V O L U M E I
A T h e s i s s u b m i t t e d for t he D e g r e e of
D o c t o r of P h i l o s o p h y
i n th e U n i v e r s i t y * o f L o n d o n
by
S o n p i e K p o n e - T o n w e
J a n u a r y 1987 D e p a r t m e n t of H i s t o r y
S c h o o l of O r i e n t a l a n d A f r i c a n S t u d i e s U n i v e r s i t y of L o n d o n
All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS
The qu ality of this repro d u ctio n is d e p e n d e n t upon the q u ality of the copy subm itted.
In the unlikely e v e n t that the a u th o r did not send a c o m p le te m anuscript and there are missing pages, these will be note d . Also, if m aterial had to be rem oved,
a n o te will in d ica te the deletion.
uest
ProQuest 10673043
Published by ProQuest LLC(2017). C op yrig ht of the Dissertation is held by the Author.
All rights reserved.
This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States C o d e M icroform Edition © ProQuest LLC.
ProQuest LLC.
789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346
Ann Arbor, Ml 4 8 1 0 6 - 1346
C h i e f F e e b a K p o n e - T o n w e
a nd M a d a m L e y o K p o n e - T o n w e
f or t h e i r f o r e s i g h t
d i s t r i c t o f E a s t e r n N i g e r i a . T h e O g oni, w h o o c c u p y the m a i n l a n d c o a s t o f s o u t h - e a s t e r n N i g e r i a , b e t w e e n the I mo a n d t h e B o n n y
ri ve r s , a r e c u l t u r a l l y a n d l i n g u i s t i c a l l y d i s t i n c t . T h e i r a n c e s t o r s a r r i v e d in t h e a r e a b y s e a in c a n o e s m a n y c e n t u r i e s b e f o r e t h e i r p r e s e n t n e i g h b o u r s c a m e to s e t t l e . T h e i r s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n w a s b a s e d o n c l a s s d i s t i n c t i o n s , w i t h s u c c e s s in a g r i c u l t u r e as the c h i e f m e a n s o f s o c i a l m o b i l i t y . Y a m s a n d p l a n t a i n s , wh i c h , t h e y claim , w e r e d o m e s t i c a t e d b y t h e i r a n c e s t o r s , c o n s t i t u t e t he m a i n cr ops. T h e i r r e l i g i o u s - c u m - m i l i t a r y s y s t e m i n c l u d e d t h e a w a r d of ti tl es , t h e h i g h e s t o f w h i c h is t he b a s i s o f a n c e s t r a l s p i r i t - p o s s e s s i o n a m o n g t h e O goni. C o n t r a r y to l o n g - h e l d o p i n i o n s , t he t h e s i s r e v e a l s t h a t the O g o n i c o n t r o l l e d the l o n g - d i s t a n c e t r a d e o f the E a s t e r n N i g e r D e l t a in p r e - E u r o p e a n tim es. T r a d e r o u t e s l i n k e d t he h i n t e r l a n d t o m a r k e t t o w n s o n the c o a s t o f Og o n i . The m a i n i t e m s o f t r a d e c o n s i s t e d o f salt, s l a v e s a n d s e a foo ds, a n d t he m e d i u m o f e x c h a n g e w a s a n i r o n c u r r e n c y . T h e s t u d y s h o w e d t h a t th e a n c i e n t O g o n i r e g a r d e d t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f d o m e s t i c s l a v e s as a m a r k o f s o c i a l d i s t i n c t i o n . F u r t h e r m o r e , the t h e s i s c l a r i f i e s s e v e r a l i s s u e s c o n c e r n i n g t he e a r l y P o r t u g u e s e c o n t a c t s i n th is r e g i o n a n d i d e n t i f i e s the t r a d i n g p l a c e s d e s c r i b e d in t h e e a r l y P o r t u g u e s e w r i t i n g s . T h e t h e s i s is b a s e d e n t i r e l y o n p r i m a r y m a t e r i a l c o l l e c t e d f r o m s e l e c t e d i n f o r m a n t s d u r i n g m y f i e l d w o r k in th e a r e a f r o m J u n e t i l l O c t o b e r 1981, a n d f r o m N o v e m b e r 1 9 8 3 t i l l M a r c h 1984. T h e t y p e of i n f o r m a n t s i n c l u d e d t r a d i t i o n a l r u l e r s a n d chie f s , p r i e s t s , s p i r i t - m e d i u m s o f f o u n d i n g a n c e s t o r s w h o w e r e c u r r e n t l y p o s s e s s i n g l i v i n g d e s c e n d a n t s , r e c o g n i z e d h u n t e r s , h e a d s o f t r a d i t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s , l e a d e r s o f o c c u p a t i o n a l g u i l d s , h e a d s o f s e c r e t s o c i e t i e s , etc. I n t e r v i e w s w e r e r e c o r d e d on t apes, t r a n s c r i b e d a n d t r a n s l a t e d i n t o E n g l i s h . T h e t h e s i s is a n a n a l y s i s o f this f i n a l m a t e r i a l .
