An edition of "Nadrat al-Ighrid fi Nusrat al-Qarid" by Abu Ali Al-Muzaffar b. Al-Fadi Yahya b. Abdullah b. Jafar Al-Alaawi Al-Husaini, with an introduction.

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N U H A AR E F A L - H A S S A N

A t h e s i s s u b m i t t e d t o t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f L o n d o n f o r t h e d e g r e e of D o c t o r o f P h i l o s o p h y ,

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ABSTRACT

The p r e s e n t t h e s i s c o n s i s t s o f two u a r t s : a n i n t r o d u c t i o n and a n e d i t i o n o f th e hook N a d ra t A l - l g h r i d b y A l-M u z a ffa r Ih n A l- P a d l. The f i r s t p a r t o f th e i n t r o d u c t i o n su rv e y s th e p o l i t i c a l and t h e c u l t u r a l c o n d itio n s d u r in g t h a t e r a . I t shows th e i n t e r e s t i n l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m i n th e s i x t h and s e v e n th c e n t u r i e s and how i t i s i n f lu e n c e d hy th e p o l i ­ t i c a l and s o c i a l c o n d it io n s .

The second p a r t o f th e i n t r o d u c t i o n i s on th e a u th o r h im s e lf , h i s a n c e s t r y b i r t h and u p b r in g in g , and h i s r e l a t i o n w ith a l - w a z ir Ih n A l- 'A lq a m i,

A f t e r t h a t comes th e d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e hook and i t s c o n te n t . I t c o n s i s t s o f f i v e c h a p t e r s . The f i r s t C h a p te r d e a ls m ain ly w ith th e

d e f i n i t i o n o f p o e tr y , i t s m o tiv e s , c o n d itio n s and r u l e s . C h a p te r two d e a ls w ith p o e t i c a l l i c e n c e : what th e p o e t i s a llo w e d and f o r b id d e n to u s e . The t h i r d C h a p te r t a l k s a b o u t th e m e r its and im p re s s iv e q u a l i t i e s o f p o e tr y and i t s im pact on th e h e a r t . C h a p te r f o u r d e a ls w ith th e p ro s and cons o f p o e tr y and w h e th e r i t i s b e t t e r to w r i t e p o e tr y o r a v o id i t . F i n a l l y , C h a p te r f i v e d e a ls w ith w hat th e p o e t must w a n t, a v o id o r

i n s i s t upon.

A f t e r re v ie w in g th e f i v e c h a p te r s , some im p o rta n t o b s e r v a tio n s o f t h e book a r e s t a t e d a lo n g w ith th e d i s t i n g u i s h i n g f e a t u r e s o f th e book.

The l a s t p a r t o f th e i n t r o d u c t i o n i s d e v o te d t o th e d e s c r i p t i o n

3

o f th e e x t a n t c o p ie s o f N a d ra t A l - l g h r i d and a "b rie f a c co u n t o f th e m ethods a d o p te d i n p ro d u c in g th e p r e s e n t e d i t i o n .

The se co n d p a r t o f t h i s t h e s i s i s th e A rabic t e x t e d i t e d and b a se d on th e m ost a n c ie n t and a p p r o p r i a t e c o p ie s o f th e book w ith f o o t n o t e s , comments and a l l n e c e s s a r y e x p la n a tio n s .

ACTOltfLEDGEIfflWS

I w ish t o e x p re s s my g r a t i t u d e t o P r o f e s s o r W alid A r a f a t f o r h i s w is e s u p e r v i s io n o f my r e s e a r c h .

j

I w ould a l s o l i k e t o th a n k D rs. S c o f ie ld and S . Mum 3 j i d f o r h e lp in g me o b t a i n th e n e c e s s a r y m ic ro film s from th e l i b r a r i e s o f V ie n n a , B e r l i n , P a r i s and Turkey*

My th a n k s go a l s o to Drs* N* ilajm and I . Abbas o f t h e A m erican U n i v e r s i ty o f B e i r u t , and Mr. S. A ra n k i o f th e B .B .C . A ra b ic S e r v ic e f o r v a lu a b le d is c u s s io n s i n t h e c o u rs e o f w r i t i n g t h i s th e s i s *

5

CONTENTS

Pn D*p

A b s t r a c t 2

Acknowledgements 4

I n tr o d u c ti o n 6

A. Background 6

B. N a d ra t A l - l g h r i d and i t s c o n te n t 17

C. M a n u sc rip ts 46

A ra b ic T e s t 52

- C h a p te r one : The d e f i n i t i o n o f P o e tr y , i t s

m o tiv e s , c o n d itio n s and r u l e s 57

- C h a p te r tw o: P o e tic l ic e n c e 250

C h a p te r th r e e :M e r i t s and im p re s s iv e q u a l i t i e s o f p o e tr y and i t s im pact on th e

h e a r t . 268

- C h a p te r f o u r : The p ro s and cons o f p o e tr y 510 - C h a p te r f i v e : What t h e p o e t must w an t, a v o id and

i n s i s t upon* 556

B ib lio g ra p h y 592

INTRODUCTION

A . HiCKGROUND

P o l i t i c a l c o n d itio n s

The e r a i n which th e a u th o r l i v e d was one o f p o l i t i c a l and l i t e r a r y d e t e r i o r a t i o n . The a u th o r l i v e d d u rin g th e r e i g n o f th e A h h asid C a lip h , Al-M usta* sim B i l - l a h and a tte n d e d th e c o u r t o f h i s m i n i s t e r Ih n A l-

'A lqam i.

The s i x t h c e n tu r y A.H, came to an end w hilo th e I s la m ic E m pire, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n th e E a s t , was g e t t i n g w eaker due to th e s t r u g g l e f o r power betw een t h e T u rk is h , S e lju k s and t h e i r Mamluks. The A bbasid C a lip h a te h ad r e a c h e d i t s w eak est and m ost d e c ad e n t s ta g e ; i t was about t o c o l l a p s e . T h e ir v a s t Em pire was b e in g s l i c e d among t h r e e n a tio n s : th e S e lju k T urks i n th e E a s t, th e Ayyubid K urds i n E gypt and S y r ia and th e B e rb e rs i n N o rth A f r ic a and A n d a lu s ia , A lth o u g h t h e t h r e e n a t i o n s , i n s p i t e o f t h e i r d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r e s and t r a d i t i o n s , s tr u g g l e d f o r power i n th e I s la m ic w o rld , y e t th e y a l l c o n tin u e d t o acknow ledge th e le a d e r ­ s h ip o f th e A b b asid C a lip h i n Bagdad.

’When th e enem ies o f th e I s la m ic Empire r e a l i s e d i t s w eakness and d i v i s i o n , th e y d e c id e d t o ta k e rev e n g e and a tt a c k e d i t from th e n o r th , th e w est and th e e a s t . The A rm enians and th e G eo rg ian s a t t a c k e d from th e n o r th ,

l o o t i n g and s t e a l i n g , b u t th e y c o u ld n o t conquer th e I s la m ic Empire

7

f o r arty le n g th , o f tim e . The C ru sa d e rs came from th e w e st and succeed ed i n in v a d in g P a l e s t i n e and a p a r t o f S y r ia and i n c o n q u e rin g J e ru s a le m . However, th e y fo u g h t among th e m se lv e s l a t e r on and w ere d r iv e n o u t o f J e ru s a le m f o r good i n th e y e a r 583 A.H. Mogul and T a r t a r t r i b e s in v a d e d th e Is la m ic Em pire from th e e a s t , commanded by th e r u t h l e s s Chengiz Khan who b ro u g h t them i n t o th e c i v i l i s e d w orld from C e n tr a l A s ia . S in c e th e I s la m ic Empire had no s tr o n g l e a d e r s of t h e c a l i b r e c f S a la d in , Chengiz Khan was c a p a b le o f w eakening th e Em pire a l l th e way from i t s e a s t e r n f r o n t i e r s t o th e b o r d e r s o f I r a q , a f t e r he had o c c u p ie d p a r t s o f I n d ia and China ( l )

Al-M usta* sim , Hulago and t he P a l l o f Baghdad.

A l-M u sta1 sim B i l - l a h was e l e c t e d C a lip h i n 640 A.H. Ho was a good and r e l i g i o u s man. H is Speech was w e ll-m an n e red and h i s m oral s ta n d a r d s w ere h ig h . However, he was u n c e r t a i n o f h im s e lf and h ad l i t t l e expe­

r i e n c e o f p u b l ic a f f a i r s o r o f ru n n in g a governm ent and k e e p in g i n to u c h w ith w hat was g o in g on a ro u d him . I n s h o r t , he d id n o t command much r e s p e c t . He s p e n t m ost o f h i s tim e l i s t e n i n g to s in g e r s and most o f h i s com panions wore commoners, w ith th e e x c e p tio n o f h is

m i n i s t e r Muayyid A l-D in Ib n A l - ’Alqami who was o f n o b le o r i g i n and had a keen m ind.

