s of r e s p o n s e s to c e r t a i n t y p ic a l s itu a tio n s c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e i r c o m m o n p o s itio n "(4 )
B ut if Wu Z h ih u i7s id e a s a r e a r e f l e c t i o n of s o c ie ty a r o u n d h i m , it m u s t not th e n be a r g u e d th a t he i s som ehow ty p i c a l , n e a tly c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o r ev en s c i e n t i f i c a l l y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e . No m a n is t h a t . We m u s t * not s e e W u, a s L e v e n s o n u r g e s us not to s e e L ia n g Q ic h a o , a s ua
m i c r o c o s m , w ith a ll C h in a lo c k e d up in h is a r c h e t y p a l m i n d . 1'u(5)
(0\
S c h w a rtz w r i t e s th a t "Y en F u is not th e voice of C h in a i n c a r n a t e " , and th a t h o ld s t r u e f o r Wu a s w e l l . W ith t h e s e w o r d s of c a u tio n , it is p o s s i b l e , th ro u g h a stu d y of W u!s i d e a s in t h e i r s o c i a l c o n te x t,to r e a c h
out to u n d e r s t a n d not only o t h e r s who s h a r e d h is i n t e l l e c t u a l p o s itio n but a l s o t h o s e who sto o d opposed to h im . A s L e v e n s o n s a y s , " h i s t o r y
i (7) c a n be d ed u ced f r o m b io g ra p h y , s o c ie ty d e r iv e d f r o m th e in d iv id u a l. "
H aving c h o s e n to fo cu s on the thought of one p e r s o n , how th en d o e s one o r d e r th e m a t e r i a l ? Though the m eth o d of d iv id in g up th e life of the in d iv id u a l b e in g s tu d ie d n eatly in to c h a p t e r s on a c h r o n o l o g ic a l b a s i s h a s the v i r t u e of s i m p l i c i t y and n a r r a t i v e s t r a i g h t
f o r w a r d n e s s , it a l s o h a s the d is a d v a n ta g e of m a k in g it d iffic u lt to h an d le the key q u e s tio n s in a c o h e r e n t and s u c c i n c t m a n n e r , f o r d a ta
on th em r e m a i n s d i s p e r s e d th ro u g h o u t the s tu d y . I h av e c h o s e n
in s t e a d to d ev e lo p m y a r g u m e n t in a th e m a t i c r a t h e r th a n a c h r o n o lo g ic a l w a y , by f i r s t e s ta b li s h i n g the p h ilo s o p h ic a l fo u n d atio n s of W u 's thought and th e n m ov in g on to h i s t h e o r y of s o c ia l r e v o lu tio n . T hen f o llo w s , in t h r e e s e c t i o n s , a n a n a l y s i s of W u ’s p o l i t i c a l i d e a s and p r a c t i c e w hich s e e k s to e lu c id a te to w hat d e g r e e th e y flow f ro m the body of p h ilo so p h y . F i n a l l y , a s an e x a m p le of W u 's a c t i v i t i e s c o m p l e m e n t a r y to b u t in m a n y w ay s q u ite d i s t i n c t f r o m h i s p o l i t i c a l w o r k , t h e r e is an e x a m in a tio n of h i s c o n tr ib u tio n to e d u c a tio n a l t h e o r y and p r a c t i c e . The y e a r 1927 h a s b e e n c h o s e n a s th e b r e a k - o f f d a te and W u 's l a t e r life is not d e a l t w ith . T he key q u e s tio n p o s e d in th is s tu d y , th a t i s W u 's i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of a n a r c h i s m and how th is r e l a t e d to h is
n a t i o n a l i s m , c a n b e a n s w e r e d th ro u g h r e f e r e n c e to h i s e a r l y i d e a s , b e f o r e th e r e v o lu tio n of 1911 and in th e f i r s t y e a r s of the R e p u b lic . H is a n a r c h i s m , n a tio n a lis m and a n t i - c o m m u n i s m , the m a in e l e m e n t s
of h i s th o u g h t, h ad by 1927 b e e n c l e a r l y a r t i c u l a t e d . The b u lk of h is w r itin g s a f t e r 1927 r e l a t e to h is p o litic a l r o le in th e G u om in d ang of C hiang K ?ai-S h ek , a s u b je c t p e r i f e r a l to the m a in fo cu s of th is s tu d y . T h e r e f o r e , any f u r t h e r e x a m in a tio n of W u 's id e a s beyond t h i s d a te h a s b e e n d e c id e d a g a i n s t in f a v o r of a m o r e th o ro u g h a n a l y s i s of h is e a r l y tho u g h t.
14
F o o tn o te s
1. K. M a r x , "R ev o lu tio n in C h in a and in E u r o p e , 11 M a r x on C h in a , p . 4.
2. R i c h a r d , H . S olom on, ’'M ao ’s E f f o r t to R e i n t e g r a t e th e C h in e s e P o lity ; P r o b l e m s of A u th o r ity and C o n flict in C h in e s e S o c ia l P r o c e s s e s , " in A . D oak B a r n e t t , ( e d .) C h in e s e C o m m u n is t P o l i t i c s in A c t i o n , p. 271.