T A B L E OF C O N T E N T S
P a g e
A b s t r a c t ... ... ... ... i
T a b l e of c o n t e n t s ... ... ... ii
L i s t of M a p s ... ... ... v
L i s t of T a b l e s ... ... ... vi
L i s t of A b b r e v i a t i o n s ... ... v i i
P r e f a c e ... ... ... v i i i
G h a p t e r I I N T R O D U C T I O N ... ... 1
A n c e s t r a l S p i r i t - M e d i u m s 29
F i e l d w o r k M a t e r i a l ... 44
C h a p t e r II T H E P R O B L E M OF M E T H O D O L O G Y 62 T h e O g o n i Oral T r a d i t i o n 69
T h e Re a l I n f o r m a n t s ... 73
R e c o r d i n g t he I n f o r m a n t i o n 76 T r a n s c r i p t i o n a n d T r a n s l a t i o n 79 I n a d e q u a c y of L a n g u a g e ... 84 C o n t e n t , P e r s p e c t i v e & S c o p e 86 A r r a n g e m e n t of the T e x t s 93 C h a p t e r III T H E P R O C E S S OF S E T T L E M E N T 94
N a m a ... ... ... 94
M o v e m e n t f r o m N a m a to K u g b a 103
E v a c u a t i o n of K u g b a ... 107
S e t t l e m e n t of W i i s o r o and G u r e 108 M u l t i p l e M i g r a t i o n s an d E x p a n s i o n
f r o m W i i s o r o and G u r e ,,. 116 T h e G w a a r a - S i i w a r s ... 121 W h y t he T r a d i t i o n s of K o n o are
of Si i ... ... 123
E a s t w a r d E x p a n s i o n ... 124
T h e N o r t h e r n E x p a n s i o n s ... 125 K p o n g in the E a r l y A g e ... 127
G o k a n a ... ... ... 127
T e e ... ... ... 133
T h e A g e of E x p a n s i o n ... 138
L u e k u n ... ... ... 139
Ko (O pu ok o) ... ... 142
T h e C o m i n g of t h e I b a n i ... 146
T h e N a m e ’I b a n i1 ... 149
B a n g h a ... ... ... 151
S e t t l e m e n t of L e m e (Eleme) 152 M i g r a t i o n s f r o m G o k a n a to L e m e 154 L i n g u i s t i c T r a n s f o r m a t i o n s 159 T h e S e t t l e m e n t of B o u e ... 160 D e m o g r a p h i c E x a p n s i o n ... 163
C h a p t e r IV T H E E M E R G E N C E O F T H E K I N G D O M S 168
T h e K i n g d o m of N a m a ... 168
T h e M a t r i l i n e a l S u c c e s s i o n 174 T h e O l d K p o n g K i n g d o m ... 177 A t e e h ’s M i g r a t i o n f r o m T e e 1Q3 T h e E m e r g e n c e of the N e w K p o n g
K i n g d o m ... X 8 5
C h a p t e r
C h a p t e r
B a c k g r o u n d to A t e e h ' s R e b e l l i o n
and A s c e n d a n c y ... ... 1 8 5
T h e K i n g d o m of B o u e ... 1 8 8
H i s t o r i c K w u r i b u e ... 191
T h e E v a c u a t i o n of K w u r i b u e a nd t h e f o u n d i n g of K o n o B o u e 1 9 1 The C a u s e s of t he B a a n W a r 1 93 H o w K w u r i b u e c o n t r o l l e d the E a s t e r n
D e l t a T r a d e in the 16th c e n t u r y 197 T h e C o u r s e of th e W a r ... 201
D e e p T r e n c h e s ... ... 202
F i r s t U s e of F i r e a r m s ... 203 T h e C h a n g e to P a t r i l i n e a l S u c c e s s i o n 205 T h e K i n g d o m of G o k a n a .,. 208