Al-M usta* sim was th e l a s t A bbasid C a lip h . Ho t h i n g o f much s i g n i ­ f ic a n c e happened d u r in g h i s r e i g n w ith th e e x c e p tio n o f lo o k in g A l-K arkh.

( l ) G-. Zaydan, H is to r y o f I s la m ic C i v i l i z a t i o n 3 /2 1 8 -2 2 2

D uring th e f i n a l p e r io d o f h i s r e i g n , th e Mogul Army, l e d hy H ulngu, was g e t t i n g c l o s e r and c l o s e r . T h is d i d n o t seem t o w orry A l-M u sta 1sim o r to en c o u ra g e him to p r e p a r e f o r r e s i s t i n g th e Mogul in v a s i o n . I t seemed t h a t th e more he h e a rd a b o u t H ulagu1 s p r e p a r a t i o n and d e te rm in a ­ t i o n , th e more n e g li g e n t he becam e, a s i f he th o u g h t h i s Empire was th r e a te n e d by no d a n g e r. H is m in i s te r r e a l i s e d the g r a v i t y o f th e s i t u a t i o n and w ro te w arn in g him and a d v is in g him to wake up and 'take th e n e c e s s a r y p r e c a u ti o n s , b u t he c o n tin u e d to ig n o re su c h w a rn in g s.

H is com panions made him im agine t h a t t h e r e was no im m inent d a n g e r and t h a t h is m i n i s t e r was o n ly e x a g g e r a tin g m a tte r s i n o r d e r t o j u s t i f y g e t t i n g more money u n d e r th e p r e t e x t o f arm ing th e t r o o p s .

A l-M u sta 1s im 's ig n o ra n c e was d e e p en in g a s th e p r e p a r a t i o n and r e a d i n e s s o f h i s enem ies was m u ltip ly in g . F i n a l l y , t i e T a r t a r army re a c h e d Hamadhan whore th e y camped f o r a w h ile . H ulagu s e n t m essengers t o C a lip h A l-M u sta 1 sim who i n t u r n chose S h o ra fu d d in A b d u lla h B in A l- J a w z i, son o f th e c o u r t t e a c h e r , to go to H ulagu a s h i s m esse n g e r.

When H ulagu r e c e iv e d A l-M usta*sim m essenger and r e a l i s e d from h i s r e p l y t h a t he was on th e d e f e n s iv e , he d e c id e d to head f o r B aghdad. The T a r ta r army sa c k e d Baghdad, l o o t e d , s t o l e , m assacred women and c h il d r e n and p e rfo rm e d a l l s o r t s o f a t r o c i t i e s ,

H ulagu o rd e re d A l-M usta*sim to be b ro u g h t b e f o r e him w ith h i s f a m ily . He was r i d i c u l e d and h i s c h il d r e n wore h e ld i n c a p t i v i t y .

F i n a l l y , A l-M u sta 1 sim was p u t t o d e a th i n 656 A.H. and th u s Baghdad f e l l to th e T a r t a r army and th e A bbasid Em pire c o lla p s e d ( l ) .

( l ) Ib n A l- T iq ta q a , A l- F a k h ri p p . 446-455

He was Muhammad B in Ahmad B in *A li, Abu T aleb Mua1 y y id A l-D in A1- A sa d i A l-B a g h d a d i, o th e r w is e known a s Ib n A l - ’Alqami b e c a u s e he was r e s p o n s ib le f o r d ig g in g th e r i v e r A l-'A lq a m i ( l ) .

He was th e m i n i s t e r o f G a lip h A l-M u sta 1 sim , and a c c o r d in g to some h i s t o r i a n s (2) , he was condemned a s a con. -i r a t o r who a id e d H ulagu i n in v a d in g Baghdad. Ib n -A l- T iq ta q a , how ever, d e c la r e s him in n o c e n t o f t h a t c h a rg e .

Ib n A l-*A lqam i became m i n i s t e r i n 642 A.H. He was f ir m and expe­

r ie n c e d i n t h e a f f a i r s o f governm ent a s w e ll a s b e in g a com petent

e s s a j i- s t and a u th o r . Ho was fo n d o f l i t e r a t u r e and p o e ts and en jo y e d th e company o f s c i e n t i s t s . Ib n A l- T iq ta q a q u o ted Abu Qasirn S h a ra fu d d in Bin A l-M u ta rj im a s s a y in g t h a t Ib n A l-A lq am i’s f a t h e r owned a l i b r a r y c o n ta in in g t e n th o u sa n d p r e c io u s v o lum es. Famous a u th o r s so u g h t him and w ro te books f o r him . P o e ts a ls o e u lo g iz e d him (3) . I t was f o r him t h a t A l-S a g h a n i w ro te "Aldbab" and Ib n A b il-H a d id w ro te "S h a rh Nahj A l-B a la g h a " , w h ile A l-M u z a ffa r B in A l-F a d l w ro te "N ad rat A l - l g h r i d " .

Ib n A l - ’Alqam i d ie d i n 656 P.H , He was b u r ie d i n Musa. B in J a a f a r ’s Mosque a t Al~Kazimmiah i n Baghdad, f o r ho was a S h i i t e Moslem. Some t a l e s

sa y t h a t I b n - A l- ’A lqam i was p e r s e c u te d by th e T a r t a r s a f t e r th e y had in v ad e d Baghdad w hich d rove him to h i s d e a th . Ho was su c ce e d e d a s

(1 ) I b i d , 455

(2) Fuad A l- B u s ta n i, D a i r a t u l Ma’a r i f p . 3/386 (3) A l- F a k h ri p . 455

m in i s te r "by h i s so n Iz z -A l-D in ( 1 ) . C u ltu re d u r in g t h a t e r a

I s la m ic c u l t u r e , d u r in g th e C ru sa d es, was d e c a y in g i n th e E a s t.

The l i g h t o f i t s p io n e e r s i n th e f i e l d s o f p h ilo s o p h y , m e d ic in e , m usic and o t h e r a r t s and s c ie n c e s was f a d in g o u t (2) .

I s la m ic c u l t u r e i n th e I s la m ic c a p i t a l s o f th e E a s t l o s t i t s v ig o u r a f t e r th e Mogul tr o o p s in v ad e d them . The la n d w hich was once pro u d o f i t s g ra n d p la c e s and f l o u r i s h i n g l i b r a r i e s tu r n e d i n t o r u in s v o id o f c u l t u r e and l e a r n i n g (3) .

I n t e r e s t i n L i t e r a r y C r i t i c i s m i n th e S i x th and S e v e n th C e n tu rie s A.H.

A s u rv e y o f l i t e r a r y a c t i v i t y d u rin g th e s i x t h and s e v e n th c e n t u r i e s would show t h a t th e m ain t r e n d was one o f p r e s e r v a t io n and p r o t e c t i o n o f l i t e r a t u r e a g a in s t l o s t . T his tr e n d was b ro u g h t a b o u t by the Cru­

s a d e s i n th e E a s t, th e f a l l o f A n d a lu sia n c i t i e s and t h e Mogul wave w hich s t r e t c h e d a s f a r a s S i n a i (4) .

(1) See h i s b io g ra p h y i n A l-B id ay a IML-Nihaya 1 3 /2 1 2 , S h a d h a ra tu l Dhahab 5 /2 7 2 , F a w a tu l M afayat 2 , 152, Al-Mujumul Z a h iia 7 /2 0 , A l-W afi B ilw a fa y a t 1 /1 8 5 , M ir a a tu l J in a n 4 /147 j D a i r a t u l M a 'a r i f by A l- B u s ta n i 3 /586 and A l - Z i r i k l i 6 /2 1 6 .

(2) H i t t i , A s h o r t H i s to r y o f th e A rabs p . 231 (3 ) I b i d . 214

(4) I h s a n A bbas, The H is to r y o f A ra b ic L i t e r a r y C r i t i c i s m p . 494

11

D uring t h a t e r a , l i t e r a r y d e b a te s became l e s s f r e q u e n t . L i t e r a r y s p e c i a l i s t s d i r e c t e d t h e i r a t t e n t i o n t o th e a f te r m a th o f w ars and con­

c e n t r a t e d on n a r r a t i n g t a l e s o f p r a i s e a b o u t h e r o e s , commanders and c h i e f s . L i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m a ls o became l o s s f r e q u e n t a s p e o p le had o th e r i n t e r e s t s .

