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THE STUDY OP A SINHALESE VILLAGE
by
S . P . P . S e n a r a t n e
T h e s i s s u b m i t t e d f o r t h e D egree o f D o c to r o f P h il o s o p h y i n t h e
U n i v e r s i t y o f London
November 1970
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ABSTRACT
P l a n n e r s and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s i n C eylon have e n c o u n t e r e d many p r o b le m s i n d e v i s i n g schem es w hich a r e beamed a t t h e r u r a l s e c t o r . One o f t h e s e h a s b e e n an i n s u f f i c i e n t know ledge o f t h e m e c h a n ic s o f v i l l a g e a c t i o n . I n more s p e c i f i c t e r m s , d a t a i s n e e d e d on t h e v a l u e s w h ic h g u i d e econom ic e n d e a v o u r, t h e t y p e o f m obi
l i t y t h a t i s d e s i r e d and t h e r e - a l i g n m e n t s o f power b r o u g h t a b o u t by new i n f l u e n c e s .
T h is i s t h e b r o a d a r e a w i t h w h ic h t h i s s t u d y i s c o n c e r n e d . I t s e t s o u t t o exam ine t h e s e a s p e c t s i n a v i l l a g e i n t h e h i n t e r l a n d o f Colombo, t a k i n g t h e r e s o u r c e s a v a i l a b l e t o t h e Community as i t s main f o c u s o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n . I t a t t e m p t s t o exam ine how t h e s e r e s o u r c e s a r e d i s t r i b u t e d - t h e p r o b le m o f who h a s a c c e s s t o what
r e s o u r c e s . I t a l s o ex am ines t h e a d v a n t a g e s o f power and l e a d e r s h i p w h ic h c an be d e r i v e d t h r o u g h t h e c o n t r o l o f e a c h t y p e o f r e s o u r c e . F i n a l l y , i t a t t e m p t s t o i d e n t i f y and e x p l a i n t h e norms and v a l u e s w hich g o v e r n t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f r e s o u r c e s .
The b u l k o f th e t h e s i s i s d e v o t e d t o an e x am in a
t i o n , fro m t h i s p o i n t o f v ie w , o f th e f o u r m ain t y p e s of r e s o u r c e s t o w h ic h t h e v i l l a g e h a s a c c e s s : l a n d ; t h e r i t u a l , c a s t e and o t h e r s e r v i c e s n e e d e d by t h e community; employment an d t h e o t h e r e x t e r n a l r e s o u r c e s w h ich c a n be t a p p e d ; t h e a i d made a v a i l a b l e by th e go v ern m en t f o r v i l l a g e w e l f a r e
a nd d e v e lo p m e n t.
The a rg u m e n t i n t h e f i n a l c h a p t e r r e v o l v e s a ro u n d t h a t h w a y a ( s t a t u s ) and i t s im p o r ta n c e i n v i l l a g e l i f e .
I t i s my c o n t e n t i o n t h a t t h e complex o f r e s o u r c e s p a r t i c u l a r t o t h e v i l l a g e h a s g e n e r a t e d a c o r r e s p o n d i n g sy s te m o f
v a l u e s . 1 s u g g e s t t h a t t h a th w a y a n o t o n ly r e v e a l s how t h e r e s o u r c e s a r e d i s t r i b u t e d b u t t h a t i t i s a l s o t h e
embodiment o f t h e s e v a l u e s . I t i s , t h e r e f o r e , a m echanism t h r o u g h w h ic h r e s o u r c e s a r e c o n t r o l l e d .
MOTES AMI) ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The f i e l d w o r k on w h ic h t h i s s t u d y i s b a s e d was c o m p le te d i n S eptem ber 1 968. When t h e p r e s e n t t e n s e i s u s e d i n t h e t e x t i t i s t o t h i s tim e t h a t i t r e f e r s .
The S i n h a l e s e t e r m s t h a t I have u s e d a r e few - ‘ a g l o s s a r y o f t h e m ain o n es i s p r o v i d e d . In s p e l l i n g t h e s e I h av e f o l l o w e d t h e u sa g e t h a t i s c u r r e n t among
u s e r s o f E n g l i s h i n C ey lo n . F o r c o n v e n ie n c e I have a v o id e d t h e S i n h a l e s e fo rm f o r t h e p l u r a l ; i n s t e a d I have added
a n ' s ' t o t h e s i n g u l a r . A l l names u s e d a r e pseudonym s.
T h is s t u d y was made p o s s i b l e t h r o u g h t h e v e r y g e n e r o u s l e a v e g i v e n me fro m my d u t i e s a t t h e N a t i o n a l Museum, Colombo. F o r t h i s , a s w e l l a s f o r h i s k e e n i n t e r e s t i n t h e p r o j e c t , my m ost g r a t e f u l t h a n k s a r e due t o t h e D i r e c t o r , Dr. P.H .D .H . de S i l v a .
My tim e i n t h e v i l l a g e was a v e r y happy o n e.
D e s p i t e my a s s o c i a t i o n i n v i l l a g e e y e s w i t h 'g o v e r n m e n t 1, 1 was a c c e p t e d v e r y r e a d i l y i n t o t h e l i f e o f t h e v i l l a g e . I w ould l i k e t o r e c o r d h e r e my deep g r a t i t u d e t o t h e p e o p l e o f Remuna.
In London my b i g g e s t d e b t h a s b e e n t o
P r o f e s s o r C. von F u r e r - H a i m e n d o r f . H is know ledge o f C eylon h a s e n a b l e d him t o t a k e a s y m p a t h e t i c v iew o f
t h e p r o b le m I a t t e m p t t o d e a l w i t h and o f t h e c o n t e x t fro m
w h ic h i t a r i s e s . The e n co u rag e m en t t h a t I h ave r e c e i v e d a t e v e r y s t a g e o f t h e s t u d y h a s b e e n a g r e a t s o u r c e o f c o n f i d e n c e . My t h a n k s a r e a l s o due t o Mrs. von F u r e r - H aim en d o rf f o r many a c t s o f h o s p i t a l i t y .
I have r e c e i v e d much s t i m u l u s an d g u i d a n c e fro m o t h e r members o f t h e D e p artm en t o f A n th r o p o lo g y and
S o c i o l o g y , S c h o o l o f O r i e n t a l and A f r i c a n S t u d i e s . I n p a r t i c u l a r , I w i s h t o t h a n k P r o f e s s o r A.C, Mayer and members o f h i s R e s e a r c h Sem inar f o r v a l u a b l e comments on a s e r i e s o f p a p e r s w r i t t e n i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h i s t h e s i s .
My t h a n k s t o my w ife f o r t h e e n c o u ra g e m e n t and a s s i s t a n c e t h a t I have r e c e i v e d t h r o u g h o u t t h i s s t u d y a r e more t h a n I c an a d e q u a t e l y e x p r e s s .
CONTENTS
Map o f Remuna 2
A b s t r a c t 3
N o te s And Acknowledgm ents 5
C o n t e n t s 7
C h a p te r One : The V i l l a g e
X The B ack g ro u n d 9
XI The H i s t o r y o f t h e V i l l a g e 15
X II The V i l l a g e Today 27
XV The P ro b le m 44
C h a p te r Two s Land
I The Ow nership o f Paddy Land 48
XI The O w nership o f High Land 59
X II G e n e r a l A s p e c ts o f Ownership 70
XV The W orking o f Paddy Land 77
V The W orking o f High Land 90
VI Working t h e Land - G e n e r a l A s p e c ts 95
V II The V i l l a g e A p proach t o Land 101
C h a p te r T h re e : R i t u a l , C aste, And O th e r S e r v i c e s
I R i t u a l S e r v i c e s 109
I I C a s te S e r v i c e s 126
I I I O th e r S p e c i a l i s t S e r v i c e s 129
IV I n t e r n a l T rad e and Commerce 135
V C o n c lu s io n 143
C h a p te r F o u r ; E x t e r n a l R e s o u r c e s
I I n t r o d u c t i o n 150
XI V i l l a g e P r o d u c t i o n 152
I I I The V i l l a g e E n t r e p r e n e u r s 159
IV E x t e r n a l T rad e 170
V E x t e r n a l Employment 178
VI C oncLusion 186
C h a p te r F i v e : V i l l a g e P o l i t i c s
I I n t r o d u c t i o n 197
I I C l iq u e s and C l u s t e r s 205
I I I C l i q u e s , C l u s t e r s and O th e r Groups 211 IV C liq u e o r C l u s t e r - I n d i v i d u a l C h o ic e s 225
V V i l l a g e S o c i e t i e s 231
VI The V i l l a g e Committee 241
V II The V i l l a g e and N a t i o n a l P o l i t i c s 251
C h a p te r S i x : S t a t u s And Power
I I n t r o d u c t i o n 258
I I The E v a l u a t i o n o f R e s o u rc e s 260
I I I S t a t u s 273
IV Power and L e a d e r s h i p 285
V The F u n c t i o n o f S t a t u s 294
VI S t a t u s and Groups 307
V I I C o n c lu s io n 316
G l o s s a r y 321
B i b l i o g r a p h y 322
C h a p te r One
THE VILLAGE
i The B ackground
The Government o f C ey lo n , s h o r t l y a f t e r in d e p e n dence i n 1948, s e t up a D ep artm en t o f R u r a l D evelopm ent.