3. M ic h a e l G a s s t e r , C h in e s e I n te lle c tu a ls and th e R e v o lu tio n of 1 9 1 1 .
4. K a r l M a n n h e i m , Id eology and U t o p i a , pp. 2 - 3 .
5. J o s e p h L e v e n s o n , L ian g C f d i - c h ’ao and th e M ind of M o d e rn C h i n a , p. 1.
6. B . S c h w a r tz , In S e a r c h of W ealth and P o w e r . Yen F u and th e W e s t , p. 3.
7. L e v e n s o n , Op. C i t . , p. 1.
PH ILO SO PH IC A L BASIS
a) E a r l y Id e a s
Wu once r e c a l l e d that b e f o r e 1894, he w a s no d i f f e r e n t f ro m any o t h e r c o n s e r v a t i v e s c h o l a r of the t i m e (1) and an e x a m in a tio n of h is w r i ti n g s f ro m the 1 8 8 0 fs and e a r l y 1 8 9 0 fs te n d s to c o n f irm th a t a s s e s s m e n t . H is f o r m a l e d u c a tio n b e g a n at th e age of s e v e n w ith a p r iv a te t u t o r . Wu i s s a id to h av e en joyed w r itin g the s e a l s c r i p t fro m an e a r l y a g e , to h a v e b e e n good a t d i s c u s s i o n of th e h i s t o r i e s and to h av e m a s t e r e d th e " E x e g is of th e C l a s s i c s of th e I m p e r i a l Q ing
(2)
P e r i o d " . T h is w o r k of 1400 j u a n , co m p ile d by R u a n Y uan and p ub -
( 3 )
li s h e d in C an to n in 1829, c o v e r e d the bulk of Q ing s c h o l a r s h i p s in c e Gu Y anw u. The N anqing A c a d e m y , a tte n d e d by W u, in 1888 p u b lish e d a s u p p le m e n t to it c o m p ile d b y W ang X ia n q ia n . (4)
L ia n g Q ic h a o h a s c h a r a c t e r i s e d the th o u g h t of th e Qing p e r io d a s a s t r o n g r e a c t i o n a g a in s t the N e o - C o n f u c ia n is m of the Sung and M ing. (5) Gu Yanwu a tta c k e d th e in t r o s p e c t i v e m e t a p h y s i c s of N eo-
C o n f u c i a n i s m , in p a r t i c u l a r the s c h o o l of thought led by L u X i a n g s h a n
(6)
and W ang Y a n g m in g , h o ldin g i t s p hilo so p h y p a r t l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r th e l o s s of C h in a to th e M a n c h u s . N e o -C o n fu c ia n is m a s a r e v i v a l of C o n fu c ia n ism to c o u n t e r B u d d h ism and D a o is m h ad i t s e l f b e e n h e a v ily in flu e n c e d by t h e s e p h i l o s o p h i e s , w hile at th e s a m e t i m e th a t a s p e c t of C o n fu c ia n ism c o n c e r n e d w ith the p r a c t i c a l m a n a g e m e n t of s ta t e
16
a f f a i r s had b e e n r e l a t i v e l y n e g le c te d , Gu, fo u n d e r of th e e a r l y Q ing School of E m p i r i c a l R e s e a r c h , in c o n t r a s t a d v o c a te d s y s t e m a t i c te x tu a l and p h ilo lo g ic a l i n v e s tig a tio n of the c l a s s i c s to w a r d s th e goal
( 7 )
of p ublic a d m i n i s t r a t i o n (j i n g s h i ), Gu and o t h e r s c h o l a r s w ent b a c k to the H an d y n a s ty c o m m e n t a r i e s of th e e a r l y c l a s s i c s , a r g u i n g th a t th e s e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , w r i t t e n n e a r e r to the age of C o n fu ciu s and b e f o r e th e d i s t o r t i n g in flu e n c e of B u d d h is m , w e r e m o r e fa ith fu l to the t r u e s p i r i t of C o n fu c ia n ism th a n w a s N e o - C o n f u c ia n is m , A s opposed to the Sung L e a r n i n g of th e N e o - C o n f u c i a n s , th e y d e s c r i b e d t h e i r stu d y
(8)
of th e e a r l i e r t e x t s a s Han L e a r n i n g , A lthough Gu Yanwu h i m s e l f w a s s e l e c t i v e in h i s c r i t i c i s m of N e o - C o n f u c ia n is m and in fa c t n e v e r a tta c k e d th e s.chool of th e b r o t h e r s Cheng H ao and C h en g Yi o r th a t of Z h u X i , l a t e r s u p p o r t e r s of the H an L e a r n i n g s u c h a s Hui Dong and R u a n Y uan a f t e r h i m , d e m a n d e d e x c lu s iv e a d h e r e n c e to the w o r k s of th e H an s c h o l a r s and d i s m i s s e d a l l Sung L e a r n i n g a s w o r t h l e s s . (9)
By the 18th c e n t u r y , d e s p it e i t s o r ig in a l g oal of s a lv a g in g C o n fu c ia n ism f ro m the n eg ativ e s t a t e it had r e a c h e d d u r in g th e Sung and M ing, the School of E m p i r i c a l R e s e a r c h i t s e l f w a s in a b lin d a l l e y of p e d a n tic and m in u te t e x tu a l c r i t i c i s m . ^ ^ A s L iang Q ic h a o h a s w r i t t e n ^ * ^ the tid e of H an L e a r n i n g w a s eb b in g and fro m the 18th c e n t u r y o n w a rd s
(1 2)
t h e r e w a s a s t r o n g r e v i v a l of N e o - C o n f u c ia n is m .
A l s o to w a r d s the end of the Q ing , l a r g e l y a s a r e s u l t of the g r e a t i n t e r e s t in H an te x t s show n b y the School of E m p i r i c a l R e s e a r c h , th e d is p u te o v e r th e a u th e n tic ity of the A n c ie n t T e x ts of th e c l a s s i c s w hich had ended w ith th e m d i s p l a c i n g the M o d e rn T e x ts a s the o r th o - doxy in the L a t e r H a n , w a s now r e o p e n e d . (13) Som e of th e f i e r c e s t
s k i r m i s h e s w e r e fought o v e r th e New T e x t Gongyang C o m m e n t a r y of th e S p rin g and A u tu m n A n n a ls and th e A n c ie n t T e x t Z u o C o m m e n t a r y of th e s a m e w o r k , w hich the M o d e rn T e x t s c h o o l i n s i s t e d w a s a f o r g e r y . A lth o u g h th e fo u n d e rs of the M o d e rn Text s c h o o l in the Q in g , Zhuang Cunyu and Liu F e n g lu confined t h e m s e l v e s to a c a d e m i c i s s u e s , l a t e r ex p o n en ts s u c h a s W ei Y uan and Gong Z iz h e n h a r n e s s e d th e
M o d e rn T e x t view of C o nfu ciu s a s a g r e a t p r o p h e t and a c t u a l a u t h o r of th e Six C l a s s i c s , r a t h e r th a n j u s t t h e i r t r a n s m i t t e r , to t h e i r a d v o - c a c y of r e f o r m . (14) It w a s on t h i s b a s i s of M o d e rn T e x t s c h o l a r s h i p th a t K ang Y ouwei s o u g h t to ju s tif y h is r a d i c a l r e f o r m p r o g r a m m e in th e 18 90*s.