The n a tu r e o f p o e tr y d u r in g th e s i x t h and s e v e n th c e n t u r i e s was in f lu e n c e d i n su c h a manner t h a t p o e ts te n d e d t o be r e p e t i t i v e r a t h e r th a n b r i e f and to compose to o much p o e tr y th in k in g t h a t t h a t was more a t t r a c t i v e and t h a t i t h e lp e d to p a s s th e tim e . E loquence and c l a r i t y began to d is a p p e a r i n p o e tr y and S ufism became p o p u la r which meant r e p e t i t i o n and e la b o r a t i o n i n l i e u o f a c c u ra c y i n th e u s a g e o f words and c l a u s e s .

P o e ts w ere in f lu e n c e d by s o c i a l and economic c o n d i t i o n s . P o e try became l e s s a p p e a lin g and th e ra n k o f p o e ts w ith in th e e d u c a te d commu­

n i t y became lo w e r. P o e ts no lo n g e r e a rn e d a l o t o f money by composing p o e tr y i n p r a i s e o f th e r i c h , and th e whole r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e p r a i s i n g p o e t and th e e u lo g is e d n a ti o n became t h i n and n o t anywhere a s

s tr o n g o r c lo s e a s i t u s e d to bo i n e a r l i e r c e n t u r i e s .

P e o p le became more a tt a c h e d to c o l l o q u i a l Z a j a l which th e y th o u g h t was more a p p e a lin g th a n o t h e r from s o f p o e tr y . P o e ts who d is p la y e d

o r i g i n a l i t y h o p in g to a t t r a c t c r i t i c i s m d u r in g t h a t e r a d e c li n e d ( l ) . S u p e r f i c i a l i n t e r e s t i n p o e tr y l e d many to c o n s id e r m e ta p h o rio a l

( l ) The H is to r y o f A ra b ic L i t e r a r y C r i t i c i s m p . 496

e x p r e s s io n s a s l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m and to c o n c e n tr a te o n ly on c a te g o r i ­ z a t i o n and c l a s s i f i c a t i o n to th e e x c lu s io n o f many o t h e r b a s ic in g r e ­ d i e n t s o f l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m .

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e ab o v e-m en tio n ed f e a t u r e s o f p o e tr y and c r i t i c i s m , c r i t i c s i n E g y p t, S y r ia and I r a q -were co n c ern e d t h a t t h e i r l i t e r a t u r e must have an a u t h e n t i c A rab ic c h a r a c t e r , f a r removed from G reek i n f l u e n c e . T h is c o n c e rn a r o s e from contem pt to w ard s th e c r u s a d e r s and t h e i r

in v a s io n and a p p e a re d c l e a r l y i n th e w r i ti n g s o f many l i t e r a r y s p e c ia ­ l i s t s o f t h a t e r a , Ib n A l - A t h ir , i n h i s book A l-M a th a l A l - S a 'i r empha­

s i s e d t h a t G reek s a g e s d i d n o t in f l u e n c e h is w r i t i n g s . Of t h e i r works he was t o t a l l y i g n o r a n t .

" * dS9j£ ^ ^ I "loi*- djS*J lao

He a l s o c la im e d t h a t i f anybody ro a d h i s bo o k s, he w ould f i n d t h a t he ( ib n A l- A th ir ) d id n o t r e f e r to a n y th in g t h a t G reek a u th o r s m ig h t have w i t t e n , w hich pro v ed t h a t he d id n o t r o l y upon them ( l ) .

The P e r s i a n i n f lu e n c e

The P e r s i a n was more pronounced i n S y r ia and I r a q where th e a r t o f D u b eit and Mawalia began t o compete w ith p o e tr y . I n E g y p t, how ever, p o e tr y was in f lu e n c e d by th e A n d a lu s ia n Muwashshah ( 2 ) , w hich i n d i c a t e d a s h i f t to w a rd s c o l l q u i a l p o e tr y ( Z a j a l ) , w h ile i n I r a q th e "ICan wa Kan" form o f l i t e r a t u r e began t o g a in s t r e n g t h ; i t s t a r t e d w ith le g e n d s

(1 ) A l-M a th a l A l - S a 'i r 2 /4 - 6 (2 ) Ib n K h i l l i k a n 3/501

13

and t a l e s and th e n s p re a d among p r e a c h e rs u n t i l i t f i n a l l y a c q u ir e d s i m i l a r p o p u l a r i t y to n a t i o n a l so n g s. N e v e r th e le s s , d e s p it e th e popu­

l a r i t y o f su c h c o l l o q u i a l a r t s , l i t e r a r y c r i t i c s d id n o t r e f e r to them , n o r d i d th e y r e f e r to th e l i t e r a r y d i f f e r e n c e s w hich e x i s t e d a t th e tim e

"between th e lo w e r c l a s s e s and th e e d u c a te d community.

The A n d a lu s ia n Muwashshnh was "brought t o E gypt "by A n d a lu s ia n im­

m ig ra n ts tow ards th e end o f th e s i x t h c e n tu r y and d u r in g t h e s e v e n th . T o g e th e r w ith A n d a lu s ia n p o e tr y Al-Muwashshah in f lu e n c e d E g y p tia n l i t e r a t u r e . E g y p tia n s began to in c lu d e A n d a lu s ia n P o e tr y w i t h in t h e i r own c o m p o s itio n s . Some o f them s tu d i e d A n d a lu s ia n P o e tr y and c r i t i c i s e d i t , th u s a d d in g to l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m i n Egypt d u r in g th e s i x t h and s e v e n th c e n t u r i e s w ith a d i s t i n c t i v e f e a t u r e . Among E g y p tia n L i t e r a r y c r i t i c s d u r in g t h a t e r a w ere A l-K adi A l - S a 'id E ib a t A lla h B in J a 1 a f a r B in Sann*Al~Mulk (545-608 P .H .) and A l-K a d i A l - P a d il who p la y e d a l e a d i n g r o l e i n E g y p tia n l i t e r a t u r e a t t h a t tim e . The l a t t e j . was l i k e a t e a c h e r , i n s p i r e r and c r i t i c to Ib n S an a' Al-M ulk who was th e o n ly known E g y p tia n c r i t i c to make a c r i t i c a l s tu d y o f th e A n d a lu s ia n Muwash­

s h a h . O th e r c r i t i c s wore more i n t e r e s t e d i n a n a l y t i c a l c r i t i c i s m ( l ) . A t y p i c a l a n a l y t i c a l c r i t i c was A l i B in Z a f i r ( -6 2 7 P .H .) who was

r e a l l y more i n t e r e s t e d i n r e c o r d in g h i s t o r i c a l e v e n ts . I n h i s book

" B a d a i1 A l-B a d a ’i h ” , he o n ly d e fin e d m e ta p h o ric a l e x p re s s io n s and in c lu d e d s u i t a b l e t a l e s t o i l l u s t r a t e them w ith o u t b o th e r in g to s u p p ly any

a n a l y s i s o r c r i t i c i s m . He a ls o w ro te a n o th e r book, "G h araib A l-

(1 ) The H i s to r y o f A rab L i t e r a r y C r i ti c i s m p p .581 , 586

T a s h b e e h a t'1 i n w hich ho u s e d a s i m i l a r s t y l e b u t w ith s p e c i a l emphasis t h i s tim e on A n d a lu s ia n a n a lo g ie s *

Z aki A l-D een Ib n A b i l - I s b a 1 ( -6 5 4 P .H .) who w ro te " T a h rir A1- T a h b ir ” was a n o th e r a n a l y t i c a l c r i t i c . He t r i e d t o c l a s s i f y th e a r t s o f r h e t o r i c a l f i g u r e s (A l-B a d i1) betw een th e days o f Ib n Al-M uf t a z z and h i s own tim e s . He depended on many r e f e r e n c e s which r e n d e r e d h i s book o n ly s u i t a b l e f o r com paring c r i t i c s and t h e i r u s e o f r h e t o r i c a l f i g u r e s . He added n o th in g new and was s u p e r f i c i a l i n h i s acco u n t o f l i t e r a r y

c r i t i c i s m .