G i o k o o ... ... ... 208
U n i t a r y S t a t e ... ... 211
O r i g i n of t he N a m e " G o k a n a " 214 D e m o g r a p h i c S u p e r i o r i t y ... 214 T h e K i n g d o m s of Tee, Bangha ,
L u e k u n and L e m e ... 219
B a n g h a , L u e k u n and L e m e and t he
T r a d e R o u t e s ... ... 222
V T H E N A T U R E OF T H E E C O N O M Y 232 T r a d e R o u t e s & M a r k e t - p l a c e s
A g r i c u l t u r a l P r o d u c t i o n ...
B a n g h a City: t he E a r l y H i s t o r y
T h e B a n g h a M a r k e t ... 243
T h e D u p l i c a t i o n of P l a c e - N a m e s 256 T h e W h y and H o w the E r r o r O c c u r r e d 259 D e v e l o p m e n t in the O t h e r S e c t o r s
of th e E c o n o m y ... ... 264
T h e P o t t e r y I n d u s t r y .. . 265 O r g a n i z a t i o n of P r o d u c t i o n 268 T h e A c t i v i t i e s of P o t - T r a d e r s 273
L a r g e s t C a n o e s ... ... 277
T h e C a n o e - m a k i n g I n d u s t r y 279
VI S O C I A L O R G A N I Z A T I O N A N D T H E E V O L U
T I O N O F P O L I T I C A L I N S T I T U T I O N S 283 A n a l y s i s of the So c i a l O r g a n i z a t i o n 284
G b o n and Z o o r o (s la ves)... 287
Pya Saa N e e ( s t r a n g e r s ) ... 289 P y a K u n e n e e ( c o m m o n e r s or f r e e m e n ) 292
D i s a d v a n t a g e s ... ... 293
K p o r o w a (the u n m a r r i e d poor) 294 P y a G b a r a (the g e n t l e m e n ) 294
T h e A g e F a c t o r ... ... 297
T h e E v o l u t i o n of P o l i t i c a l I n s t i t u t i o n s T h e G b e n e m e n e (G re at R uler) 299 T h e P r a c t i c e of G o v e r n m e n t 300 F o r m a t i o n of the H o u s e of R u l e r s 303 H o w A s s o b i e n e e b e c a m e the A r c h i tect of the H o u s e of R u l e r s 307 T h e F u n c t i o n s of the H o u s e of
E l d e r s ... ... 308
T h e H o u s e of L i e u t e n a n t s 312 (To P y a Z u g u r u )
T h e F u n c t i o n s of P y a Z u g u r u 313
C h a p t e r VI Q u a l i f i c a t i o n of a Z u g u r u 41 4 (C on td.) Q u a l i f i c a t i o n s of an E l d e r 316 T h e P o w e r s of the H o u s e of E l d e r s 317 O t h e r A s p e c t s of Soc ial O r g a n i z a
t i o n an d S ocial A s c e n d a n c y 322
C h a p t e r V I I O G O N I A N D ITS N E I G H B O U R S 342
T h e Ig b o (P y a G b o n ) ... 342
I b i b i o (B i b i ) ... ... 355
A n d o n i (B o n o ) ... ... 363
B o n n y a nd O p o b o ... ... 377
O k r i k a ... ... ... 395
I k w e r r e , K a l a h a r i and B r a s s (Nemb e) 408
C h a p t e r V I I I T H E C O M I N G O F T H E E U R O P E A N S 415 O g o n i a f t e r the E r a of t h e S l a v e
T r a d e ... ... ... 415
T r a d e M o n o p o l y by the D e l t a S t a t e s 416 O g o n i at the End of the ’L e g i t i m a t e '