So, d u r in g th e 18th c e n t u r y , although th e H an L e a r n i n g found a c e r t a i n new life in th e fo rm of th e M o d e rn T e x t s c h o o l, the s c h o o l of E m p i r i c a l R e s e a r c h b e c a m e t h r e a t e n e d by r e n e w e d i n t e r e s t in N eo - C o n f u c ia n is m . The p h ilo so p h y of th e Cheng b r o t h e r s and Zhu Xi had th ro u g h o u t the Q ing r e m a i n e d th e o ffic ia l d o c t r in e of the c o u r t , bu t now t h e s e id e a s b e g a n to e n jo y w i d e r s u p p o r t . In the Q ia n lo n g P e r i o d , d i s c i p l e s b e g a n to flo c k to T ongc hen g in S o u th ern A nhui w h e r e F a n g
(1 5) B a o , L iu D akui and o t h e r s had founded a s c h o o l of l e a r n i n g . In i t s e a r l y p e r i o d , th e T ong c hen g s c h o o l w as a p u r e l y l i t e r a r y g ro u p in g . In th e view of L ia n g Q ic h a o , i t S 'w r i t i n g s w e r e " i m i t a t i v e , o v e r ly p u n c tilio u s and dev oid of s u b s t a n c e " , i t s te a c h in g s " e n c o u r a g e d a b s t r a c t
n e s s and s tif le d c r e a t i v i t y " . T he s c h o o l had l i t t l e to c o m m e n d i t , but a s L ia n g h i m s e l f h a s p o in ted out, the fo u n d e rs "at the h e ig h t of the H an L e a r n i n g to o k a v ig ila n t sta n d a g a in s t i t " . T he T ongc h eng s c h o o l and i t s l a t e r offshoot, the Yanghu s c h o o l in J ia n g s u , a tta c k e d
18 th e a ttitu d e shown to w a r d s the Sung L e a r n i n g by s u c h s c h o l a r s a s Hui
n „ ( 1 7 ) D ong.
A ltho u g h f ro m its founding th e T ong c hen g s c h o o l r e f e r r e d to l i t t l e m o r e th a n a g ro u p of s c h o l a r s d ev o ted to a l i t e r a r y s ty le w hich
(1 8)
w as the fa s h io n of th e t i m e , f ro m the o u ts e t the s c h o o l h ad s t r e s s e d m o r a l t e a c h in g r a t h e r th a n r e s e a r c h and u n d e r th e in flu e n c e of Z e n g Guofan it i n c r e a s i n g l y c o n c e r n e d i t s e l f w ith pu b lic a f f a i r s . Many le a d in g o ffic ia ls of th e l a t e Q in g , su c h a s Z e n g , L uo Z e n a n , Hu L in yi
and Z u o Z o n g tan g s tu d ie d u n d e r T o ngcheng t e a c h e r s . The in flu en ce of the s c h o o l ex p an ded g r e a t l y u n d e r the p a tr o n a g e of Z e n g , s o m u ch so th a t i t s l e a r n i n g h a s b e e n d e s c r i b e d a s th e d o c t r i n e of the T ongzhi
(1 9)
R e s t o r a t i o n . T h is p e r io d saw a " r e s t o r a t i o n " of th e C on fu cian s t a t e p r i m a r i l y th ro u g h m i l i t a r y a c tio n a g a in s t th e M o s l e m , T a ip in g and N ian r e b e l l i o n s . A lo n g s id e t h is p a c if ic a tio n at th e point of the s w o r d , Z e n g and o t h e r s p r o m o te d a r e v i v a l of C o n fu cian ide o lo g y to h e lp b r in g o r d e r to the c o u n t r y . The T a ip in g s in p a r t i c u l a r posed a s e r i o u s t h r e a t to the s ta t u s q u o , f o r t h e i r e g a l i t a r i a n i s m e n d a n g e r e d th e w hole id e o lo g ic a l u n d e rp in n in g of the s t a t e . T h e l i t e r a t i r a l l i e d to a d e fe n c e of the W ay of C o n fu ciu s and M e n c i u s . It w as a t th is s ta g e th a t Z e n g d ev elo p ed h i s e c l e c t i c p h ilo s o p h y . In o r d e r to p r e s e r v e w hat he c a lle d th e T e a c h in g of C o r r e c t S ta tu s (m i n g jia o ) , he s y n th e s i s e d th e v a r i o u s s t r a i n s of C onfucian th o u g h t, d e c l a r i n g "i r e v e r e the Song C o n f u c ia n s , b u t I do not w is h the Han s c h o o l to be
( 2 i )
e l i m i n a t e d . " H o w e v e r , although he w as g r e a t l y in flu e n c e d by Gu Yanwu, Z en g b a s e d h is p h ilo so p h y of g o v e r n m e n t on T o n gc hen g
(2 2)
t h e o r i e s . Song L e a r n i n g w ith i t s e x t r e m e a u t h o r i t a n i a n i s m ,
w hich s t r e s s e d th e r e l a t i o n s h i p b etw e e n s u p e r i o r s and i n f e r i o r s , could h e lp in th e p r o c e s s of m o r a l e d u c a tio n (j i a o h u a ) of th e people(23)
and w a s s e e n by th e l e a d e r s of the R e s t o r a t i o n a s an i n t e g r a l p a r t of the p a c if ic a tio n of the e m p i r e .
Wu Z h ih u i w as b o r n in the fo u rth y e a r of th e T on g zh i
e m p e r o r ’s r e i g n , b a r e l y one y e a r a f t e r N anking fe ll and the T a ip in g s w e r e d e f e a te d . (24) S o u th e rn J i a n g s u , w h e re he w a s b r o u g h t up, had in th e l a s t y e a r s of th e r e b e l l io n b e e n fought o v e r b y the f o r c e s of
t h e T a ip in g l e a d e r L i X iu c h en g but in 1863 Suzhou f e ll to L i H o n g z h en g ’s H uai A r m y and L i X iu c h e n g w as f o r c e d to flee to N anking. (25)
G ro w in g up in the y e a r s im m e d i a t e l y a f t e r t h e s e e v e n t s , it is n a t u r a l th a t Wu b e c a m e d e e p ly in flu en c ed by th e a s c e n d a n t p h ilo so p h y of Z e n g Guofan and th e R e s t o r a t i o n . M o r e o v e r , the South E a s t of
C h in a w a s the h o m e of the T o n g c h e n g School (S o u th ern Anhui) and Yanghu C ou n ty , in w hich Wu w as b o r n , w as th e c e n t r e of i t s l a t e r
offsh o o t. Wu c a m e to m o d e l h is s ty le of w r itin g on th a t of the T o n g - cheng s c h o o l (26) and w hile a t th e N inqing A c a d e m y h e u s e d to b o r r o w f ro m a l i b r a r y s t a r t e d by a f r ie n d w hose w ife , a c o m p u ls iv e c o l l e c t o r
of b o o k s , w a s the d a u g h t e r of th e fam o u s T o n g ch en g s c h o l a r Wu Rulun,(27)
(2 8)
d i s c i p l e of Z en g G uofan.