D iy a T A l-D in Ib n A l- A th ir ( -6 5 7 A .H .) h i g h li g h te d th e r o l e o f t h e l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i n "T a’l i n A l-B ayan" by f i r s t a p p ly in g h i s own th e o r y a b o u t l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m t o h i s own p r o s e and th e n t o sam ples o f o th e r p e o p le ’ s p o e tr y and p r o s e . Ho d i d n o t t h in k th e r e was any d i f f e r e n c e betw een p r o s e and p o e tr y i n t h e i r s u b je c t m a t te r . However, he co n clu d ed t h a t p o e tr y had more them es th a n p ro s e b e cau se th e A rabs had been com­

p o s in g p o e tr y a l l a lo n g ( l ) . He s u g g e s te d t h a t a l l who w anted to su c ce e d i n w r i t i n g good p ro s e sh o u ld f i r s t s tu d y p o e tr y i n o r d e r t o a c q u a in t th e m se lv e s w ith th e m o tif s th e y w anted t h e i r p r o s e t o h a v e . Ho a ls o th o u g h t p o e tr y c o u ld c o n ta i n u n u s u a l id e a s and e x p r e s s io n s w hich w ould sound odd i n p r o s e ( 2 ) ,

Ib n A l- A th ir a ls o t a l k e d ab o u t p l a g ia r is m i n p o e tr y . He m entioned t h a t some p e o p le copy th e id e a and most o f t h e w o rding; a form o f

(1 ) A1 M athal A l-S a ’i r 1 / l 37 (2) I b i d , 1 /257

15

p l a g ia r is m w hich he c a l l e d "N askh", s h e e r c o p y in g . O th e rs c o n v e rte d p l e a s a n t d e s c r i p t i o n i n t o u g ly d e s c r i p t i o n , a fam o f p l a g i a r i s m h e c a l l e d "Maskh", i . e . r e d u c in g th e i d e a to som ething i n f e r i o r o r w orth­

le s s * Ho r e f e r r e d a ls o to a t h i r d form o f p la g ia r is m w hich he c a l l e d

"S alkh" ( 1 ) .

Ib n A l- A th ir b e lie v e d t h a t a p o e t o r a p ro s e w r ite d w ould o n ly e x c e l i f he h ad t h e t a l e n t o f i n c o r p o r a t in g new m o tiv e s w hich he ( ib n A l- A th ir ) b o th co u n te d and c l a s s i f i e d . He a ls o th o u g h t t h a t p e o p le were

th e s o u rc e and th e f i n a l ju d g e o f such new m o tiv es and t h e d u ty o f th e l i t e r a r y c r i t i c o f s p e c i a l i s t was to p e r s i s t i n lo o k in g f o r them . He lo a th e d p la g ia r is m and r e p e t i t i o n and c o n s id e r e d new m o tiv e s a b a s i s f o r t h e work o f p o e ts and p r o s e w r i t e r s . He was a ls o r e p e l l e d by th e e x c e s s iv e u s e o f a n a lo g ie s i n p o e tr y which b e l i t t l e d i t s e lo q u e n c e .

I b n A l- A th ir had a s tr o n g p e r s o n a l i t y . Ho depended on com parison i n h i s l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m and was known f o r s t a t i n g h i s v ie w , b o th b r a v e ly and c l e a r l y . T his d i s t i n g u i s h e d him from o t h e r c r i t i c s i n E g y p t, S y r ia and I r a q whose c r i t i c i s m n e v e r exceeded p a r t i a l a tte m p ts , and who w ere m o stly i n t e r e s t e d i n c l a s s i f y i n g m e ta p h o ric a l and r h e t o r i c a l f i g u r e s .

A l-M u z a ffa r Ib n Ai*»3Ta d l

A f t e r re v ie w in g many b io g r a p h ic a l and h i s t o r i c a l and l i t e r a r y r e f e r e n c e w o rk s, p a r t i c u l a r l y th o s e on S h i i t e l i t e r a r y p io n e e r s and s p e c i a l i s t s , I was o n ly a b le t o f i n d s c a n ty in f o r m a tio n a b o u t th e l i f e

(1 ) I b i d , 5 /2 2 5 -2 9 4

and u p b r in g in g o f th e a u th o r , A l-M u sa ffa r Ib n A l- F a d l. He was Abu A ll A l-M u z a ffa r Ib n A l-S axd A bi A l-Q asen A l-F a d l Ib n A bi J a a f a r Tnhya Ib n A bi A l i A b d illa h Ib n A bi A b d illa h J a 'a f a r A l-A law i A l- H u s a in i. I t can be c o n c lu d e d from h i s l in e a g e t h a t he was a S h i i t e , which he a ls o con­

firm e d by h i s f r e q u e n t r e f e r e n c e s to S h i i t e L i t e r a r y s p e c i a l i s t s i n h i s book and by h i s a tt e n d in g th e c o u r t o f th e W azir Ib n A 1 -! A lq a m i, a le a d in g S h i i t e o f h i s a g e ,

A l-M u z a ffa r was b o m i n 584 A.H, (1188 A ,P .) i n M osul, where he grew u p , b e f o r e c p n in g to Baghdad a s a young man where he s tu d i e d l i t e r a t u r e . One o f h is t e a c h e r s , a c c o rd in g to h i s book " Iln d ra t A l - l g h r i d " , was th e K o ra n ic r e a d e r Abu Muhammad Ib n A b il-B a r a k a t Ib n A l- B aq q al, Ho a ls o m entioned i n h i s book t h a t he le a r n e d a l o t from h is f a t h e r who t o l d him s t o r i e s a b o u t l i t e r a t u r e and p o e tr y , w hich ho had b een t o l d by h i s u n c le Ifahanmad Bin Muhammad B in U b ay d u llah A l-A law i A 1- H u s a in i who was known a s S h e ik h A l- S h a r a f and was an a u t h o r i oy on th e g e n c o lo g io s o f th e p e o p le o f Baghdad. The l a t t e r l i v e d i n Mosul f o r a w h ile and l i v e d t o bo one h undred y e a r s o ld ( 1 ) .

A l-M u z a ffa r was one o f th e l i t e r a r y s p e c i a l i s t s who s a t i n Ib n

* r

A l- A lq a n i’ s c o u r t . I t was th e ¥ a z i r Ib n A l-A lqam i who o r d e r e d him to w r i t e "N ad rat A l - l g h r i d " , A l-M u z a ffa r m entioned t h a t he w ro te a n o th e r book " A l- R is a la A l'A la w iy y a " , i n which he o n ly d is c u s s e d e lo q u e n c e o f s t y l e i n a manner s i m i l a r t o " S i r A l-F a sa h a " by Ib n S in a n A l - K h a f f a ji .

(1) See s K h ashf A l-Zunun 6/553 f H ad iy y at A l - 1 A r i f i n 2 /4 6 4 , A l - Z i r i k l i 6/21 6 and K hahhala 12/300 .

17

A l-M u z a ffa r d ie d i n 656 A.H, (1258 A .H .) (1)

B . NADRAf AL-IGERID AMD ITS CONTENT

OGcasion ond p u rp o se

I n t h e 'b e g in n in g o f h i s hook, th e a u th o r m entions t h a t d u r in g a d i s c u s s io n on p o e tr y i n Ih n A l - 1 A lqam i*s c o u r t , i t s q u a l i t i e s , d e f e c ts and i n f l u e n c e on p e o p le , th e l a t t e r a sk ed him to w r i te a hook on th e

s u b je c t o f t h e d i s c u s s i o n . T hat was t h e m ain m o tiv e f o r w r i t i n g "N adrat A l - lg h r id " whose t i t l e i n d i c a t e d t h a t A l-M u z a ffa r w ish ed t o s o t s ta n d a rd s

f o r d e fe n d in g p o e try *

C o n te n ts o f the, ho.ok

"N ad rat A l - lg h r id " c o n ta in s f i v e m ain c h a p te r s , ea ch o f which c o n s i s t s o f s e v e r a l p a r t s .

I . The f i r s t c h a p te r d e a ls m a in ly w ith th e d e f i n i t i o n o f p o e tr y , i t s m o tiv e s , c o n d itio n s and r u l e s .

11 jl—,.1 l^s-1 d— j ■ » ,:J 1

A l-M u zn ffh r b e g in s C h a p te r I hy d e f in in g th e m eaning o f th e word S h i ’r ( p o e tr y ) and e x p la in in g why i t was c a l l e d " q a s i d " . He th e n go es on to d e f in e p o e tr y a s a " c o m p o sitio n o f words e x p r e s s in g com prehended id e a s "

o r a s "words a rra n g e d t o g e t h e r which e x p re s s in te n d e d i d e a s " *

(1) A lw a fi B i l W afayat 1 /1 1 8 ond A l-D h a ri’a 4 /5 0 8

-Q 11 " • 11 ^ liio Jjitf (JJ&' 2—flj)—I aIo J»jL™sj1 4j I

£

• H d JcpOjio I .. On ( j J s J d U J I 4j Lj*

The a u th o r a l s o e x p la in s t h e m eaning o f " a l - q a s i d " and com pared p o e tr y w ith p r o s e q u o tin g A bu-A la*s view s (1 ) on th e d i f f e r e n c e betw een th e n .