I t s f u n c t i o n was t o a c t a s a c a t a l y s t i n a s e l f - h e l p move
m ent i n w h ic h t h e v i l l a g e l e v e l R u r a l Developm ent S o c i e t y was t o be t h e m ain u n i t . At f i r s t s t r a t e g y a p p e a r e d t o r e l a t e t o g o a l s v e r y s a t i s f a c t o r i l y b u t t h i s o p tim ism was
s h o r t - l i v e d . B e f o re l o n g t h e r e were d o u b t s a b o u t p o l i c y , o b j e c t i v e s and m e th o d s .
D u rin g t h e e i g h t y e a r s t h a t p r e c e d e d t h e commence
ment o f t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y t h e w hole movement h ad b e e n u n d e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n . I n 1955 - 56 P r o f e s s o r C h r i s t o p h e r Sower o f M ic h ig a n S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y had c a r r i e d o u t an e v a l u a t i v e s t u d y , i n t h e c o u r s e o f w h ic h R u r a l D ev elo p ment s o c i e t i e s and t h e c o n t e x t s I n w h ic h t h e y f u n c t i o n e d , were e x am in ed i n d i f f e r e n t p a r t s o f t h e c o u n t r y . The d a t a w hich t h i s s t u d y y i e l d e d h a d b e e n f u r t h e r a n a l y s e d by
t h i s tim e b e i n g w i t h t h e " r o l e o f o r g a n i s a t i o n s i n a b h i e v - 1
i n g n a t i o n a l d e v e lo p m e n t g o a l s . " D u rin g t h i s p e r i o d o t h e r t y p e s o f v i l l a g e s o c i e t i e s h ad b e e n t h e s u b j e c t o f s i m i l a r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s .
A l l t h e s e s t u d i e s a t t e m p t e d t o r e a c h c o n c l u s i o n s w h ic h were s t a t i s t i c a l l y d e r i v e d and w h ic h would h a v e
c o u n t r y - w i d e a p p l i c a t i o n . They were d o u b t l e s s o f u se i n t h e f o r m u l a t i o n o f b r o a d p o l i c y , b u t a p p e a r t o h a v e g i v e n l i t t l e h e l p t o t h e a d m i n i s t r a t o r i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e
m e c h a n ic s o f a c o n c r e t e s i t u a t i o n . I t was f e l t , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t i t would be u s e f u l t o h ave a d e t a i l e d i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n w h ic h a s i n g l e R u r a l Developm ent S o c i e t y was exam ined i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e s e t t i n g i n w h ic h i t f u n c t i o n s . I n
view o f my a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h S o w e r 's 1955 - 56 s t u d y t h i s t a s k f e l l t o me.
Even b e f o r e X b e g a n work i n t h e s e l e c t e d v i l l a g e i t became c l e a r t h a t t h e r e was no p a r t i c u l a r l o g i c i n e x a m in in g t h e R u r a l Developm ent S o c i e t y a l o n e . The f o r t u n e s -of t h e o t h e r v i l l a g e s o c i e t i e s r e v e a l e d s i m i l a r and r e l a t e d p r o b le m s and t h e r e was much t o be g a i n e d by ex am in
i n g t h e s e a s a w h o le . S h o r t l y a f t e r I s t a r t e d work i t was a p p a r e n t t h a t t h e s o c i e t i e s s h o u l d , a t l e a s t t e m p o r a r i l y , c e a s e t o be t h e m a j o r i n t e r e s t and t h a t t h e f o c u s s h o u l d be t h e more f u n d a m e n t a l p r o c e s s e s o f w h ic h t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e s o c i e t i e s w ere a m a n i f e s t a t i o n . My c o n c e r n i n t h i s s t u d y i s w i t h t h e s e ; t h e p r a c t i c a l p r o b le m s o f v i l l a g e
s o c i e t i e s v iew ed a s t o o l s o f d e v e lo p m e n t w i l l be d e a l t w i t h e l s e w h e r e .
My work i n t h e v i l l a g e c o v e r e d a l o n g p e r i o d . I t b e g a n i n November 1963 w i t h a s u r v e y , t h e p u r p o s e o f w hich was t o p i c k o u t t h e i n d i v i d u a l s who p a r t i c i p a t e d i n v i l l a g e
a f f a i r s and t o r e l a t e t h e i r p a r t i c i p a t i o n t o v a r i o u s
a t t r i b u t e s . D u rin g 1964 X f o l l o w e d up t h e d a t a p r o v i d e d by t h e s u r v e y i n t h e c o u r s e o f s h o r t , and a t t im e s
i n f r e q u e n t , v i s i t s . I n m ost o f 1965 and 1966 I l i v e d i n t h e v i l l a g e f o r a b o u t t e n d ay s i n e a c h m o nth . I n 1967 I f o u n d m y s e l f r e d u c e d a g a i n t o s h o r t v i s i t s . The
f i e l d w o r k was c o m p le te d w i t h a c o n t i n u o u s s p e l l fro m J a n u a r y t o S e p tem b er 1 9 6 8 . The d i s a d v a n t a g e s o f d i s t r i b u t i n g f i e l d w o r k tim e i n t h i s way a r e o b v i o u s . I t s one a d v a n ta g e was t h a t I was a b l e t o k e ep t h e v i l l a g e u n d e r s c r u t i n y f o r
a much l o n g e r p e r i o d t h a n i s u s u a l .
I n s e l e c t i n g a v i l l a g e f o r a s t u d y o f t h i s t y p e t h e n o t i o n o f t y p i c a l i t y i n e v i t a b l y p r e s e n t s i t s e l f . I t d i d n o t t a k e l o n g , h o w e v e r, t o d e m o n s tr a te t h a t i n a
C eylon c o n t e x t t h i s h a s m ean in g o n ly i n a t r a v e l o g u e
s e n s e . But t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e d e s i r e f o r a t y p i c a l v i l l a g e had t o be t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t - t h e n e e d t o make r e s u l t s
w i d e ly a p p l i c a b l e . I t seemed s e n s i b l e t h e r e f o r e t o choose a v i l l a g e w h ic h would y i e l d a s i z a b l e c ro p o f p r o b le m s a ro u n d t h e m ain i s s u e s . I t was hoped t h a t t h i s w ould make t h e a n a l y s i s s u f f i c i e n t l y c o m p re h e n s iv e f o r i t t o be a p p l i e d , i f n o t t o t h e whole o f t h e S i n h a l e s e s e c t o r o f
C eylon, a t l e a s t t o t h e t h i c k l y p o p u l a t e d s o u t h - w e s t e r n p a r t of t h e w et z o n e . F o r t h i s r e a s o n t h e v i l l a g e h ad t o b e one w h ic h was n o t t o o f a r fro m a m a r k e t tow n w hich was p r e f e r a b l y i n a d i s t r i c t n e a r Colombo. I t was
a l s o d e s i r a b l e t h a t t h e g o v e r n m e n t 1s schemes o f d e v e l o p ment s h o u l d h ave b e e n o p e r a t i n g t h e r e f o r some tim e and
t h a t s u b s t a n t i a l e d u c a t i o n a l f a c i l i t i e s s h o u l d h a v e b e e n a v a i l a b l e d u r i n g t h e l a s t t w e n ty f i v e y e a r s . The
i n f l u e n c e o f t h e p l a n t a t i o n economy was a n o t h e r f a c t o r w h ic h was t o be l o o k e d f o r . I n s u c h a s i t u a t i o n l a n d l e s s n e s s was l i k e l y t o be a p r o b le m and unemployment would be h i g h .
The v i l l a g e f i n a l l y c h o se n was Remuna, n e a r t h e town of H o ra n a, t h i r t y m i l e s s o u t h - e a s t o f Colombo.