In h i s s tu d e n t n o te s of 1887 , Wu quoted a t le n g th f ro m Z eng G uofan, f o r in s ta n c e fro m a p ie c e in w hich Z e n g p r a i s e d Y ao N a i, one of th e fo u n d e rs of th e T o n gc h en g s c h o o l. (29) A t a n o t h e r po in t in the s a m e
n o te s , Wu r e v e a l e d h is a ttitu d e to a key co n c ep t of C h e n g -Z h u N eo- C o n fu c ia n ism ;
20
"B ook l e a r n i n g to e x h a u s t th e p r in c ip le (d u sh u qiongli) i s th e f in e s t p a r t of Z hu X i ’s p h ilo so p h y . We should u n d e r s t a n d th a t th e r e a s o n f o r book l e a r n i n g is s p e c i fic a lly to r e g u l a t e the m in d . "(30)
" E x h a u s tin g th e p r in c ip le " w a s an i n te lle c tu a l a p p r o a c h to th e q u e s tio n of s e l f - c u l t i v a t i o n , a v ita l p a r t of w hich w as a th o ro u g h u n d e r s ta n d in g of the c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n . T h is u n d e r s ta n d in g w as to b e a r r i v e d a t th ro u g h " b o o k - l e a r n i n g " . Study h e lp e d one to i n c r e a s e o n e ’s know
le d g e of the " p r i n c i p l e " and in so d o ing one b e c a m e m o r e a w a r e of
, + (31)
o n e ’s n a t u r e . .
In a n a r t i c l e d a te d 1892 in w hich he d i s c u s s e d Q ing s c h o l a r s h ip , Wu la u n c h e d in to an a t t a c k on th e Han L e a r n i n g of R u a n Y uan, w ho, lik e h is m e n t o r Hui D ong, took a n e x t r e m e p u r i s t v iew , r e j e c t i n g a l l Song l e a r n i n g in f a v o u r of an y th in g fro m th e H a n . (32) Wu a c c u s e d h im of fa ilin g to a d h e r e to Gu Y an w u 's p r in c ip l e of "H an L e a r n i n g as th e b a s i c t h e o r y , the Song C o n f u c ia n is ts a s o u r t e a c h e r . " Wu r e c o g
n ise d the need f o r Gu to r e v o l t a g a i n s t th e n e g a tiv e a s p e c t s of N e o - C o n f u c i a n i s m , but t h e r e w a s h o w e v e r no q u e s tio n , h e c o n tin u e d , of Gu h a v in g p r o m o te d H an L e a r n i n g to the e x c lu s io n of t h a t f ro m th e Song. L a t e r s c h o l a r s h a d , Wu w r o t e , d i s t o r t e d G u’s o r ig in a l m e s s a g e and v illifie d th e Song L e a r n i n g . (33)
It w a s a t th is t i m e th a t the M o d e rn T e x t m o v e m e n t w a s gaining m o m e n tu m and w ith the' w r i ti n g s of W ei Yuan and Gong Z i s h e n had b e c o m e c l o s e ly c o n n e c te d to d e m a n d s f o r r e f o r m . (34) How
c o n s e r v a t i v e Wu s t i l l w a s c a n be s e e n f ro m a s e c t io n of th e 1892 a r t i c l e , d e a lin g w ith the v a r i o u s c o m m e n t a r i e s to the c l a s s i c s , in w hich Wu
env eig h ed a g a i n s t th e M o d e rn T e x t m o v e m e n t and i t s a ttitu d e to w a r d s th e c o m m e n t a r i e s on th e S p rin g and A u tu m n A n n a l s . He d e p lo r e d
th o s e who a d h e r e d to He X i u ’s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of th e Gong Y ang
C o m m e n ta r y on the A n n a ls and who d i s r e g a r d e d th e Z u o C o m m e n t a r y of th e s a m e c l a s s i c . S o m e , he s a i d , ev en w ent s o f a r a s to a lle g e t h a t th e Z u o C o m m e n t a r y w as not genuine and he s in g le d out Liu F e n g lu f o r s p e c i a l c r i t i c i s m . (35) A lthough Z h u a n g Cunyu la id the fo u n d atio n s of th e M o d e rn T ex t m o v e m e n t d u r in g the Q in g , L iu w as th e f i r s t s c h o l a r to d e a l w ith the a lle g e d m i s u s e of th e Z u o C o m m e n -
/ r t M
t a r y by th e H an s c h o l a r L iu X in . L a t e r , Kang Y ouw ei d ev e lo p ed th e i m p l i c a t i o n s of L iu F e n g l u ’s i d e a s on the Gong Y ang C o m m e n t a r y to t h e i r f u ll e s t e x te n t and found in C o n fucius s a n c tio n f o r h is r e f o r m s .
b) S c ie n ce and M a t e r i a l i s m
F r o m the 1870’s o n w a r d s , s o m e C h in e s e i n t e l l e c t u a l s
s e e k in g a w ay to s t r e n g t h e n the nation and e m u la te th e W e s t e r n p o w e r s , s e iz e d upon s c ie n c e a s th e key to ec o n o m ic and m i l i t a r y p o w e r . W ang T a o , j o u r n a l i s t and e a r l y a d v o c a te of r e f o r m , w r o t e j
" if C h in a c a n s i n c e r e l y u s e s c ie n c e to ch an g e i t s f o r m e r b a c k w a r d n e s s , th en a f t e r a h u n d re d y e a r s sh e can e a s i l y c o n t r o l th e W e s t e r n e r s and s u r p a s s t h e m . "(37)
X ue F u c h e n g , a p e r s o n a l s e c r e t a r y to L i H o n g zh a n g , noted in h is d i a r y in 1890 that the W e s t e r n e r s ’ c o m m e r c i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , m i l i t a r y m e th o d s and m a c h in e m a n u f a c tu rin g w e r e ,
" a ll d e r i v e d f ro m s tu d ie s of s t e a m , e l e c t r i c i t y and c h e m i s t r y , by m e a n s of w hich th ey h av e ob tained the m e th o d s of c o n tr o llin g w a t e r , f i r e and e l e c t r i c i t y . . . . "(38) In 1882, Kang Youwei p a s s e d th ro u g h the I n te r n a t i o n a l S e ttle m e n t of S h an g h ai, w h e r e he bought t r a n s l a t i o n s of W e s t e r n b o o k s and took out
22
a s u b s c r i p t i o n to th e m i s s i o n a r y j o u r n a l , C o s m o p o lita n G a z e tte
(W anguo g o n g b ao ). T h ro u g h t h e s e s o u r c e s he g a in ed a n u n d e r s ta n d in g of W e s t e r n n a t u r a l s c i e n c e s ; o p t i c s , c h e m i s t r y , e l e c t r i c i t y and
m e c h a n i c s . In a d d itio n , he f i r s t r e a d about e v o lu tio n is m in the
G a z e t t e . (39) Kang th e n p r o c e e d e d to co m b in e W e s t e r n t h e o r i e s of b i o lo g ic a l and s o c ia l d e v e lo p m e n t w ith th e Gong Y ang c o n c e p t of th e T h r e e A g e s , p o p u la r iz e d b y the M o d e rn T e x t m o v e m e n t, c r e a t i n g a s y n th e tic p h ilo so p h y w hich s t r e s s e d ch an g e and s a n c tio n e d s o c i a l r e f o r m .