The a u th o r th e n names th e b a s e s o f p >etry ond th e i n g r e d i e n t s t h a t make i t u p . Ho c l a s s i f i e s A l-B a d i ( R h e to r ic a l f i g u r e s ) i n t o th ir ty - o n e c a te g o r i e s :

1 , Grammar 5__________________ >^J!

2* E x p r e s s iv e s t y l e 2--- &>!--- J l

3 . E loquence 2_______________ a-1 &kl I

4 . P ro p e r ond t r o p i c a l u s e o f words j 1________1—V i>J 1

5 . V e r s i f i c a t i o n ^ _______ - U z d l j 2 «_ndl

6 . C o r r e c t m etre 7 . Rhymes

8 . A llu s io n ond metonymy 9 . S i m i l i z a t i o n

1 0 , P aronom asia 1 1 . A n t i t h e s i s 12* A l- T a s d ir 1 3 . A p o stro p h e 14* D ig r e s s io n 15* D i s t r i b u t i o n

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( l ) N a d ra t A l - l g h r i d ,p p , 58, 5 9, 60

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ajl) I

1 - Grammar . j A f t e r d e f in in g grammar, A l-M u z a ffa r goes on t o t a l k a b o u t th e f i r s t p e rs o n to speak o f fo rm a l gram m ar, A li B in A bi T a le b . He c o n c lu d e s t h i s s e c t i o n o f h i s book by s a y in g t h a t p o e tr y con o n ly be sound and f a u l t l e s s i f th e p o e t knew w e ll th e s u b t l e t i e s and i n t r i c a c i e s o f grammar. f -J *i > I I ^jO lW_j <J I j.. ,.Tt «<» l

11 d-*9 L fcj i^a a Is jjjJ s d-^9 ^ 1 m io ) Z—2j~n*-> 'jj 1 vjX n J I {^yG

2 " E x p re s s iv e s t y l e a— i >l 11 ; A l-M u z a ffa r q u o te s d i f f e r e n t d e f i n i t i o n s o f "b ala g h a " by d i f f e r e n t p e o p le , and th e n g iv e s h i s own d e f i ­ n i t i o n o f th e d e r i v a t i o n o f th e t e r n "B alagha" . He f i r s t e x p la in s t h e meaning o f t h e v e rb from w hich th e word "B alagha" i s d e r iv e d a s a t t a i n i n g o n e 's g o a ls by o n e 's a b i l i t y and b a rd work and th u s "B alagha"

n ean s th e a b i l i t y to u n d e rs ta n d t h e g o a ls o f A ra b ic w o rd s.

dJ° d^^S O'* O ^ ^ b ^ a ^ e) * ***“' "$j~> d) ^

I -» ' j.a.Jg qX-'j-® «x_ ^ Ip CLnAs^ I«J 1 I? J* ^ ^ '***" ^

tiU i J J LwJ 1 c . I; I c_ L; lc c5ipc-a5p U l eXili tiU J ^ 5 * * J ! c J - ^

t &-i? '" ^ I ^ I Cajs*~y 1 q U 1 ILsJ dL&ufo v ^ ^ I (jXt

” d-i ^ k d) ^9

A l-M u z a ffa r th e n g iv e s exam ples from th e K aran o f w hat ho C a lls th e h i g h e s t and n o b l e s t d e g re e s o f e x p re s s iv e s t y l e . He a ls o g iv e s o t h e r exam ples d e r iv e d from poems composed by famous A rab p o e ts .

3 - E loquence *—^ ^ ^ I : The a u th o r m en tio n s t h a t ho had p ro v id e d a d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s io n o f e lo q u en ce i n a n o th e r book w r i t t e n by him ,

" A l-R is a la A l-A law iyya" whoso s t y l o i s s i m i l a r to t h a t o f K h a f f a j i . He th e n g o es 011 to e x p la in th e d e r i v a t i o n o f th e word F a sa h a (e lo q u e n c e )

4 - P r o p e r ond t r o p i c a l u s e o f words j 1 d-aAjgJl . a u th o r d e f i n e s p r o p e r and t r o p i c a l u s e o f words i n a s i m i l a r way to Al-Rummani (1) , Ho th e n g iv e s exam ples from th e K oran and from A ra b ic p o e tr y w hich ho sa y s i s f u l l o f t r o p i c a l u s e o f w ords.

(1) N ad rat A l - l g h r i d , p . 67

21 ^'

5 - V e r s i f i c a t i o n ihU*aJI «

■ * ° ; 1 0 l l L w I ^ * ^ “ 5 * £ j ° d - 4 c a L » » ^ JJI ^Jail I d j L } £ J I I

* j ^ i l o J 1 I d j,.iG )i lb ^ j J I I 1 j j I j 0 '- ' j - *-1 I

A l-S a n ’a h , a c c o r d in g to th e a u th o r , i s th e m e t r ic a l o r d e r w hich d i s t i n ­ g u is h e s v e r s e from p ro s e w here words a r e s c a t t e r e d w ith o u t su c h an o rd er* Al-M asnu i s d e f in e d a s v e r s e whose m a t e r i a l i s t h a t o f p r o s e , A l-M uE affar c r i t i c i s e s p e o p le who c o n fu se A i- S a n 'a h w ith l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m . Ho a s s e r t s t h a t i t i s u n f a i r to e v a lu a te a poem w ith o u t knowing i t s c o n te n ts and s tu d y in g i t c a r e f u l l y .

6 - C o r r e c t m etre t')jp .lllL*»LJ>l ; The a h i l r t v to m a in ta in c o r r e c t m e tre i s a n a t u r a l t a s t e f o r p r e s e r v in g th e m usic o f t h e v e r s e w ith o u t a n y a d d it io n s o r l o s s .

* ” ^ L I ^ S-flS t ^J ^ Lss&iJ lj <i J LjJ I ^

A l-M u z a ffa r d e s c r i b e s p ro so d y a s th e '’b a la n c e " o f p o e tr y , a n a th e n sp e a k s o f i t s th r o e m ain s y l l a b i c c o n s t i t u e n t s , Al~Watad A “3*^ , A l-sa b a b v_— — h J I and A l - f a s i l a h "i LslaJI •

7 - Rliyme u __ ^ 19- iLH , A l-M u z a ffa r m en tio n s t h a t t h e r e a re d i f f e r e n t o p in io n s o f rhym e, and he d e s c r i b e s th o s e o p in io n s a t t r i b u t e d to A l-A k h fa sh , A l- K h a lil B in Ahmad and o th e r g ram m arians. The a u th o r th e n t a l k s a b o u t th e t h r o e d i v i s i o n s o f rhym e, nam ely U sui

H uruf . sjj and Baraka t c I , He a ls o m en tio n s th e

f o u r f a u l t s w hich m y o c c u r i n rliyme, nam ely i k f a ' *1 “S*l , Iqw a'

—si , i t a ’ 'I L ,I and s in a d ^I—^ and g iv e s exam ples o f e a c h . 8 - A lqab V ^" — i Those a r e d iv id e d by t h e a u th o r i n to

s e v e r a l c a t e g o r i e s ⁱ

a ) A llu s io n 2,1— * I t i s one o f th e b e s t r h e t o r i c a l f i g u r e s and i t n e a n s th e i n c l u s i o n o f m iiy i d e a s i n a few w ords.

* 11

^

^

A l-M u z a ffa r g iv e s a l l th e f a m i l i a r exam ples o f a l l u s i o n ond comments on e a ch o f them .

b ) Metonymy I —wI—6JI j A ltliough th e w o rd in g may d i f f e r , y e t metonymy a c c o n p lish .e s an a lm o st i d e n t i c a l m eaning t o a l l u s i o n . Some p e o p le c a l l i t A l - t a t b i ’ ^ — ..rmJ 1 b e c a u se th e p o e t n ay aim a.t som ething and come up w ith th e r e l e v a n t w ording to d e s c r ib e i t .

♦ " aJ £ . b J a il, "

As u s u a l , t h e a u th o r d e r i v e s exam ples on metonymy from th e K oran and A m b ic p o e tr y and i d e n t i f i e s th e metonymy i n e a c h exam ple. He a ls o r e l a t e s some w ell-know n s t o r i e s j u s t b e c au se th e y c o n ta i n an example o f metonymy.

9*™ S i m i l i z a t i o n 2—?j I ^ J 1 . j_s com posing a l i n e o f v e r s e so t h a t th e number o f words i n th e f i r s t h a l f i s e q u a l t o th e number o f words i n th e seco n d h a l f . I f any change i s made t o any o f t h e two h a lv e s , s in i- l i z a t i o n o r b a la n c e i s no lo n g e r m a in ta in e d . A l-M u z a ffa r g iv e s exam ples o f s i n i l i z a t i o n and o f w hat happens when you make ch an g es by c u t t i n g words o u t o f l i n e s of v e r s o .