( P l e a s e s e e m a p . ) I t i s on t h e p e r i p h e r y o f t h a t a r e a o f t h e c o u n t r y w h ic h h a s b e e n m ost e x p o s e d t o u r b a n i n f l u e n c e , and a s s u c h i t i s d i f f e r e n t i n many r e s p e c t s fr o m t h e C eylon v i l l a g e s w h ic h have f i g u r e d t h u s f a r i n
2
a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l l i t e r a t u r e . The r e g i o n i n w h ic h Remuna i s s i t u a t e d i s b e s t known f o r t h e h i g h y i e l d o f i t s r u b b e r , and i t h a s a t v a r i o u s t i m e s e n jo y e d c o n s i d e r a b l e p r o s p e r i t y . Of l a t e t h i s p r o s p e r i t y h a s b e e n somewhat t h r e a t e n ed owing t o t h e d ro p i n w o r ld p r i c e s f o r n a t u r a l r u b b e r , b u t t h i s h a s a f f e c t e d t h e owner o f t h e l a r g e p l a n t a t i o n much more t h a n t h e s m a l l - h o l d e r .
Paddy f i e l d s an d t h e v i l l a g e t a n k m ark Remuna o f f q u i t e c l e a r l y fro m t h e v i l l a g e s t h a t s u r r o u n d i t . I t
i s somewhat l a r g e r t h a n t h e r e s t , n o t so much i n e x t e n t , w h ic h i s a b o u t a s q u a r e m i l e , a s i n t h e s i z e o f i t s
p o p u l a t i o n w h ic h i s o v e r 2 , 0 0 0 . Paddy f i e l d s t a k e up a t h i r d o f t h e v i l l a g e a r e a , w h i l e a r u b b e r p l a n t a t i o n a c c o u n t s f o r a s i x t h . T h is means t h a t t h e r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a s , t h e b a z a a r , sm all-'■ holdings o f r u b b e r , and v e g e t a b l e and o t h e r p l o t s a r e c o n f i n e d t o h a l f a s q u a r e m il e o r a l i t t l e o v e r 300 a c r e s . P a r t s o f t h e v i l l a g e a r e e v e r y b i t a s crow ded a s a c i t y .
A l l v i l l a g e s i n t h e S i n h a l e s e s e c t o r o f t h e c o u n t r y a r e n o t p o p u l a t e d s o l e l y by S i n h a l e s e . T am ils and Muslims a r e f r e q u e n t l y p a r t o f t h e v i l l a g e p o p u l a t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h i s r e g i o n , Remuna, h o w e v e r, i s e n t i r e l y S i n h a l e s e , w i t h t h e s i n g l e e x c e p t i o n o f a Tam il b a r b e r .
The l a r g e s t c a s t e i n t h e v i l l a g e (8 0 $ ) i s t h e Goigama - t r a d i t i o n a l l y f a r m e r s . Then t h e r e i s t h e Vahumpura (15$) who a r e a l s o a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e l a n d .
J a g g e r y - m a k in g was an o c c u p a t i o n w h ich h a d a s p e c i a l connec t i o n w i t h t h i s c a s t e , b u t t h e Vahumpura i n Remuna have a l l b u t g i v e n i t up now. The o t h e r two c a s t e s a r e t h e Berawa
(drummers and d a n c e r s ) and t h e Radaw (w a sh e rm e n ). The Vahumpura h av e t h r e e n e ig h b o u r h o o d s t o t h e m s e l v e s w h i l e t h e Berawa a r e c o n c e n t r a t e d i n two p o c k e t s . The Radaw a r e s c a t t e r e d . I t i s o n ly i n t h e f o r e s t r e s e r v e w h ic h t h e g o v e rn m e n t h a s r e l e a s e d fro m tim e t o tim e t o r e l i e v e t h e p r e s s u r e on l a n d , t h a t t h e f o u r c a s t e s I n t e r m i n g l e .
m osque, n o r H indu k o v i l f o r some m i l e s a r o u n d . T here a r e two t e m p l e s i n t h e v i l l a g e , t h e l a r g e r o f w h ic h i s i n
t h e o r y open t o a l l c a s t e s . Few Vahumpura, h o w e v er, p a t r o n i s e t h i s t e m p le ; t h e y go i n s t e a d t o t h e s m a l l e r one
w h ich was f o u n d e d by them a b o u t f i f t y y e a r s ago a s t h e r e s u l t o f a d i s p u t e o v e r a te m p le cerem ony. The b r e a c h h a s now b e e n h e a l e d t o a c o n s i d e r a b l e e x t e n t and t h e t e m p l e s
c o - o p e r a t e w i t h e a c h o t h e r when t h e n e c e s s i t y a r i s e s . Buddhism i s , o f c o u r s e , o n l y a p a r t o f a w id e r complex o f b e l i e f and p r a c t i c e . T here a r e many o t h e r r e l i g i o u s p r a c t i t i o n e r s b e s i d e s t h e monks i n t h e t e m p l e s .
T h ere i s much o c c u p a t i o n a l d i v e r s i t y i n Remuna.
A f a i r p r o p o r t i o n o f p e o p l e work o u t s i d e t h e v i l l a g e , some commuting t o Colombo. T h is i s p o s s i b l e b e c a u s e a v e r y a d e q u a t e b u s s e r v i c e c o n n e c ts Remuna w i t h H o ra n a,
t h r e e m i l e s away. Colombo and P a n a d u ra a r e e a s i l y r e a c h e d fro m t h e r e . I n t h e o t h e r d i r e c t i o n t h e r e i s a d i r e c t
b u s l i n k w i t h I t a l u t a r a w h ic h i s t h e d i s t r i c t c a p i t a l . The a d m i n i s t r a t i v e c e n t r e of t h e d i v i s i o n w i t h i n t h i s d i s t r i c t i n w h ic h Remuna l i e s i s a t H o ran a. Such a d i v i s i o n i s d i v i d e d i n t o a b o u t f i f t y u n i t s , f o r e a c h o f w h ich an o f f i c i a l c a l l e d t h e Grama Sevaka i s r e s p o n s i b l e . I n t h e u n i t t o w h ich i t b e l o n g s , Remuna i s g ro u p e d t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e two v i l l a g e s w h ic h l i e t o t h e n o r t h and t o t h e w e st o f i t .
Most c o n t a c t s a r e w i t h H o ran a. The b i g g e r s c h o o l s
a r e t h e r e a s a r e t h e law c o u r t s and t h e C e n t r a l H o s p i t a l , I m p o r ta n t p u r c h a s e s a r e u s u a l l y made a t H orana e v e n when t h e s e i te m s a r e r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e a t t h e same p r i c e i n Remuna1s own s m a ll b a z a a r ,
I I The H i s t o r y o f t h e V i l l a g e
The p e o p l e o f Remuna t h i n k o f t h e i r v i l l a g e a s h a v i n g a l o n g h i s t o r y a n d , i n d e e d t h e r e i s a r e f e r e n c e i n
3
t h e Mahavamsa t o a p l a c e w i t h a s i m i l a r name. I t i s s a i d t o be t h e p l a c e a t w h ic h a fam ous b a t t l e was f o u g h t i n t h e 1 1 t h C e n tu r y . I n te r m s o f t h e o t h e r d e t a i l s o f t h e a c c o u n t t h i s v iew i s n o t u n t e n a b l e ; t h e a r e a c e r t a i n l y was o c c u p i e d w e l l b e f o r e t h a t , a s a fam ous i n s c r i p t i o n a t n e a r b y P o k u n u v i t a makes c l e a r . S c a t t e r e d a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e m a in s a l s o s u p p o r t t h e view o f a l o n g h i s t o r y .
W ith D utch t i m e s , b e g i n n i n g i n t h e se c o n d h a l f o f t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y , r e c o r d s a r e much f u l l e r . The
4
Raigarn K o r a le was a n i m p o r t a n t a r e a and t h e s c e n e o f many b a t t l e s . The D utch h a d a f o r t a t A n g u ru w a to ta , f o u r
m i l e s fr o m Remuna and d e s c r i p t i o n s o f i t a r e t o be fo u n d
i n t h e r e c o r d s o f t h e tim e a s w e l l as i n t r a v e l l e r s 1 a c c o u n t s . Remuna i s m e n tio n e d a lm o s t f r o m t h e tim e B r i t i s h r e c o r d s f o r t h e a r e a b e g i n , i n t h e m id d le o f t h e l a s t
c e n t u r y . However, n o t h i n g o f n o t e seems t o h a v e d i s t i n g u i s h e d i t fro m s c o r e s o f o t h e r v i l l a g e s i n t h e d i s t r i c t , f o r
a d m i n i s t r a t i v e comment ( a s f a r a s I h ave b e e n a b l e t o a s c e r t a i n )
i s l a r g e l y a b s e n t .