Kang d e s c r i b e d w h at he to ld h i s d i s c i p l e Chen Q iu liu ;
nT h e c u l t u r a l s t a t e s of Y ao , Shun and th e T h r e e D y n a s t ie s w e r e a c tu a lly h y p o th e s is e d by C o n fu c iu s, and h e b e lie v e d and found s u p p o rtin g e v id e n c e . I s u g g e s te d to h im th a t the h o r s e could d e s c e n d fro m m a n , o r m a n f r o m th e h o r s e , and th a t m e n had ev o lved f ro m p r i m a t e s ; he b e lie v e d and s o u g h t s u p p o rtin g e v i d e n c e I told h im of th e t h r e e s t a g e s of e v o lu tio n to r e a c h th e w o rld of U n i v e r s a l P e a c e and of th e T h r e e A g e s ; an d h e b e lie v e d a n d found s u p p o r tin g e v i d e n c e . "(41)
H av in g show n th a t s p e c i e s h ad ev olved in t h e p a s t , K ang could a r g u e th a t t h i s p r o c e s s would co ntin u e and w a s ab le to r e p l a c e th e t r a d i t i o n a l c y c l i c a l view of h i s t o r y w ith a c o n c e p t of l i n e a r d e v e lo p m e n t. W ith th e e v id e n c e of e v o lu tio n , Kang could p r o j e c t th e Gong Y ang c o n c e p t of the T h r e e A g e s , D i s o r d e r , A p p r o a c h in g P e a c e and G r e a t P e a c e , in to the f u t u r e . (42) He w as a b le to r e f u te the C onfucian m a x im t h a t "H eav en d o e s not c h a n g e , n o r d o e s th e W ay" and point out th a t " c l e a r l y , ch ange i s th e W ay of H e a v e n .
B ut though Kang to a c e r t a i n e x te n t d re w f r o m W e s t e r n s c i e n c e , he s t i l l fe lt th e need to s e e k s a n c t io n 'f r o m the c l a s s i c s f o r h is t h e o r y of s o c ia l p r o g r e s s and h is c o n c lu s io n w a s th a t C o n fu ciu s h ad h i m s e l f f i r s t d i s c o v e r e d th e principles of e v o lu tio n . W h a te v e r the
r e a s o n s f o r h im doing t h i s , w h e t h e r genuine c o m m i t m e n t to th e old c u ltu r e o r a t a c t i c a l m ove to m ak e h i s view s m o r e p a l l a t a b l e to th o s e he w ish ed to co n v ince of th e need f o r r e f o r m , Kang fa ile d to r e a c h a th o ro u g h - g o in g m a t e r i a l i s t p o s itio n . T h is w a s not s o of a n o t h e r r e f o r m e r of th a t p e r i o d , Yan F u .
G e n e r a l l y r e g a r d e d a s th e f i r s t C h in e s e in m o d e r n t i m e s to s y s t e m a t i c a l l y i n tr o d u c e W e s t e r n c u l t u r e and s c ie n ti f i c thought to C h in a , (44) h e s p e n t the y e a r s 1876-1879 in B r i t a i n a s a n a v a l s tu d e n t and r e a d w id ely about th e n a t u r a l and s o c ia l s c i e n c e s . On h i s r e t u r n to C h in a , h e t r a n s l a t e d w o r k s b y A d am S m ith , M o n te s q u ie u , J . S . M ill, S p e n c e r and w r o te a n u m b e r of i m p o r t a n t e s s a y s . But Y a n 's m o s t i m p o r t a n t p ie c e of w o rk w as h i s t r a n s l a t i o n of T . H . H u x le y 's
"On E v o lu tio n and E t h i c s " . Begun p e r h a p s a s e a r l y a s 1894, and p u b l i s h e d in 1898, h i s t r a n s l a t i o n w a s intend ed a s an in t r o d u c t i o n to the b a s i c t e n e t s of s o c i a l D a r w i n i s m . It m ig ht w e ll be a s k e d how could E v o lu tio n and E t h i c s , w r i t t e n b y H uxley to c o m b a t S p e n c e r 's a p p l i c a tio n of D a r w i n ’s b io lo g ic a l t h e o r i e s to h u m a n s o c i e t y , be u s e d to i n t r o du ce S p e n c e r ’s v ie w s ? The a n s w e r l i e s in th e t r a n s l a t i o n w hich Yan F u s ig n if ic a n tly c a lle d T ian y a n lu n (On E v o lu tio n ), o m ittin g a l l r e f e r e n c e t o e t h i c s w hich H u x le y , in c o m m o n w ith m a n y p eo p le at the end of the
n in e te e n th c e n t u r y , who found th e im p l i c a t i o n s of s o c i a l D a r w i n i s m r e p e l l e n t , saw a s a c o u n t e r to the naked b r u t a l i t y of th e e v o lu tio n a ry p r o c e s s in n a t u r e . In h i s i n t r o d u c tio n , Yan F u c l e a r l y s ta t e d H u x le y 's
m o tiv e in w r i ti n g the b o o k , but th ro u g h o u t the t r a n s l a t i o n , th ro u g h the m e d iu m of long n o t e s , he p r a i s e d S p e n c e r , s u p p o r tin g h i s a r g u m e n t a g a i n s t th a t of H u x ley . So T ia n y a n lu n is r e a l l y two w o r k s , "a p a r a -
24
p h r a s e of H u x le y ’s l e c t u r e and an e x p o s itio n of S p e n c e r ’s e s s e n t i a l
, T J 1 T l ( 4 5 )
view a g a i n s t H u x ley .