1 0 - P a r o n o m a s ia __u*. . : I t i s th e p o r t ’ s u sa g e o f two r e l a t e d w ords w hich a r e s i m i l a r i n r y th n , c lo s e i n t h e i r w o rd in g , e a s i l y u n d e rs to o d and a c c e p ta b le to th e e a r s . A l-M u z a ffa r t a l k s ab o u t th e d i f f e r e n t c a t e g o r i e s o f A l- T a jn is s

25

a ) A l ~ t a j n i s Al-ixihcl (sim p le p aronom asia)

w hich th e a u th o r d e f in e s a s tho u sa g e o f two words w hich sound a s i f th e y were d e r iv e d f r o n th e sa n e o r i g i n .

b ) T a jn is A l - l a f ^ JaiU 1^— whi ch th e a u th o r o n ly m en tio n s b u t does n o t d e f i n e .

c) A l ~ t a j n i s A l-n u g h a y ir j—^ LAoJ I where one o f the two words i s a noun and th o o t h e r i s a v e r b .

d) A l - t a j n i s A l - m q a r ib v j ^ 1 w hich i s n o t r e a l l y a form o f t a j n i s b u t sounds v e r y much l i k e i t ,

e) T a jn is A l - n a 'n a 0 --- La<JI w here A l ~ t a jn i s i s a c h ie v e d by th e s i m i l a r i t y betw een th e m eanings o f th o two w ords.

f ) A l - t a j n i s A l-n u tn i* £-— ) where th e p o e t u s e s a word and th e n hopes t o a c h ie v e t a j n i s by u s in g a se co n d word w hich h a s th o s a n e l e t t e r s a s th o f i r s t word w ith th e e x c e p tio n o f o n ly one l e t t e r .

g) A l - t a j n i s A l-m ubdal J o —«aJ 1 w hich i s s i m i l a r to ( f ) .

h) A l-m uj annas A l- m u k h ta lif (JiliAoJ \ I w hich th e a u th o r does n o t d e f i n e b u t o n ly g iv e s exam ples o f .

i ) T a jn is A l^ k h a t o r T a s h if I JaAJ where

th e two words o n ly d i f f e r i n th o d i s t r i b u t i o n o f th e ’’d o ts " on tho l e t t e r s .

j ) T a jn is A l- b a ’d w hich ht. does n o t d e f i n e

b u t g iv e s some exam ples from A ra b ic p o e tr y .

k ) A l-m ujannas Al-mutannam » aJicJ I J-w J I where th e

p o e t u s e a word th e n cones up w ith a s i m i l a r word which he o m p le te s w ith one o r two l e t t o r s w hich d i f f e r f ro n e th e o r i g i n a l l e t t e r .

l ) T a jn is A l-q a w a fi <_*---- » I u — whi c h th e a u th o r does n o t d e f i n e .

n ) A l - t a j n i s A l- n u n a th e l

J iUdl

1 1 - A n t i t h e s i s * <>>lEa<Jl : I t i s in c lu d in g two w ords s i m i l a r i n p r o n o u n o la tio n h u t o p p o s ite i n m eaning. A l-M u z a ffa r commenced hy g iv in g d i f f e r e n t p e o p le l s d e f i n i t i o n s o f a n t i t h e s i s . N e a rly a l l d e f i n i t i o n s and exam ples were c o p ie d f r o n Al-Umada, Ih n Aashiq, and Qudana.

1 2 - A l- T a s d ir j—^ I : I t i s to h e g in a l i n e o f v e r s e w ith a c e r t a i n word and th e n r e p e a t th e s a n e word i n t h e seco n d h a l f o f th e same l i n o . A l-M u z a ffa r re p ro d u c e s many d e f i n i t i o n s and exam ples o f A l- t a s d i r w ith o u t g iv in g h i s own.

13) A p o strophe c e \ » I t i s th e s w itc h f r o n c o n v e r s a ti o n to s u p p ly in g in f o r m a tio n o r v i c e v e r s a . A gain, th o a u th o r p r e s e n t s o t h e r p e o p l e 's d e f i n i t i o n s w ith o u t g iv in g h i s own.

14) D ig r o s s io n J ^ ^ ; I t i s d i g r e s s in g from p r a i s e to s a t i r e o r s la n d e r and v i c e v e r s a . A f t e r p r e s e n t in g th o above d e f i n i t i o n , th e a u th o r g iv e s exam ples d e riv e d from A ra b ic p o e tr y . He r e l a t e s a s t o r y f r o n A l-A ghani i l l u s t r a t i n g good d i g r e s s i o n .

*15- D i s t r i b u t i o n ^ 1 : He b e g in s by g iv in g p o e ti c exam ples i l l u s t r a t i n g d i s t r i b u t i o n w ith o u t b o th e r in g t o d e fin e i t .

1 6 - A l- ta s h im r ^ t I t i s im p roving p o e tr y and m o d ifying

25

i t s w ording and m o tiv e s . The a u th o r th in k s t h a t th o above i s th e c o r r e c t d e f i n i t i o n o f A l- ta s h im , u n lik e o t h e r people-1 s d e f i n i t i o n s w hich sa y s t h a t A l - t a s h i n i s t h e q u a l i t y which e n a b le s th e l i s t e n e r t o -understand th e in te n d e d m eaning o f th e poem b e fo r e th o p o e t h ad co m p le te d r e c i t i n g i t . A l-M u z o ffa r th e n go es on to p r e s e n t exam ples i l l u s t r a t i n g A l - t a s h i n .

1 7 - A l - t a r s i * _q— I : A f t e r e x p la in in g th e m oaning o f th e word " t a r s i 1" , th e a u th o r s t a t e s t h a t t a r s i uo p o e tr y i s l i k e je w e ls to a crow n.

1 8 - R e p e t it io n ---' ; Tho aether d e f i n e s i t a s r e l a t i n g a

c e r t a i n word i n a l i n e o f v e r s e w ith a c e r t a i n m eaning and th e n re p e a ­ t i n g th e s a n e word i n th e same l i n e o f v e rs o b u t t h i s t i n e r e l a t i n g i t to a d i f f e r e n t m oaning. A l-M u z a ffa r p r e s e n t s exam ples o f r e p e t i t i o n .

I t i s s i g n i f i c a n t to n o te t h a t th o above c a t e g o r i e s o f r h e t o r i c a l f i g u r e s a r e th e w ell-know n c a te g o r i e s c l a s s i f i e d by m ost c r i t i c s o f th e p a s t , A l-M u z a ffa r r a r e l y g iv e s h i s own d e f i n i t i o n o f c a te g o r i e s o f r h e t o r i c a l f i g u r e s . Ho e i t h e r c o p ie s t h e d e f i n i t i o n s o f o t h e r s , o r p ro c e e d s to g iv e exam ples d e riv e d from th e K aran, H a d ith o r A rabic p o e tr y w ith o u t b o th e r in g ab o u t s t a t i n g d e f i n i t i o n s * He u s e s rhymes p r o s e to make h i s comments on r h e t o r i c a l f i g u r e s , h o p in g t h a t t h i s

s t y l o w i l l im p re ss th o r e a d e r . H ost o f th e exam ples he u s e s are f a m i l i a r , f o r th e y a r e u s e d i n m ost books on l i t e r a r y c r i t ic is m , t h a t have been w i t t e n b e fo r e I lls book.

A f t e r s u rv e y in g th e c a t e g o r i e s o f r h e t o r i c a l f i g u r e s , a s c l a s s i f i e d by a number o f c r i t i c s , I d is c o v e r e d t h a t A l-M u z a ffa r c a te g o r i z e d r h e t o r i ­ c a l f i g u r e s i n n e a r l y th o same manner a s Ib n R a sh iq i n A11 Unda.

I t i s a ls o i n t e r e s t i n g t o no to t h a t o u r a u th o r t a l k s ab o u t

" n u ta b a 'a " i n p r o s e and p o e tr y w hich i n p l i o s t h a t i d e a s s h o u ld n o t ho p r e s e n te d i n a wrong se q u en c e ; th e y sh o u ld he p r o p e r ly o r d e r e d . He u s e s exam ples from th e K oran and A ra b ic p o e tr y , a s he does when t a l k in g a b o u t any t o p i c .

A ls o , A l-M u z a ffa r t a l k s ab o u t th o b e s t n o th o d o f e x p r e s s in g p r a i s e o r s la n d e r i n p o e tr y . He q u o ted Ib n Al-Muna3j i n a s s a y in g t h a t t h i s a p p ro a c h was fo llo w e d by n odorn p o e ts and not so much by more "advanced"

p o e ts ( 1 ) .