A lth o u g h no docum ents o f any g r e a t i n t e r e s t a r e a v a i l a b l e w h ic h d e s c r i b e Remuna a s i t was s i x t y and more y e a r s a g o , i t i s p o s s i b l e t h r o u g h t h e r e m i n i s c e n c e s o f
e l d e r s t o r e c o n s t r u c t t h e way i n w h ic h i t became g r a d u a l l y i n v o l v e d i n a w i d e r economy. At t h e t u r n o f t h e c e n t u r y t h e p o p u l a t i o n was v e r y much l e s s t h a n w hat i t i s now.
F i f t e e n h o u s e s a r e su p p o s e d t o h ave o c c u p i e d an a r e a where t h e r e a r e n e a r l y n i n e t y now; t h i s i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e n a t i o n a l i n c r e a s e o v e r t h i s p e r i o d . P r e s s u r e on t h e l a n d was n o n - e x i s t e n t . T h ere were l a r g e t r a c t s o f Crown l a n d , m a in ly f o r e s t , and s m a ll e x t e n t s were a l i e n a t e d t o v i l l a g e r s a s n e e d a r o s e . Kxeept f o r a few c r a f t s m e n work
i n g w i t h i n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l m ould, a l l t h e r e s t were f a r m e r s — c u l t i v a t o r s o f paddy d u r i n g t h e s e a s o n and o f v e g e t a b l e s and b e t e l a t o t h e r t i m e s . Food was p ro d u c e d m a in ly f o r t h e v i l l a g e ! s own c o n su m p tio n and t h e d i e t was
s u p p le m e n te d by w hat t h e f o r e s t y i e l d e d - game, f r u i t s , yams and so o n . T h ere d o e s n o t seem t o h a v e b e e n any
s h o r t a g e o f f o o d , b u t two m e a ls o f r i c e a d ay was n o t u s u a l a s i t i s now. The i n f l o w o f c a s h i n t o t h e v i l l a g e was v e r y l i m i t e d ; s u c h l i t t l e a s came i n was t h r o u g h t h e s a l e o f b e t e l (an d t o a l e s s e r e x t e n t o f v e g e t a b l e s ) a t t h e w e ek ly v i l l a g e f a i r s i n to w n s h ip s a lo n g t h e Colombo and K a l u t a r a r o a d s .
The u s e s o f money were a l s o l i m i t e d . The b u i l d i n g
and. e q u i p p i n g o f h o u s e s r e q u i r e d no c a s h e x p e n d i t u r e ; im p le m e n ts and u t e n s i l s were o b t a i n e d t h r o u g h b a r t e r . Almost a l l t h e f o o d r e q u i r e d v/as p r o d u c e d by t h e d o m e s tic u n i t . I t r e s s was one o f t h e m a jo r i t e m s o f e x p e n d i t u r e .
L i f e was l i v e d v e r y much w i t h i n t h e v i l l a g e and i t s n e ig h b o u r h o o d . Colombo and K a l u t a r a were r e a c h e d e i t h e r by b u l l o c k c a r t o r by r i v e r t r a n s p o r t , b u t few p e o p le h ad o c c a s i o n t o go t h a t f a r . The w a n ts o f t h e v i l l a g e were m et t h r o u g h t h e e n t e r p r i s e o f a few shop
k e e p e r s and i t i n e r a n t t r a d e r s . P i l g r i m a g e s w ere t h e o n ly l o n g j o u r n e y s u n d e r t a k e n . The f o u r day t r e k
5
t o Adam’s Peak (w h ich can b e s e e n fro m t h e v i l l a g e on a c l e a r d ay )w as more p o p u l a r t h a n t h e one t o A n u ra d h a p u ra , w h ich o n l y t h e more a f f l u e n t h a d t h e means t o u n d e r t a k e .
Remuna h a d no s c h o o l a t t h i s t i m e . I n i t i a l i n s t r u c t i o n was a t t h e te m p le and f o r t h o s e who w a n ted a l i t t l e m o re, t h e s c h o o l o f t h e a r e a was on t h e H orana Road a b o u t two m i l e s away. E d u c a ti o n was n o t a v i d l y s o u g h t and few were aware o f i t s b e n e f i t s . As a r e s u l t h a r d l y anyone fro m t h e v i l l a g e was i n a p o s i t i o n t o com
p e t e f o r s u c h g o v e rn m e n t p o s t s a s v i l l a g e t e a c h e r . P o l i c e p o s t s and s t a t i o n s were few and f a r b e tw e e n . The o n e s t h a t e x i s t e d were u n a b le t o cope e f f e c t i v e l y w i t h t h e i r l a r g e b e a t s . The m a i n te n a n c e o f law and o r d e r i n a v i l l a g e h a d i n e v i t a b l y t o be l e f t t o i t s headm an, who was e x p e c t e d t o r u n t h e v i l l a g e w i t h t h e
m in im u m o f t r o u b l e t o t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . J u s t i c e was
d e a l t o u t su m m arily b y him and t h i s was u s u a l l y u p h e l d . A l l a d m i n i s t r a t i v e m a t t e r s - u s u a l l y r e l a t i n g t o l a n d and r e v e n u e - w ere a t t e n d e d t o by h im . He h a d b y f a r t h e h i g h e s t c a s h income i n t h e v i l l a g e , so t h a t he was t h e p i v o t a ro u n d w h ic h pow er and a u t h o r i t y r e v o l v e d .
One o f t h e e a r l i e s t e v e n t s t o c h an g e t h i s s t a t e o f a f f a i r s - a s t a t e w h ic h p r o b a b l y e x i s t e d d u r i n g t h e l a s t t h r e e d e c a d e s o r so o f t h e 1 9 t h C e n tu ry - was t h e l e a s i n g o f v i l l a g e l a n d a ro u n d 1908 t o a B r i t i s h com
pan y f o r t h e p u r p o s e s o f r u b b e r g ro w in g . V i l l a g e l a b o u r u n d e r t h e c o n t r o l o f v i l l a g e c o n t r a c t o r s was r e c r u i t e d f o r t h e many p r e l i m i n a r y t a s k s and money i n v i l l a g e h a n d s became p l e n t i f u l i n c o m p a ris o n w i t h e a r l i e r t i m e s .
When t h e t r e e s were r e a d y f o r t a p p i n g , T am il im m ig ran t l a b o u r was b r o u g h t i n f o r t h e p u r p o s e . W hatever may have b e e n t h e m o tiv e f o r t h i s move, i t i s c l e a r t h a t t h e v i l l a g e a t t h a t s t a g e c o u l d n o t h av e s u p p l i e d a l l t h e l a b o u r n e c e s s a r y . I n f a c t , a s f a r a s t h e v i l l a g e p o p u l a t i o n was c o n c e r n e d t h e r u b b e r p l a n t a t i o n c o n t i n u e d f o r a few y e a r s t o be a p r o f i t a b l e s o u r c e o f work an d incom e, f o r t h e r e was much work b e s i d e s t h e a c t u a l t a p p i n g . The
i n f l u x o f t h e T am il g r o u p a l s o p ro m o te d t h e v i l l a g e
economy i n two w ays. Food c r o p s were now grown so t h a t t h e p r o d u c e c o u ld be s o l d t o them and t h e o p p o r t u n i t i e s
f o p g e n e r a l t r a d e i n c r e a s e d .
I n t r a c i n g t h e c h an g e s w h ic h o c c u r r e d i n t h e t h i r t y y e a r s t h a t f o l l o w e d , f o u r f a c t o r s seem t o he o f p a r t i c u l a r i m p o r t a n c e : t h e r e a l i z a t i o n o f t h e a d v a n t a g e s o f e d u c a t i o n ; t h e new p a t t e r n o f t r a n s p o r t ; t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l c h an g e s o f 1931 and t h e c h a n g e s t h a t f o l l o w e d
f r o m them; and t h e i n c r e a s i n g d i f f i c u l t y w h ic h t h e v i l l a g e e x p e r i e n c e d w i t h r e g a r d t o l a n d .