Yan F u ' s t r a n s l a t i o n b e c a m e a b e s t s e l l e r . It "sh o o k C h in a 's in t e l l e c t u a l w o rld a t th e end of the 19th c e n t u r y and a t th e beg in n in g of the 2 0 th . It in flu e n c e d a w hole g e n e r a tio n of i n t e l l e c t u a l s . Lu X u n r e c a l l e d th a t w h ile s tu d y in g at th e J ia n g n a n N a v a l A c a d e m y in
N anking b e tw e e n 1898 and 1900 " a s s o o n a s I had any s p a r e t i m e , X would u s u a lly e a t c a k e s , p e a n u ts and p e p p e r s and r e a d E v o lu tio n and E t h i c s " . A s B e r t r a n d R u s s e l l h a s po in ted out, an i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t
of 19th c e n t u r y W e s t e r n l i b e r a l i s m , the b e lie f in p r o g r e s s , w as g r e a t l y s tr e n g t h e n e d by th e d o c t r in e of ev o lu tio n . Not only did it give g ro u n d s f o r o p tim is m in r e l a t i o n to th e f u tu r e of th e h u m an r a c e but it a l s o p r o v id e d new a r g u m e n t s a g a in s t o rth o d o x th e o lo g y . (48) In C h in a ,
D a r w i n i s m o ffe re d a w hole new w ay of looking at h i s t o r y and s o c i e t y . U sing ev id e n c e f r o m a s t r o n o m y , geology and b io lo g y , i t show ed th a t th e w o rld w a s in a c o n s ta n t s t a t e of d e v e lo p m e n t and t r a n s f o r m a t i o n an d b e g a n to u n d e r m in e th e t r a d i t i o n a l C o n fu cian p h ilo so p h y w hich
r e s i s t e d ch an g e on the g ro u n d s th a t i t w as an i n t e r f e r e n c e in the i m m u ta b le s t a t e of n a t u r e .
If in E u r o p e D a r w i n i s m had a p r o g r e s s i v e r o l e , S p e n c e r 's a p p lic a tio n of it to h u m a n s o c ie ty did not. S o cial D a r w i n i s m w a s u s e d by a p o lo g is ts of I m p e r i a l i s m to ju s tif y a g g r e s s i o n a g a i n s t w e a k e r n a tio n s , (49) and s o had b e c o m e d i s c r e d i t e d in p r o g r e s s i v e W e s t e r n c i r c l e s by the end of the 19th c e n t u r y . But S p e n c e r ’s
e r r o n e o u s so c io lo g y a s p r e s e n t e d b y Yan F u in h i s t r a n s l a t i o n b ro u g h t h o m e to C h in ese v i c t i m s of I m p e r i a l i s m the g r a v i ty of the c r i s i s faced
by th e m and d r o v e th e m to ta k e a c tio n to f o r e s t a l l n a tio n a l d i s a s t e r a t th e h a n d s of th e G r e a t P o w e r s . Hu Shi w ro te of the i m p a c t of the t r a n s l a t i o n ;
"W ithin a few y e a r s of i t s p u b lic a tio n , E v o lu tio n and E t h i c s g ain ed w id e s p r e a d p o p u la r ity th ro u g h o u t the
c o u n tr y and ev en b e c a m e r e a d in g m a t t e r f o r m id d le sc h o o l s tu d e n t s . V e r y few who r e a d the book could u n d e r s t a n d
th e s ig n if ic a n c e of H u x le y ’s c o n tr ib u tio n to s c i e n ti f i c and i n t e l l e c t u a l h i s t o r y . W hat th ey did u n d e r s t a n d w a s the s ig n if ic a n c e of s u ch p h r a s e s a s "the s t r o n g a r e v i c t o r i o u s and th e w e a k p e r i s h " a s th e y ap p lied to i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o litic s
W ith in a few y e a r s t h e s e id e a s h ad s p r e a d lik e a p r a i r i e f i r e , s e tt i n g a b la z e the h e a r t s and blood of m a n y young p e o p le . T e c h n ic a l t e r m s lik e " e v o lu tio n " and
" n a t u r a l s e l e c t i o n " b e c a m e c o m m o n in j o u r n a l i s t i c p r o s e , and s lo g a n s on th e l i p s of p a t r i o t i c young h e r o e s . "(50) Wu Y u zhan g , v e t e r a n of th e 1911 r e v o lu tio n , had s i m i l a r m e m o r i e s ;
" N a t u r a l s e l e c t i o n " and " s u r v i v a l of the f i t t e s t ” and o th e r id e a s expounded by E v o lu tio n and E t h i c s p ro fo u n d ly s t i m u l a t e d m a n y of us i n t e l l e c t u a l s a t th a t t i m e . E v o lu tio n and E t h i c s w a s f o r us lik e a w a r n in g b e l l . It a l e r t e d us to the d a n g e r of lo s in g th e c o u n tr y and we could not b u t with a r d o u r p la n f o r its s u r v i v a l . "(51)
D a r w i n i s m h ad a p ro fo u n d in flu e n c e on Wu Z h ih u i. So m u ch s o th a t h i s b i o g r a p h e r h a s w r itte n ; "W hat is th e f u n d a m e n ta l view point of
M r W u 's s c h o l a r s h i p and th o u g h t? It c a n be s u m m e d up by th e w o r d s " s c i e n c e 1 and ’‘e v o lu tio n " o r by "the s c ie n ti f i c p r in c i p l e s of e v o lu tio n . ”^52^ Though Wu c a m e t o r e j e c t S p e n c e r ’s 'v ie w of s o c i a l . s t r i f e a s ’th e law of h u m a n s o c i e t y , f a v o u rin g in s t e a d K r o p o tk in ’s t h e o r y of M utual A id , t h i s did not sh a k e th e S c ie n tific b a s i s of h is th o u gh t and th ro u g h o u t-h is lif e - h e - r e m a i n e d a c o n s is t e n t b e l i e v e r in and p o p u l a r i s e r of D a r w i n i s t ev o lu tio n t h e o r y .