The a u th o r a ls o t a l k s a b o u t what he c a l l s " p ro te n d in g n o t to know".

Hq m en tio n s t h a t t h a t moans a s k in g a q u e s tio n whose answ er i s known t o th e p o e t o r p r o s e w r i t e r , i n o r d e r to show th o c lo s e rese m b la n c e betw een two t h i n g s . A l-M u z a ffa r s a y s t h a t t h a t phenomenon i s f a m i l i a r i n A rab ic p o e tr y and p r o s e . He s u p p o rts h i s a s s e r t i o n by g iv in g a number o f exam ples.

He a ls o t a l k s about "num atanah" w hich i s a f e r n o f c o m p e titio n where one p o e t h a s t o compose th o f i r s t h a l f o f a v e r s e and a n o th e r h a s

t o compose t h e second h a l f . I n a n o th e r form o f c o m p e titio n c a l l e d

" I n f a d " , th o f i r s t p o e t h a s to compose a whole v e r s e , and th e se co n d p o e t h a s to re s p o n d by com posing a seco n d whole v e r s e , A l-M uzaf f a r g iv e s many ex am p les, a n d som etim es r e l a t e s lo n g s t o r i e s a b o u t num atanah and i n f a d .

A ls o , i n th e f i r s t c h a p t e r , the a u th o r d i s c u s s e s p la g ia r is m and

(1 ) N a d ra t A l - I g h r i d , p . 195

27

c l a s s i f i e s i t in to two c a t e g o r i e s : a t t r a c t i v e and r e p e l l e n t . He d e v id e s a t t r a c t i v e p l a g i a r i s m i n t o te n fo rm s , some o f w hich a r e co n v er­

t i n g d e t a i l e d and u n n e c e s s a ry w ording i n t o a c o n c is e fo rm u la , co n v er­

t i n g had p o e tr y i n t o good v e r s e , c o n v e rtin g th o u g ly t o th e b e a u t i f u l , a lampoon i n t o p r a i s e , and d e r i v i n g p l e a s a n t m eanings from p l a i n w ords.

Ho g iv e s exam ples on e a c h o f th o s e t e n form s o f a t t r a c t i v e p la g i a r i s m . Al-M uzaf f o r a ls o c l a s s i f i e d r e p e l l e n t p l a g i a r i s n i n t o t e n fo rm s, w hich in c lu d e : t u r n i n g c o n c is e w ording i n t o a le n g th y o n e , good i n t o bad p o e tr y , th e b e a u t i f u l i n t o u g ly , p r a i s e i n t o lampoon and d e l e t i n g words n e c e s s a r y f o r c o m p le tin g th o moaning* As u s u a l , he i l l u s t r a t e d

th o s e t e n fo rm s o f r e p e l l e n t p la g ia r is m w ith example s .

I n t h e c o n te x t o f p l a g i a r i s m , th e a u th o r t a l k e d a b o u t " a l-ta w a ru d "

w hich he s a i d xsras th o c o rre sp o n d e n c e o f i d e a s . I t was c a l l e d H taw arud"

o n ly to a v o id c a l l i n g i t p la g i a r i s m . A l-M u z a ffa r em phasised t h a t taw arud was p u re u n e t h i c a l p la g ia ris m * H is a t t i t u d e to w a rd s taw arud s u p p o rte d t h a t o f Ib n A l- S ilc k it ( 1 ) .

A l- II u z a f f a r c o n c lu d e s th e f i r s t c h a p te r by a p o lo g iz in g t o th e r e a d e r f o r h i s e l a b o r a t i o n , c o n tr a r y to h i s p rom ise to bo c o n c is e .

C h a p te r two d e a ls w ith p o e ti c lic e n c e : w hat t h e p o e t i s a llo w e d and f o rb id d e n t o u s e . The a u th o r f o r g i v e s p o e ts f o r u s a g e s th e y had to a d o p t i n thed? poems o u t o f n e c e s s i t y . He fo u n d s e x c u se s f o r non-A rabs who h ad t o u s e c e r t a i n e x p r e s s io n s , b u t n o t f o r A rabs who i n com posing p o e tr y were u s in g t h e i r own lan g u a g e f o r which th e y have th o i n s t i n c t and draw ing on t h e i r own t r a d i t i o n s .

(1) N a d ra t A l - I g h r i d , p p . 217,218

Among th o most im p o rta n t q u a l i t i e s , A l-M u zaffar th o u g h t p o o ts sh o u ld a v o id , was u s in g u n a c c e p ta b le and u n a t t r a c t i v e rh ythm s and h a rs h

f o r o n t ’'h a ra k a h " on d i f f e r e n t rhym es, and I t a , i . e . u s in g th o same rhymo-word i n two s u c c e s s iv e v e r s e s i n th e same poem. He a l s o approved o f n e i t h e r I k f a i n rhym e, i . e . changing "Al~rawwiyn l e t t e r n o r S in a d , i . e . v a r y in g t h e '‘barakB ii11 b e f o r e c o n s o n a n t. He a ls o d i s ­ a pproved o f i m p l ic a ti o n , i . e . b a s in g a v e r s e on w ords whoso m eaning a p p e a re d i n a s u b se q u e n t v e r s e . He d isa p p ro v e d o f t r e a t i n g th e d i p to t e a s a t r i p t o t e and u s in g th e lo n g a l i f a s a s h o r t vow el or v i c e v e r s a .

A f t e r naming a l l t h e t r a n s g r e s s i o n s , ho d is a p p ro v e s o f i n p o e tr y , A l-M u z a ffa r a g a in s u p p o rts h i s view s w ith exam ples drawn from th e K oran, and A ra b ic p o e t r y . Ho th e n e n u m erates th e d i f f e r e n t

c a s e s where th e p o e t i s p e r m itte d t o bond th o r u l e s . However, he em p h asises t h a t what i s t o l e r a t e d i n c e r t a i n c irc u m s ta n c e s c a n n o t be t o l e r a t e d i n o t h e r s . He a ls o a d v is e s p o e ts to bend tho r u l e s i n e x t r a ­ o r d in a r y c ir c u m s ta n c e s , i f th e y have to do s o , w ith u tm o st c a ro i n o r d e r t h a t t h e i r p o e tr y w i l l n o t sound u g ly and u n a t t r a c t i v e . He g iv e s exam ples o f a t t r a c t i v e and u g ly u s e o f p o e ti c l i c e n c e .

111. C h a p te r t h r e e d e a ls w i t a th e a d v a n ta g e s o r m e r its and im­

p r e s s i v e q u a l i t i e s o f p o e tr y and i t s im pact on th e h e a r t .

I n t h i s C h a p te r, A l-M u z a ffa r s u g g e s ts t h a t p o e tr y had a g r e a t rhym es, ^ e a ls o d id n o t t o l e r a t e Iq u a i n rhyme w hich i s u s in g a d i f -

29

i n f lu e n c e on an c o n tr i b u te d a l o t to Arab c i v i l i z a t i o n . He names th e a d v a n ta g e s o f p o e tr y and sa y s t h a t i f i t w ere n o t f o r p o e tr y many famous p e o p le w ould have rem ained unknown. Pooms, he s a y s , w ere composed a b o u t v a r io u s p e o p le and t r i b e s , and w ere r e c i t e d so o f t e n t h a t th e y became

a s p o p u la r a s id io m s and p r o v e r b s . Tho a u th o r r e l a t e s t a l e s and s t o r i e s w hich p o e tr y p la y e d a m ajo r r o l e i n s p re a d in g 1 * Exam ples o f th o s e t a l e s a r e t h e t a l o o f Abd B ani K ashas and Al-M a’moun, an d th e t a l e o f Barim B in S inan and Z u h a ir B in A bi Sulma whose p r a i s e o f H a rin c o n tr i b u te d a l o t t o im p ro v in g th o s ta n d in g o f th e l a t t e r . P o e try w hich was composed i n p r a i s e o f c e r t a i n p eo p le r e v e a le d many th in g s w hich m ig h t have o t h e r - w ise rem ain ed unknown.

A l-M u z a ffa r s a y s t h a t p o e tr y a ls o c o n tr i b u te d a l o t to w ard s im­

p ro v in g th e s t a t u s o f th o p o e ts th e m s e lv e s . Some p o e ts who were ashamed o f t h e i r l in e a g e and s t a t u s m ale up f o r t h a t by com posing w o n d e rfu l p o e tr y . As on exam ple, th e a u th o r m entions t h a t J a r i r was o f humble o r i g i n , and t h a t h i s p o e tr y gave him a s i m i l a r s t a t u s to t h a t o f A l-Farazdaq. who h im s e lf g l o r i f i e d J a r i r i n some o f h i s own poems.