At t h i s t i m e , t h e i n c r e a s i n g c o n t a c t w i t h p e r i u r b a n a r e a s and t h e c h a n g e s t a k i n g p l a c e t h e r e would h av e made t h e more a m b i t i o u s o f Remuna h o u s e h o l d s aware
o f t h e a d v a n t a g e s o f a s a l a r i e d o c c u p a t i o n u n d e r g o v e r n m e n t. U n le ss one was p r e p a r e d t o l e a v e t h e v i l l a g e ,
t e a c h i n g was t h e o n ly avenue open. T h is p r e f e r e n c e was c o n s o l i d a t e d t h r o u g h t h e p o l i c y o f e d u c a t i o n a l e x p a n s i o n w h ic h t h e g o v e rn m e n t i s su p p o s e d t o h a v e f o l l o w e d a t t h i s t i m e . More s c h o o l s were e s t a b l i s h e d ( th o u g h none a t Remuna), e x i s t i n g o nes were im p ro v ed and schemes o f i n s p e c t i o n were i n t r o d u c e d . T e a c h in g became a v e r y d e s i r a b l e o c c u p a t i o n (and h a s re m a in e d so t o t h i s d a y ) . The w id e r a s p e c t o f t h i s was t h a t t h e o l d a t t i t u d e ,
w h ic h was one o f i n d i f f e r e n c e t o t h e v a l u e o f a n e d u c a t i o n , g ave way t o a n o t h e r i n w h ic h p a r e n t s e n c o u r a g e d , e v e n
u r g e d , c h i l d r e n t o c o n t i n u e w i t h t h e i r s c h o o l i n g , e v en th o u g h p r o s p e c t s o f employment were l i m i t e d i n t h e
i n d i v i d u a l case* Remuna b e g a n t o p r o v i d e a few t e a c h e r s a s w e l l a s o t h e r s who f i l l e d v a r i o u s m in o r g r a d e s i n t h e g o v e rn m e n t s e r v i c e . By t h e end o f t h e p e r i o d w hich I am now d i s c u s s i n g , t h i s h ad become t h e a m b i t i o n o f e v e r y body w i t h any s c h o l a s t i c a b i l i t y ; and a t t e n d i n g t h e
b i g g e r s c h o o l s i n H orana t o d e v e lo p t h i s a b i l i t y was c o n s i d e r e d s o m e th in g f o r w h ic h no p a r e n t a l s a c r i f i c e was t o o g r e a t .
B u ses f i r s t b e g a n t o p l y on t h e r o a d s i n t h e a r e a i n a b o u t 1 9 1 8 , and i t s im m ed iate c o n s e q u e n c e was t h a t Colombo became more a c c e s s i b l e . The e x i s t i n g fo rm s o f t r a n s p o r t were b a d l y h i t and t h e r i v e r s e r v i c e u l t i m a t e l y d i s a p p e a r e d a l t o g e t h e r . But t h e volume o f t r a d e i n c r e a s e d . More t h i n g s were t a k e n t o Colombo and s o l d t h e r e , w h i l e more consum er goods became a v a i l a b l e i n t h e v i l l a g e . (The b u s e s o f t h e tim e h ad a l a r g e g oods
6
c o m p a r t m e n t . ) The number o f p i n g o - b e a r e r s who came i n t o Colombo p r o b a b l y i n c r e a s e d m a rk e d ly a t t h i s t i m e .
The s y s te m o f r o a d t r a n s p o r t w h ic h p r e v a i l e d a t t h i s tim e p e r m i t t e d i n d i v i d u a l o p e r a t o r s t o r u n t h e i r
b u s e s on t h e r o u t e s o f t h e i r c h o i c e , and many s m a l l c a p i t a l i s t s w ent i n t o t h i s b u s i n e s s . One fr o m Remuna t o o p u r c h a s e d a b u s a s d i d some o t h e r s f r o m n e i g h b o u r i n g v i l l a g e s . As c o m p e t i t i o n b e tw e e n r i v a l o p e r a t o r s was f i e r c e , t h e bus c re w s w ere s e l e c t e d , n o t on t h e b a s i s o f any m e c h a n i c a l o r n a v i g a t i o n a l s k i l l , b u t b e c a u s e o f a r e p u t a t i o n f o r t h u g g e r y . T h is gave t h e o p p o r t u n i t y f o r a few p e o p l e fro m
t h e p o o r e r s e c t o r s o f t h e v i l l a g e t o r e a c h l e v e l s o f income w h ic h h ad n o t u n t i l t h e n b e e n p o s s i b l e .
I n 1931 C eylon was g i v e n a new c o n s t i t u t i o n , a 7
f e a t u r e o f w h ic h was u n i v e r s a l f r a n c h i s e . I n i t s wake came o t h e r c h a n g e s . L o c a l Government was g i v e n a
c e r t a i n e m p h a sis an d i n t h e r u r a l a r e a s e l e c t e d b o d i e s c a l l e d V i l l a g e C om m ittees were s e t up. A new p e r s o n a l i t y , t h e V i l l a g e Committee Member t h u s a p p e a r e d on t h e s c e n e .
T h ere were a l s o ch an g e d i n t h e d i s t r i c t a d m in is t r a t i o n . U n t i l t h e n t h e c h i e f a d m i n i s t r a t i v e o f f i c e r 3n a d i s t r i c t was t h e Government Agent and d i v i s i o n s w i t h i n t h e d i s t r i c t w ere c o n t r o l l e d by a M u d a lly a r t o whom t h e V i l l a g e Headman was d i r e c t l y r e s p o n s i b l e . The M u d a liy a r was c h o s e n on a c c o u n t o f t h e s t a n d i n g o f h i s f a m i l y and t h e i n f l u e n c e w h ic h he i s su p p o s e d t o h av e w i e l d e d r a t h e r t h a n f o r any a ca d em ic o r a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a b i l i t y . The a n e c d o t e s o f t h e tim e u s u a l l y r e p r e s e n t him a s b e i n g d e v o id o f b o t h , b u t p o s s e s s i n g enough c u n n in g and s h re w d n e s s t o e x p l o i t h i s o f f i c e t o maximum p e r s o n a l a d v a n t a g e . I n t h e new scheme t h e M u d a liy a r was r e p l a c e d by a D i v i s i o n a l Revenue O f f i c e r , a p r o f e s s i o n a l a d m i n i s t r a t o r who was r e c r u i t e d p r i m a r i l y on t h e b a s i s o f h i s p e r f o r m a n c e a t an e x a m i n a t i o n . He w as, u n l i k e t h e M u d a l i y a r , t r a n s f e r a b l e a n d , a s f a r a s t h e v i l l a g e was c o n c e rn e d t h e i n t e n t i o n was t h a t he w ould be a much more e f f e c t i v e c h e c k on t h e headman.
The f r a n c h i s e b r o u g h t t h e v i l l a g e i n t o a w id e r o r b i t o f a c t i v i t y . I t p a r t i c i p a t e d , a l o n g w i t h t h e o t h e r v i l l a g e s o f t h e c o n s t i t u e n c y , i n e l e c t i n g a member t o
t h e L e g i s l a t i v e A ssem bly. T here was now s o m e th in g w h ic h i t was i n t h e power o f t h e v i l l a g e t o g i v e and
i n Remuna ( a s e l s e w h e r e i n t h e a r e a ) t h e r e a l i z a t i o n
came v e r y s o o n , t h a t t h i s b r o u g h t w i t h i t a e o n co m m itan t - t h e power t o demand. V i l l a g e e n d e a v o u r s , s u c h a s a
w e av in g c e n t r e w h ic h b e g a n i n t h e m i d - t h i r t i e s , a r e t o be s e e n a s a n e x p r e s s i o n o f t h i s new s t r e n g t h . V i l l a g e
l e a d e r s o r w o u ld -b e l e a d e r s now h ad c o n t a c t s t h r o u g h whom g o v e rn m e n t a s s i s t a n c e c o u l d be c h a n n e l l e d i n t o t h e v i l l a g e .
I t i s e a s y t o s e e t h a t t h i s made f o r r e a l i g n m e n t s , s u b t l e a t f i r s t , i n t h e power s i t u a t i o n o f t h e v i l l a g e .
The r a t e o f i n c r e a s e i n t h e p o p u l a t i o n was su c h , t h a t i f i n 1900 a man i n t h e s e a r e a s h a d t w i c e t h e l a n d t h a t h e c o u ld c o n v e n i e n t l y f a r m , b y t h e m i d - t h i r t i e s he h ad o n ly t w o - t h i r d s o f i t . The * l a n d p r o b l e m 1 h a d b e g u n and t h e g o v e rn m e n t was f o r c e d t o r e l e a s e l a n d fro m t h e r e s e r v e s . The v i l l a g e seems t o have r e a l i z e d a t a b o u t t h i s t i m e , and t h e n o t i o n h a s h a r d e n e d e v e r s i n c e , t h a t s u c h advan cem en t a s i t d e s i r e d c o u ld n o t come
t h r o u g h a g r i c u l t u r e b u t t h r o u g h e d u c a t i o n .