W u ’s f i r s t c o n ta c t w ith su c h i d e a s m u s t h a v e b e e n in 1897-98 w hile t e a c h in g a t the B eiy a n g School in T i e n t s i n . T h is w a s the p e r io d d u r in g w h ich th e r e f o r m m o v e m e n t w a s r e a c h in g i t s c l i m a x . T i e n t s i n w as an i m p o r t a n t c e n t r e f o r th e new i d e a s and th e h e a d m a s t e r of W u’s s c h o o l, W ang Y u a n s h e n g , c o lla b o r a te d c lo s e ly t h e r e w ith Yan F u ,
26
Sun B aoqi and o t h e r r e f o r m e r s . In 1897, th e y founded th e Guowen D a ily and a l s o a m a g a z in e w h ich in 1898 s e r i a l i s e d Y an F u ’s t r a n s l a -
tio n of E v o lu tio n and E t h i c s . (53)
W u 's d i a r i e s r e v e a l th a t he r e g u l a r l y r e a d th e Guowen D aily and v is ite d i t s e d i t o r i a l o ffice. (54) It i s a l s o e s t a b l i s h e d th a t in 1897 he often h ad d i s c u s s i o n s w ith Yan F u . (55) In 1899, a s a t e a c h e r at th e N anyang School in S han g h ai, Wu w a s u sin g Y an F u ' s e s s a y MOn S tre n g th " a s a c l a s s r o o m t e x t . He r e c o r d e d how he in t r o d u c e d the p u p ils to Y a n 's d i s c u s s i o n , a t the b eg in n in g of the e s s a y , of S p e n c e r 's
" so c io lo g y " (q u n x u e ).
W hile in J a p a n d u r in g 1 9 0 1 -2 , Wu w o rk e d h a r d at " E u r o p e a n l e a r n i n g " , (57) d e e p e n in g h i s u n d e r s ta n d in g of s c ie n ti f i c thought and in a n a r t i c l e s ta t e d b old ly th a t he h e ld to the " a n t i - r e l i g i o n i s m of D a r w in and S p e n c e r " . I n h i s d i a r y h e joked ab o u t h is s o r e t h r o a t , c o m m e n tin g th a t w hen c r e a t u r e s w e r e not good in th e s tr u g g l e f o r e x i s t e n c e , th e n " n a t u r a l s e l e c t i o n c o m e s in to o p e r a t i o n . j n the d r a f t c u r r i c u l u m of th e Guangdong D a x u e ta n g , in C a n to n , d r a w n up by Wu in 1902, he in c lu d ed tu itio n in m a t h e m a t i c s , " s c i e n c e " , th a t is p h y s ic a l s c i e n c e s and b io lo g y , a s w e ll a s the E n g l i s h l a n g u a g e . ^ ^ W hile t e a c h in g at th e P a t r i o t i c School in Shanghai d u r in g 1903, Wu u s e d E v o lu tio n and E t h i c s a s a te x t book in h i s C h in e s e la n g u a g e
/ g - t \
l e s s o n s . A t the Z h a n g G a r d e n in Shanghai he a d d r e s s e d ab out s e v e n h u n d re d p eo p le w ith t h i s c a l l to a c tio n couch ed in the la n g u a g e of S p e n c e r .
"In the f u tu r e t h e r e w ill b e no w e a k , i n f e r i o r r a c e s in the w o r l d . I a s k you g e n tle m e n , a r e the C h in e s e a fine r a c e
o r a r e th e y a n i n f e r i o r r a c e ? If you s a y th a t th ey a r e an
i n f e r i o r r a c e and ca n not be r e f o r m e d , th e n t h e r e is no p la c e f o r it on e a r t h . T h is u n r e f o r m a b l e , i n f e r i o r r a c e i s bound to be w iped out by th o s e s u p e r i o r r a c e s . "(62) He co n clud ed by w a r n in g th a t u n l e s s C hina w as s t r e n g t h e n e d by p e r
m ittin g h e r p eo ple to be f r e e and en lig h ten ed sh e would find h e r s e l f
(6 3)
"in th e v io len t a r e n a of s tr u g g l e w ith a b s o lu te ly no m e a n s of s u r v i v a l . "
D u r in g h i s e x ile in E u r o p e f ro m 1903 to 1911, Wu w a s able f o r th e f i r s t t im e to gain a n u n d e r s ta n d in g of the s o c i a l b a c k g ro u n d to th e i d e a s he h ad g a t h e r e d f r o m t r a n s l a t i o n s in C h in a and J a p a n .
M o r e o v e r , th ro u g h r e a d in g s c ie n tif ic and s o c io lo g ic a l w o r k s in the o r ig i n a l , he could view W e s t e r n thought d i r e c t l y and not th ro u g h the d i s t o r t i n g in flu e n c e of A s i a n i n t e r p r e t e r s .
On h is a r r i v a l in B r i t a i n in 1902, Wu f i r s t w en t to s ta y w ith f r i e n d s in S cotland and a tte n d e d s o m e l e c t u r e s a t E d in b u r g h U n i v e r s i t y . A t the b eg in nin g of 1904 he r e t u r n e d to London and s t a r t e d to stu d y E n g l i s h s e r i o u s l y , a tte n d in g th e R e g e n t S t r e e t e v enin g s c h o o l and
r e a d in g a wide r a n g e of boo k s on s c ie n tif ic and r e v o l u ti o n a r y t h e o r y . A f t e r a p e r io d in F r a n c e , 1 9 0 6 -1 9 0 9 , d u r in g w h ich he w a s occupied w ith e d itin g th e New C e n tu r y j o u r n a l , he r e t u r n e d to London w h e r e he r e c o m m e n c e d h is a c a d e m i c s t u d i e s . H is d i a r y t e l l s u s th a t he bought E n g l i s h la n g u a g e o r ig i n a l s of D a r w i n 's " O rig in of th e S p e c i e s " and
H u x le y ’s " E v o lu tio n and E th ic s '.1, a s w e ll a s o t h e r c l a s s i c s of e v o lu - t i o n a r y t h e o r y . (65) He c o n c e n t r a t e d h is e f f o r t s on a s t r o n o m y , geog rap hy ,
(6 6)
p a leo n to lo g y and e v o lu tio n a ry s c ie n c e in g e n e r a l . D u r in g 1910 and 1911, Wu m a d e a n u m b e r of t r a n s l a t i o n s in to C h i n e s e , a m o n g s t th e m an acc o u n t of the d i s c o v e r y of th e South P o l e , D a r w i n ’s " O rig in of th e S p e c i e s " , J o s e p h M c C a b e ’s " P r e h i s t o r i c M an " and D en n is H i r d ’s
28
" P i c t u r e B ook of E v o l u t i o n " .