A l-M u z a ffa r b e li e v e s t h a t p o e tr y im m o rta liz e s i t s com poser. Many p e o p le a r e f o r g o t t e n a f t e r th e y d i e , w h ile p o e tr y rem ains im m o rta l, th u s im m o rta liz in g th p o e t. A rabs c o n s id e re d p o e tr y o f g r e a t im pact and h ig h v a lu e and th e y esteem ed p o e ts a s th e y d id p r i n c e s , bhonover a p o e t e x c e l l e d , h i s t r i b e d e r iv e d p r id e from h is p o e tr y and began to be e n v ie d by o t h e r t r i b e s . He became r e s p o n s ib le f o r d e fe n d in g tho honour and a n c e s t r y o f h i s t r i b e and a ls o f o r g l o r i f y i n g i t s a c c o n -

p l i s h n e n t s . Tho a u th o r p r e s e n t s a number o f exam ples o f t h a t phenomenon, one o f w hich i s th e famous s t o r y o f Bani O uray*, who were known a s Banu Anf A l-N aqah ( c h i l d r e n o f th e C am el's n o s t r i l ) . They w ere a n g e re d by

t h a t nicknam e u n t i l A l~ H u ta y 'a h composed p o e tr y i n t h e i r p r a i s e . ' ’I t i s th e y who a r e th e n o s e , w h ile o t h e r s a rc th e t a i l . Who would e q u a te a c a m e l's n o s t r i l w ith i t s t a i l ” (l ) . T h e ir nicknam e th e n became a f e r n of p r a i s e , even b o o s t.

A n o th e r a d v a n ta g e o f p o e tr y , a c c o rd in g to th e a u th o r , i s th e a b i l i t y o f p o e ts to g o t o u t o f t r i c k y o r dangerous s i t u a t i o n s by com posing p o e tr y w hich can t u r n a n g e r i n t o r e l i e f . T his depends upon

h i s

th e p o e t ’s w it a n d / a b i l i t y t o u s e w ording and m eaning w hich can be a l t e r e d o r r e - i n t e r p r e t e d , when th e n eed a r i s e s , to s u i t th o p o e t 's c ir c u m s ta n c e s . He c o u ld t u r n p r a i s e i n t o lampoon o r v i c e v e r s a . The a u th o r a g a in g iv e s many exam ples o f some g ra v e i n c i d e n t s betw een p o e ts and p a tr o n s , when p o e tr y a lo n e succeed ed i n q u i e t in g th in g s down and s a v in g t h e p o e t 's n e c k . One o f th o s e exam ples i s th e s t o r y o f K a 'b Bin Z u h a ir when th e P ro p h e t Muhammad th roatonc-d to have him p u t t o d e a th

had

a f t e r h e /l e a r n e d t h a t K a 'b had composed a poem a t t a c k i n g th e P ro p h e t and I s la m . When Ka’b h o a rd o f th e ^ r o p h e t 's a n g e r, he w ent t o th e mosque i n d i s g u i s e and r e c i t e d h i s famous poem ” B anat S u a d ". The P ro p h e t fo rg a v e him b n a u s e o f h i s in g e n io u s u s e o f p o e tr y t o a p o lo g iz e and a s k f o r p a rd o n .

P o e tr y was a l s o on im p o r ta n t t o o l f o r e x c i t i n g p e o p le '-.id d r iv i n g

(1 ) A l-H uta i * a h , Diwan p . 1 28

th e n t o f i g h t f o r t h e i r c a u s e . One v e r s e was c a p a b le , a t t i n e s , o f i n c i t i n g a f i g h t o r e x tin g u is h in g a n o th e r . The la n g u a g e o f e x c ite m e n t i n p o e tr y u rg e d p e o p le to go t o w a r.

A n o th e r a d v a n ta g e o f p o e tr y , th e a u th o r s a i d , was i t s b e in g a s o u rc e o f in c o n e to n o s t p o e t s . Most p r i n c e s , n i l i t a r y conn an d o rs and k i n g s , w ere u s u a l l y i n p r e s s e d enough by p o e t 1s p r a i s e o f th e n t o rew ard th e n and g iv e th e n g i f t s g e n e ro u s ly , th u s e n a b lin g th e n t o a v o id

p o v e r ty , A l- iiu s a f f o r p r e s e n t s nany o x a n p le s t o show how p o e tr y was th e m ain f a c t o r f o r im p ro v in g a p o e t 's s o c i a l and f i n a n c i a l s t a t u s . He a l s o q u o te d i n t h i s C h a p te r nany l i n e s o f p o e tr y w hich i l l u s t r a t e d th e in p a c t p o e tr y had on p e o p le .

IV , C h a p te r f o u r d e a ls w ith th o p r o s and cons o f p o e tr y and w h eth er i t i s b e t t e r t o w r i t e p o e tr y o r a v o id i t .

T h is C h a p te r i s a lm o st a c o n ti n u a ti o n o f th e p r e c e d in g o n e , f a r th e a u th o r c o n tin u e s d e s c r i b in g th e im p o rta n c e o f p o o tr y . He b e g in s t h i s C h a p te r by q u o tin g w hat th o P ro p h e t i s th o u g h t to have s a i d i n p r a i s e o f p o e tr y , nam ely " I n p o e tr y , th e r e i s wisdom" ( "tw ,I ^ *11 ^ ^ fi Tho a u th o r th e n q u o te s more s a y in g s a s c r i b e d to th e P ro p h e t and comments on th e n e x p la in in g t h e i r r e le v a n c e and s i g n i f i c a n c e . He m en tio n s t h a t th o P ro p h e t d e c la r e d p o o tr y a p a r t o f th e wisdom which God g r a n te d to H is p r o p h e ts , and s a y s t h a t t h i s d e c l a r a t i o n p ro v id e s p o e tr y and p o e ts w ith a s p e c i a l d i s t i n c t i o n . Tho Pin p h o t a ls o s a id t o H assan Bin T h a b it th e p o e t "you a r e H assan and y o u r to n g u e i s a c u t t i n g sword"

¥ h a t th e P ro p h et meant was t h a t H a s s a n 's p o e tr y was a s s h a rp and d e c is iv e a s a s'werd i n b a t t l e , b e c a u se o f h i s a b i l i t y t o i n f l u e n c e and i n c i t e p e o p le , Tho P ro p h e t a sk e d Ha s s an on a number o f o c c a s io n s t o compose p o e tr y i n o r d e r to i n c i t e and u rg e p e o p le to f i g h t f o r t h e i r F a i t h . The a u th o r d e s c r ib e d th o e v e n ts when, upon th e P r o p h e t 's r e q u e s t , HaSi3Qn r e c i t e d p o e tr y j th e im p act h i s p o e tr y had on p e o p le , and the d e g re e o f s u c c e s s th e y a c h ie v e d i n th e e n su in g b a t t l e

A l-M u z a ffa r s u p p o rte d th o P r o p h e t 's p r a i s e o f p o e tr y by q u o tin g s a y in g s a t t r i b u t e d t o some o f h i s Companions (A l-S ahabah) l i k e Omar B in A l-K h a tta b who s a i d " p o e tr y te a c h e s h ig h m oral s ta n d a r d s , en c o u ra g e s good d e e d s, s h a rp e n s i n t e l l i g e n c e and d is c o u r a g e s bad m an n e rs". The a u th o r r e f e r s t o what c e r t a i n C a lip h s s a i d i n p r a i s e o f p o e tr y and to t h e i r a s s i s t a n c e t h a t t h o i r c h il d r e n s h o u ld s tu d y p o e tr y . Ho men­

t io n s A bdul-M alik B in M arw an's l e t t e r to A l- H a jja j B in T u su f i n w hich he s c o rn s him f o r r e j e c t i n g p o o tr y and en u m erates i t s a d v a n ta g e s .

The a i h o r a ls o r e f e r s to what i s s a id o f p o e tr y i n th e Holy K oran.

He e x p la in s th e d i f f e r e n t K o ra n ic v e r s e s d e a lin g w ith p o o tr y , and t a l k s a b o u t th e d i f f e r e n t ways o f i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e i r m eaning. He comments on th o K o ra n ic v e r s e w hich condemns p o s ts a s fo llo w s : " P o e ts a re fo llo w e d

by th o s e who go a s tr a y " ( l ) . " I— iJ! "

He s a y s t h a t anybody who i n t e r p r e t s t h i s v e r s e a s condem ning p o e tr y i n g e n e r a l sim p ly does n o t u n d e rs ta n d tho K oran. The v e r s e , i n t h i s v iew , i s d i r e c t e d a t p r e - l s l a m i c p o e ts . The a u th o r g iv e s th e d i f f e r e n t

(1 ) K oran, KXVI,224