T here i s a n o t h e r a s p e c t t o t h e p r o b le m o f l a n d . As e a r l y a s 1920 p e a s a n t s h ad beg u n p l a n t i n g r u b b e r i n s m a l ' l - h o l d i n g s . Rubber b e i n g t h e t y p e o f p e rm a n e n t c ro p t h a t i t i s , t h e r e s u l t was an i n c r e a s e i n t h e e x t e n t
o f l a n d w h ic h t h e i n d i v i d u a l c o u ld l o o k a f t e r . And when t h e r e was a sq u e e z e on t h e l a n d i t was v e g e t a b l e c u l t i v a t i o n t h a t was e d g e d o u t . T h is worked w e l l enough f o r a t i m e , t h e c o m p a r a t i v e s e c u r i t y o f r u b b e r r e p l a c i n g
( i n t h e e y e s o f t h e v i l l a g e ) t h e p r e c a r i o u s n e s s o f v e g e t a b l e c u l t i v a t i o n . However, when t h e d e p r e s s i o n came and t h e p r i c e o f r u b b e r t o o k a s h a r p d i v e , t h e p e a s a n t f o u n d h i m s e l f w i t h o u t e i t h e r r u b b e r o r f r e e l a n d t o t r y w h a t
e v e r e l s e m ig h t h a v e b e e n p r o f i t a b l e a t t h a t t i m e .
Added t o t h i s was t h e d i f f i c u l t y t h a t work on t h e p l a n t a t i o n came t o a v i r t u a l h a l t .
Much t h a t b e g a n i n t h e e a r l i e r p e r i o d c o n t i n u e d w i t h a c c e l e r a t e d tempo a f t e r t h e war and p a r t i c u l a r l y a f t e r in d e p e n d e n c e i n 1 948. Com munications im p ro v e d ,
e d u c a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s w id e n e d , t h e s t a t e and t h e v i l l a g e came i n t o much c l o s e r c o n t a c t and many more i te m s were
ad d ed t o t h e l i s t o f v i l l a g e n e c e s s i t i e s . However, t h e r e h a s b e e n l i t t l e , i f a n y , i n c r e a s e i n t h e p r o d u c t i v e o u t p u t o f t h e v i l l a g e , e x c e p t i n te rm s o f an e d u c a t i o n w h ich f i t s t h e y o u t h o f t h e v i l l a g e f o r l i t t l e t h a t t h e c o u n tr y h a s t o o f f e r .
D u rin g , and j u s t a f t e r t h e w a r, t h e r e was a g i t a t i o n f o r t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a s c h o o l i n t h e v i l l a g e . The m ain p ro b le m was a s u i t a b l e s i t e and a s m a ll g ro u p of p e o p le who were s p e a r h e a d i n g t h e cam paign a t t e m p t e d t o p e r s u a d e t h e ow ners o f c o n t i g u o u s b l o c k s i n a p a r t i c u l a r
a r e a t o l e a s e t h e i r l a n d s f o r t h i s p u r p o s e . A n o th e r g r o u p , h e a d e d i t i s s a i d by t h e headman o f t h e t i m e , e n d e a v o u re d a p p a r e n t l y t o d i s t u r b t h e s e n e g o t i a t i o n s , b u t w ere i n t h e end u n s u c c e s s f u l . On t h e eve o f t h e
G e n e r a l E l e c t i o n o f 1 947, t h e l a n d was o b t a i n e d , t e m p o r a r y b u i l d i n g s were e r e c t e d and t h e g o v ern m en t r e l e a s e d f u n d s f o r t h e s t a f f i n g and e q u i p p i n g o f t h e s c h o o l . The a c q u i
s i t i o n o f a j u n i o r e d u c a t i o n became more c o n v e n i e n t .
The num bers who d i d n o t s t o p a t t h i s l e v e l , b u t w ent on t o t h e s e n i o r s c h o o l s a t H o ran a, i n c r e a s e d p r o g r e s
s i v e l y . U n t i l t h e m i d - f i f t i e s su c h an e d u c a t i o n u s u a l l y l e d t o s u i t a b l e u r b a n o r s t a t e em ploym ent. T h e r e a f t e r , unemployment among t h o s e Who h ad h a d a s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l e d u c a t i o n w i t h a b i a s to w a r d s t h e h u m a n i t i e s , m ounted v e r y r a p i d l y . Remuna h a s had t o t a k e i t s s h a r e o f t h i s c o u n t r y - w i d e phenomenon. S t i l l , t h e quantum o f employ
ment w h ic h t h e v i l l a g e h a s managed t o o b t a i n h a s b e e n
s u f f i c i e n t f o r t h i s t o h a v e a d e c i s i v e e f f e c t on t h e a l i g n m en ts o f p o w e r.
The a w a r e n e s s of t h e c la im s w h ich t h e v i l l a g e h a s on t h e p o l i t i c i a n s h a s i n c r e a s e d m a rk e d ly a f t e r t h e G e n e r a l E l e c t i o n o f 1956 i n w h ich t h e S r i Lanka Freedom P a r t y won a l a n d s l i d e v i c t o r y . I t i s no l o n g e r h e l p l e s s i n t h e f a c e o f g o v e r n m e n ta l a u t h o r i t y . The Member o f P a r l i a m e n t and d i s t r i c t p o l i t i c i a n s a r e p e r s o n a l i t i e s who a r e w e ll-k n o w n i n and a c c e s s i b l e t o , t h e v i l l a g e . T h e i r i n t e r v e n t i o n i s f r e q u e n t l y s o u g h t i n t h e d e a l i n g s w h ich t h e
v i l l a g e h a s w i t h t h e d i s t r i c t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a l t h o u g h i t i s r e c o g n i s e d t h a t t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h i s i s d e p en d e n t on w h e th e r o r n o t t h e Member o f P a r l i a m e n t i s a mem
b e r o f t h e g o v e r n i n g p a r t y . D e s p i t e t h i s g e n e r a l a t t i t u d e t o p o l i t i c s and p o l i t i c i a n s , b r a n c h e s o f p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s do n o t e n jo y a v i r i l e e x i s t e n c e i n Remuna.
They come a l i v e a t e l e c t i o n tim e o n ly t o w i t h e r away t h e r e a f t e r .
I n t h e f a c e o f s u c h c h a n g e s i t was i n e v i t a b l e t h a t t h e headman would h av e t o g o . He h a s b e e n r e p l a c e d by a Grama S ev ak a who p e r f o r m s s u b s t a n t i a l l y t h e same d u t i e s b u t who i s r e c r u i t e d on t h e b a s i s o f an ex am in a
t i o n an d who f u n c t i o n s l i k e t h e D i v i s i o n a l Revenue
O f f i c e r w i t h i n a t r a n s f e r a b l e s e r v i c e . The a t t e m p t h a s b e e n t o remove fro m t h i s o f f i c e t h e o v e r t o n e s o f p o l i c e a u t h o r i t y w h i c h - t h e o f f i c e o f headman h a d .
T h is was p a r t o f a s h i f t i n a d m i n i s t r a t i v e e m p h a sis w h ic h h a d b e g u n e a r l i e r . P r i o r t o i n d e p e n d e n c e , t h e
v i l l a g e was d e a l t w i t h by t h e d i s t r i c t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n t h r o u g h t h e d i v i s i o n a l o f f i c e , w h ic h i n t u r n u s e d t h e headman a s i t s c o n t a c t i n t h e v i l l a g e . C e n t r a l g o v e r n m ent a g e n c i e s h a d t o u s e t h i s d e v io u s r o u t e i f i t w a n te d a n y t h i n g done a t t h e v i l l a g e l e v e l w i t h t h e a d d e d d i s a d v a n t a g e t h a t i t s scheme o r m essag e would be p r e s e n t e d t o
t h e v i l l a g e by o f f i c i a l s who may o r may n o t h a v e b e e n s y m p a t h e t i c t o i t .
A f t e r 1948 i t was f e l t t h a t t h e p a c e o f d e v e l o p m ent demanded a more dynam ic and r e s p o n s i v e s t r u c t u r e ,
Government a g e n c i e s h a v e c h o s e n one o f two f o r m s . Some d e c i d e d t o work t h r o u g h a f i e l d o f f i c e r who h a d a s h i s a r e a a u n i t o f f i v e o r s i x v i l l a g e s . I t I s i n t h i s way t h a t a g r i c u l t u r a l schemes s u c h a s t h e u se o f f e r t i l i z e r , t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f new v a r i e t i e s o f p a d d y , v e n t u r e s i n a n im a l h u s b a n d r y and new c a s h c r o p s have b e e n I n t r o d u c e d i n t o t h e v i l l a g e . So a l s o new p r a c t i c e s i n h e a l t h and s a n i t a t i o n . O t h e r s d e c i d e d t o e n c o u r a g e v i l l a g e s t o s e t up s o c i e t i e s w h ic h would work i n p a r t n e r s h i p w i t h them . These w ere s e e n a s p o o l s i n w h ic h g o v e rn m e n t a s s i s t a n c e w ould m in g le w i t h and s t i m u l a t e v i l l a g e e n d e a v o u r . The R u r a l D evelopm ent S o c i e t y and t h e C o - o p e r a t i v e S o c i e t y a r e t h e r e s u l t s o f t h i s a p p r o a c h .