W h ils t h e w a s in E u r o p e , W u 's i d e a s m a t u r e d in to a th o ro u g h - g o in g m e c h a n i c a l m a t e r i a l i s t view of the w o r l d , in to an u n e q u iv o c a l s c ie n ti f i c m o n i s m . In 1909 he w r o te ;
"I c o n s i d e r th a t in t h is w o r ld t h e r e is j u s t m a t t e r . T h e r e i s no s u c h th in g a s s p i r i t s e p a r a t e f ro m m a t t e r . S p ir it
s im p ly a r i s e s d u r in g th e f o r m a t i o n of m a t t e r . "(68) He co n tin u ed in a t y p ic a lly h u m o r o u s s ty le ;
"A h u n d re d pounds of p u r e w a t e r , s ix ty po u n ds of g e la tin o u s s u b s t a n c e , f o u r pounds t h r e e ou n ces of eg g w hite m a t t e r , f o u r pounds five ounce of c e llu lo s e and tw elv e o unces of oily m a t t e r in a s u ita b le co m b in a tio n c o m e t o g e t h e r to fo rm th e h u n d r e d and f o r t y - s e v e n pound " i " . T h i s th in g w hich g o e s u n d e r th e n a m e of " i" b lin d ly follow s the la w s of th is m a t e r i a l w o r l d , f r e e l y p la y s aro u n d f o r a p e r i o d , u n til a c e r t a i n point w hen the p u r e w a t e r , th e g e la tin o u s and o th e r m a t t e r w hich g o es to m a k e m e up, s e p a r a t e s and I co m e to a n e n d . A s t o w hat is s u f f e r in g and h a p p i n e s s , w hat i s the u l t i m a t e po in t of g o o d n e s s , w hat is r e a l i t y , I a m not c o n c e r n e d . F o r only a f t e r th e co m b in a tio n of p u r e w a t e r , g e la tin o u s and o th e r m a t t e r i s t h e r e s p i r i t f r o m w hich c o m e s th o u g h ts w hich c a n not e x i s t s e p a r a t e f r o m m a t t e r . A ll f o r c e d h y p o th e s e s and e n e r g e t i c e x e r c i s e s of the
im a g in a tio n a r e bu t r e f l e c t i o n s of m a t t e r , a r e j u s t m i s t a k e n i d e a s of a c e r t a i n t i m e . M (69)
A t t e m p t s have b e e n m a d e , f o r i n s t a n c e by D e s c a r t e s , who a s s e r t e d th a t m a n had c e r t a i n in n a te i d e a s w hich a p p e a r in d e p e n d e n tly of h is e x p e r i e n c e , to p r o d u c e a p h ilo s o p h ic a l d u a lis m w hich s e e s s p i r i t
and m a t t e r , so u l and b ody, a s s e p a r a t e and i n d e p e n d e n t . ^ 0^ But s u c h d u a lis m h a s i n v a r ia b ly fo u n d e re d on i t s in a b ility to e x p la in how the tw o s e p a r a t e s u b s t a n c e s in flu e n c e e a c h o th e r a n d , a s P le k h a n o v h a s w r i t t e n , "the m o s t c o n s is t e n t and profound t h i n k e r s w e r e alw ay s in c lin e d to m o n i s m , " w h e t h e r th e y w e r e i d e a l i s t o r m a t e r i a l i s t . (71)
Though the m a t e r i a l i s m of one p e r io d often h a s d if f e r e d f r o m th a t of a n o t h e r , P le k h a n o v o f fe r s us a g e n e r a l d e fin itio n of m a t e r i a l i s m ;
1'M a t e r i a l i s m i s the d i r e c t o pposite of i d e a l i s m . I d e a l i s m s t r i v e s to e x p la in a ll the p h en o m en a of N a t u r e , a l l the q u a l i t i e s of m a t t e r , by t h e s e o r th o s e q u a l i t i e s of the s p i r i t . M a t e r i a l i s m a c t s in the e x a c tly o p p o site w ay.
It t r i e s to e x p la in p s y c h ic p h en o m en a b y t h e s e o r th o s e q u a l i t i e s of m a t t e r , b y t h i s o r th a t o r g a n i s a t i o n of th e h u m a n o r , in m o r e g e n e r a l t e r m s , of th e a n i m a l b o d y . A l l th o s e p h i l o s o p h e r s in the e y e s of whom th e p r i m e
f a c t o r is m a t t e r b e lo n g to th e c am p of th e m a t e r i a l i s t s ; a l l th o s e who c o n s i d e r s u c h a f a c t o r to b e the s p i r i t a r e i d e a l i s t s . "(72)
C l e a r l y Wu b e lo n g s to th e m a t e r i a l i s t c a m p . H is m a t e r i a l i s t m o n is m a s s e r t e d th a t th e m ind d o e s not e x i s t in d e p e n d e n tly of th e b o d y. Id e a s and th o u g h ts w e r e s e c o n d a r y , p u r e l y " r e f l e c t i o n s of m a t t e r " , p r o d u c t s of the e x t e r n a l w o r l d . T h is view ex clu d ed r e l ig i o u s and o t h e r m e t a p h y s ic a l c o n c e p t s . B ut i t i s quite w ro n g to s u g g e s t , a s h a s Kwok, th a t W u 's s t a t e m e n t , quoted a b o v e , im p lie d th a t no id e o lo g y "could c la im v a lid ity s in c e it would m e r e l y b e a b y p r o d u c t of th e m a t e r i a l
f n o \
c o n f ig u ra tio n of s u b s t a n c e s . " W hat Wu d e n ie d , w a s th a t id eo lo g y could h av e an in d e p e n d e n t e x i s t e n c e s e p a r a t e f r o m the s o c ie ty i t w a s b o r n in to . The " f o r c e d h y p o th e s e s and e n e r g e t i c e x e r c i s e s of th e im a g i n a t i o n " r e f e r r e d to by Wu w e r e in h is opinion a r r i v e d at w itho u t
r e f e r e n c e to the m a t e r i a l w o rld and w e r e id e a s w ith o u t s c ie n ti f i c b a s i s . T h e y w e r e by d e fin itio n f a l s e and had no v a li d i t y . B ut s c i e n t i fic t r u t h s once c r e a t e d in the m in d s of m e n th ro u g h c o n ta c t;w ith and stu d y of m a t t e r o bv io u sly a r e v a lu a b le in t h e m s e l v e s and hav e t h e i r own d y n a m ic e ffe c t on s o c ie ty . T h a t Wu h eld th is to be s o i s show n by
h i s s t r e s s on e d u c a tio n and p r o p a g a n d a in s ti m u l a t i n g s o c ia l c h a n g e . A s B e r t r a n d R u s s e l l h a s w r i t t e n , "what G a lile o and Newton w e r e to th e s e v e n te e n th c e n t u r y , D a r w in w as to th e n in e te e n th .
T h e i r c o n tr ib u tio n s to a s t r o n o m y and p h y s ic s a n d , in D a r w i n 's c a s e ,