The o t h e r i m p o r t a n t i n f l u e n c e i n Remuna i n
8
r e c e n t t i m e s h a s b e e n t h e fa d d y Lands A c t. I t s i n t e n t i o n was t h e c o m p le te o v e r h a u l o f pad d y c u l t i v a t i o n .
B e f o r e t h i s A c t , i n Remuna a s e l s e w h e r e , t h e c o o r d i n a t i o n and c o n t r o l o f t h e d i f f e r e n t a c t i v i t i e s c o n n e c te d w i t h t h i s fo rm o f c u l t i v a t i o n was t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f t h e Vel V id a n e . D i s p u t e s a b o u t r i g h t s were s e t t l e d by him and he was e x p e c t e d t h r o u g h h i s a u t h o r i t y t o c o e r c e p e o p le i n t o t h e p r o p e r p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e i r a l l o t t e d t a s k s . The Vel V idane was a g o v e rn m e n t a p p o i n t e e , s e l e c t e d fro m among th e i m p o r t a n t f a m i l i e s i n t h e v i l l a g e . He r e c e i v e d no s a l a r y b u t e a c h c u l t i v a t o r gave him a s m a ll s h a r e o f h i s
p r o d u c e . The Act r e p l a c e d t h e Vel V idane w i t h an e l e c t e d C u l t i v a t i o n Committee w h ic h was s u p p o r t e d by a p a r t -
tim e s e c r e t a r y whom t h i s com m ittee c o u ld s e l e c t .
The V i l l a g e Today
I s h a l l now d e s c r i b e v e r y b r i e f l y c e r t a i n a s p e c t s o f Remuna s o c i e t y by way o f p r o v i d i n g a b a c k g ro u n d f o r t h e f o u r c h a p t e r s t h a t f o l l o w .
D u rin g t h e l a s t tw e n ty y e a r s t h e s h o r t a g e o f
l a n d h a s become v e r y a c u t e and r i g h t s i n l a n d a r e j e a l o u s l y g u a r d e d . D i s p u t e s o v e r l a n d a r e t h e c a u s e o f much l i t i g a t i o n , i n some i n s t a n c e s t h e c o s t s o f d o in g so e x c e e d i n g t h e v a l u e o f t h e l a n d d i s p u t e d . Urban l a w y e r s o f t e n f i n d t h i s b e h a v i o u r i n e x p l i c a b l e th o u g h , p o s s i b l y , n o t u n d e s i r a b l e . The c o m p l e x i t i e s o f l a n d u se and o w n e rsh ip i n r u r a l C eylon h a v e b e e n amply d e m o n s t r a t e d i n r e c e n t w r i t i n g s ; Remuna i s no e x c e p t i o n .
9
The l a n d p r o v i d e s t h e g r e a t e r p a r t o f t h e i r income f o r v e r y n e a r l y h a l f t h e p e o p le - e i t h e r t h r o u g h o w n e r s h i p , d i r e c t l a b o u r o r t h r o u g h s u p p l y i n g t h e o t h e r s e r v i c e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a g r i c u l t u r e . Land i s t h o u g h t o f a s i s t h i r a d e p o l a - s a f e , and i t i s h o p e d , u n a l t e r a b l e , c a p i t a l . P e o p le a r e o f t e n c a t e g o r i s e d i n t e r m s o f t h e i r l a n d i n t e r e s t s an d p h r a s e s s u c h a s !,t h o s e who work t h e f i e l d s t o g e t h e r 11 and " t h o s e who e a t one i n h e r i t a n c e " a r e
o f t e n h e a r d .
The i n h e r i t a n c e o f land, i n Remuna i s g o v e rn e d by t h e law s o f t h e c o u n t r y w i t h o u t r e g i o n a l o r e t h n i c m o d i f i c a t i o n . The c e n t r a l p r i n c i p l e i s t h a t c h i l d r e n
i n h e r i t e q u a l l y i r r e s p e c t i v e o f s e x . When a p a r e n t d i e s i n t e s t a t e , i n t h e f i r s t i n s t a n c e , h a l f t h e p r o p e r t y g o e s t o t h e s u r v i / v in g p a r e n t and t h e o t h e r h a l f i s
d i v i d e d among t h e c h i l d r e n . E v e n t u a l l y s h o u l d t h i s p a r e n t t o o d i e i n t e s t a t e t h i s h a l f o f t h e p r o p e r t y i s
s h a r e d i n a s i m i l a r way. T h ere a r e now no m a jo r co n
f l i c t s b e tw e e n t h e s e l e g a l s t i p u l a t i o n s and Remuna c o n c e p ts o f i n h e r i t a n c e . T h e re i s , t h o u g h , t h e n o t i o n among t h o s e who h o l d more ’t r a d i t i o n a l 1 v a l u e s t h a t d a u g h t e r s who m a rry o u t o f t h e v i l l a g e s h o u l d have no s h a r e of t h e l a n d . However, t h e number o f i n s t a n c e s when Remuna h a s h a d t o t a k e c o g n is a n c e o f t h i s a s p e c t o f t h e law h av e b e e n
s u f f i c i e n t l y num erous f o r i t t o be r e c o g n i s e d c l e a r l y t h a t d a u g h t e r s i n s u c h s i t u a t i o n s do have e x e r c i s a b l e r i g h t s w h ic h a r e , a t t h e v e r y l e a s t , weapons i n s p e c i a l s i t u a t i o n s . T h i s a p a r t i t m ig h t be e x p e c t e d t h a t t h e law would work f a i r l y s m o o th ly . I n a c t u a l p r a c t i c e t h e e x e r c i s e of l a n d r i g h t s i s f a r fr o m c l e a r - c u t and t h e p r o b le m s o f d o in g so i n r e l a t i o n t o h i g h l a n d a r e d i f f e r e n t t o t h o s e p r e s e n t e d by pad d y l a n d .
The s im p le f a c t a b o u t l a n d i s t h a t , w h i l e t h e e x t e n t a v a i l a b l e t o t h e v i l l a g e r e m a in s v i r t u a l l y s t a t i c , t h e p o p u l a t i o n r i s e s a t a m arked r a t e . ( % e s t i m a t e i s t h a t t h e p o p u l a t i o n to d a y i s more t h a n s i x t im e s w hat
i t was a t t h e t u r n o f t h e c e n t u r y . ) W ith e v e r y g e n e r a t i o n t h e n t h e s i z e o f t h e a v e r a g e i n d i v i d u a l h o l d i n g d e c r e a s e s , r e d u c i n g t h e p o t e n t i a l o f t h e l a n d t o p r o v i d e a n a d e q u a t e incom e. What h a s h a p p e n e d i n t h e c a s e o f pad d y l a n d ?
I t i s t h e b e l i e f i n t h e v i l l a g e t h a t i t i s
uneconom ic t o c u l t i v a t e f i e l d s w h ic h a r e belo w a c e r t a i n minimum s i z e . When t h i s minimum i s r e a c h e d i n s t e a d o f m aking t h e d i v i s i o n on t h e g ro u n d i t i s made i n t e r m s o f t i m e . T h a t i s , i f a p l o t i s i n h e r i t e d by A and B i t i s c u l t i v a t e d by them i n a l t e r n a t e y e a r s . Then i f A h a s two s o n s , A1 and A2, and B h a s t h r e e s o n s , B l , B2 and A1 and A2 w i l l e a c h h a v e t h e f i e l d e v e r y f o u r y e a r s ,
w h i l e B l , B2 and B3 w i l l e a c h have i t e v e r y s i x y e a r s . I t i s e a s y t o s e e t h a t a f i e l d c o u l d v e r y e a s i l y be a t a s t a g e when a c o p a r c e n e r g e t s h i s t u r n once e v e r y f o r t y y e a r s . At t i m e s f i e l d s a r e s o l d when t h i s h a p p e n s and
t h e r e v e r s e p r o c e s s o f c o n s o l i d a t i o n t a k e s p l a c e . In g e n e r a l , h o w e v e r, f r a g m e n t e d f i e l d s a r e t h e o r d e r , and i n one p a r t i c u l a r i n s t a n c e t h e c y c l e t a k e s a s much a s e i g h t y y e a r s t o c o m p l e t e .
10
The s y s te m i s te rm e d t h a t t u m a r u and t h e r e c o r d s o f s h a r e s and t h e i r i n h e r i t a n c e a r e m a i n t a i n e d i n t h e
T h a ttu m a r u Book by t h e C u l t i v a t i o n C om m ittee. A v a r i a n t o f t h e s y s te m o c c u r s when A and B i n h e r i t a f i e l d w h ic h i s l a r g e eno u g h f o r d i v i s i o n b u t i n w h ic h t h e d i f f e r e n t a r e a s a r e o f u n e q u a l p r o d u c t i v i t y . I n s u c h a s i t u a t i o n
a f r e e h o l d d i v i s i o n m ig h t n o t be made; t h e f i e l d m ig h t i n s t e a d be d i v i d e d i n t o two p l o t s and e a c h o f them w i l l work e a c h o f t h e p l o t s i n a l t e r n a t e y e a r s . T h is
a rr a n g e m e n t i s te r m e d k a t t i m a r u .
T h is i s a somewhat i d e a l i s e d p i c t u r e i n t h e s e n s e t h a t , i t i s c l e a r t h a t many f i e l d s w ere n o t i n f a c t d i v i d e d a t a minimum p o i n t i n t h i s p e a c e f u l , m a t h e m a t i c a l way. As e x t e n t s grew s m a l l e r t h e r e were c o n f l i c t s c e n t r i n g a ro u n d t h e way i n w h ic h a g ro u p o f b r o t h e r s worked t h e i r f i e l d s and s h a r e d t h e i r incom e. One b r o t h e r m ig h t want t o d i v i d e and a n o t h e r would oppose t h i s . The q u e s t i o n w ould a r i s e a s t o who w ould work t h e f i e l d f i r s t i n t h e e v e n t o f a t h a t t u m a r u d i v i s i o n . A l l t h i s w ould t a k e p l a c e a g a i n s t t h e b a c k g ro u n d o f t h e view t h a t r e l a t i o n
s h i p s o f c o - o p e r a t i o n and a m ity s h o u ld e x i s t b e tw e e n b r o t h e r s .
I t i s c l e a r t h a t t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l f a c t o r of
minimum e x t e n t was n o t alw ay s th e f e a t u r e w h ic h d e te r m i n e d d i v i s i o n , A g ro u p o f b r o t h e r s m ig h t s t a r t o u t i n a s p i r i t o f c o - o p e r a t i o n , f r i c t i o n would d e v e lo p and a t h a t t u m a r u d i v i s i o n w ould be a c o n v e n i e n t and s a t i s f a c t o r y way o f r e s o l v i n g t h e c o n f l i c t . B ut by i t s e l f i t w ould h av e b e e n o f l i t t l e a v a i l a g a i n s t t h e t e n s i o n s c r e a t e d by a s h o r t a g e o f l a n d i f n o t f o r t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e was a t t h i s tim e an i n c r e a s i n g d e s i r e f o r a c a s h incom e. Paddy c o u ld n o t p r o v i d e t h i s i n t h e way t h a t e x t r a - v i l l a g e employment
c o u ld and t h i s was t h e d i r e c t i o n o f e f f o r t . I n t h i s c o n t e x t
t h e t h a t t u m a r u sy s te m h a s worked a s a d e v i c e w h ich m a i n t a i n e d a s a t i s f a c t o r y b a l a n c e b e tw e e n t h e paddy l a n d a v a i l a b l e and th e d e s i r e f o r i t . The p r e s e n t p o s i t i o n i s t h a t t h e r e a r e t h a t t u m a r u a r r a n g e m e n ts i n a l l b u t a few f i e l d s and i t i s t h e a c c e p t e d way o f
d e a l i n g w i t h s m a ll e x t e n t s . As w i l l be s e e n c o n f l i c t s o v e r paddy l a n d a r e l e s s num erous and much l e s s a c r im o n i o u s t h a n o v e r h i g h l a n d .
The p o s i t i o n i n r e l a t i o n t o h i g h l a n d i s d i f f e r e n t i n many r e s p e c t s . Vlflhen a p r o p e r t y i s i n h e r i t e d by a s e t o f b r o t h e r s i t i s seldom d iv id e d * A l e g a l p a r t i t i o n i s c o s t l y and e v e n when f i n a n c e s p e r m i t t h i s i s con
s i d e r e d a m is u s e o f r e s o u r c e s . F o r m ost p e o p l e th e c o s t s o f s u c h an a c t i o n a r e p r o h i b i t i v e . A p a rt fr o m t h i s e v e n a n o n - l e g a l d i v i s i o n I n t h e fo r m o f f e n c i n g t h e p r o p e r t y i n t o t h e r e q u i r e d number o f s h a r e s i s seldom c o n te m p l a t e d . As m e n tio n e d e a r l i e r t h i s i s t h e wrong way t o b eh av e and i s a r e f l e c t i o n on t h e f a m i l y .
To demand d i v i s i o n i s t o i s o l a t e o n e s e l f ; i t i s a r e f u s a l t o e n t e r i n t o a s y s te m o f r e c i p r o c a l s e r v i c e s . The demand i s seld o m made u n l e s s t h e i s o l a t i o n h a s a l r e a d y o c c u r r e d i n t h e fo r m o f i n c r e a s e d in co m e. U n lik e t h e d i v i s i o n o f paddy l a n d w h ic h i s e m p h a s is e d o n ly a t p a r t i c u l a r t i m e s s u c h a s sow ing and h a r v e s t i n g , a h i g h l a n d d i v i s i o n m a n i f e s t s i t s e l f i n , and i s r e i n f o r c e d b y , s e v e r a l e v e r y day i n c i d e n t s . By and l a r g e t h e n t h i s view r e g a r d i n g d i v i s i o n i s s t i l l s t r e s s e d e v e n th o u g h
employment and t h e r e s u l t i n g d i f f e r e n c e s o f incom es
b e tw e e n b r o t h e r s t e n d s t o b r i n g i t somewhat u n d e r a t t a c k * What h a p p e n s a s tim e g o e s on? Two h y p o t h e t i c a l e x am p le s w i l l i l l u s t r a t e some o f t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s .
Suppose a man h a s t h r e e s o n s , G, I) and E, and t h e y i n h e r i t h i s b l o c k o f l a n d . Each o f them r e s i d e s i n t h e b l o c k and h ave o n e , two an d t h r e e c h i l d r e n r e s p e c t i v e l y ( C l, D1 and D2, E l , E2 and E 3 ). When t h e s e s i x a l s o s e t
up h o u se i n t h e same b l o c k , t h e c o n f l i c t s t h a t a r e l i k e l y t o a r i s e w i l l h a v e a t t h e i r r o o t a s im p le f a c t . While t h e r e a r e s i x p e o p le r e s i d e n t i n t h e b l o c k t h e i r s h a r e s a r e v e r y d i f f e r e n t . Cl h a s a t h i r d , D1 and D2 h a v e a s i x t h w h i l e E l , E2 and E3 h a v e o n l y a n i n t h e a c h . From t h e p o i n t o f view o f C l, u n l e s s he i s p a r t i c u l a r l y v i g i - l a n d t h e b l o c k i s l i k e l y t o f i n d e q u i l i b r i u m a t a p o i n t when a l l s i x e n j o y i t more o r l e s s e q u a l l y , t h e r e b y r e d u c i n g h i s s h a r e by h a l f . I f he i s d e t e r m i n e d t o
©njoy h i s r i g h t f u l s h a r e he w i l l p r o b a b l y be c r i t i c i s e d by t h e o t h e r s a s b e i n g g r a s p i n g i n a s i t u a t i o n o f i n s u f f i c i e n t l a n d .
The p r o b le m s become e v e n more c o m p l i c a t e d when two b l o c k s a r e i n v o l v e d . Suppose t h a t a man h a s two e q u a l b l o c k s o f l a n d i n one o f w h ic h he l i v e s w i t h h i s f i v e s o n s , J , K, L, M and N. The so n s s e t up h o u se i n t h i s way: J an d K r e m a in i n t h e o r i g i n a l b l o c k w h i l e L, M and N go t o t h e se c o n d o n e . Now l e t u s su p p o se t h a t t h e s i t u a t i o n i n t h e t h i r d g e n e r a t i o n i s a s f o l l o w s :