T rade: T h e C o l o n i a l C o n q u e s t 425 T h e R e s u l t s of t h e C o n q u e s t 430
A p p e n d i x I O g o n i P o t t e r s a n d t h e i r T r a d e M a r k s 434
A p p e n d i x II So m e O g o n i P o t t e r y T y p e s 440
A p p e n d i x III So m e O g o n i R i t u a l Pots 442
A p p e n d i x IV O g o n i I r o n M o n e y 4 44
A p p e n d i x V O g o n i K n i v e s 445
A p p e n d i x VI O g o n i C a r d i n a l P o i n t s 447
A p p e n d i x VII B i o g r a p h i c a l N o t e s on I n f o r m a n t s 448
B i b l i o g r a p h y 455
M a p 1
M a p 2
M a p 3
L i s t o f M a p s
T h e s e v e n c u l t u r a l / p o l i t i c a l D i v i s i o n s o f O g o n i
I n t e r n a l M i g r a t i o n s a n d E x p a n s i o n o f S e t t l e m e n t s
E x p a n s i o n o f t h e K i n g d o m s
P a g e 14
96
207
M a p 4. T r a d e R o u t e s f r o m th e H i n t e r l a n d 262 to t h e O g o n i G o a s t
L i s t o f T a b l e s
T a b l e 1. S o m e C o r r u p t e d O g o n i p l a c e - n a m e s ... 18
T a b l e 2. T h e S c a l e of S t a t e P o w e r ... 301
T a b l e 3- M e m b e r s h i p o f the H o u s e o f E l d e r s ... 304
J. A.H.
J . H . S . N .
J.A.S.
I. J .A.L.
J . A.L.
A,L.
C a l p r o f S . O . A . S .
J. R . A . I .
S.W.J.A.
R. L. J.
J o u r n a l o f A f r i c a n H i s t o r y
J o u r n a l o f the H i s t o r i c a l S o c i e t y o f N i g e r i a
J o u r n a l o f A f r i c a n S t u d i e s
I n t e r n a t i o n a l J o u r n a l o f A m e r i c a n L i n g u i s t i c s
J o u r n a l o f A f r i c a n L a n g u a g e s
A n t h r o p o l o g i c a l L i n g u i s t i c s
C a l a b a r P r o v i n c i a l P a p e r s
S c h o o l o f O r i e n t a l a n d A f r i c a n S t u d i e s , U n i v e r s
o f L o n d o n
J o u r n a l of t h e R o y a l A n t h r o p o l o g i c a l I n s t i t u t e
S o u t h - W e s t e r n J o u r n a l of A n t h r o p o l o g y
T h e R h o d e s - L i v i n g s t o n e J o u r n a l
M y i n t e r e s t in this r e s e a r c h g r e w out of my f a m i l y b a c k g r o u n d .
M y g r a n d f a t h e r on m y m o t h e r ’s si d e w a s a m e d i c i n e m a n a nd a m e m b e r of
the H o u s e of H u n t e r s , H is name, K u w e t e , f a t h e r of the L e o p a r d , w a s
f a m o u s for h i s h u n t i n g charms . On m y f a t h e r ’s sid e, the T o n w e f a m i l y
is a ro yal h o u s e in the B o u e ki n g d o m . G b e n e k i r i , m y a n c e s t o r , w a s the
f o u n d e r of U w e g w e r e t o w n in Boue. S o m e t i m e in t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y
d u r i n g the B a a n war, a p a r t f r o m Y o bue, w h o w a s n ot a c i t i z e n , G b e n e k i r i
w a s th e c i t i z e n c o m m a n d e r of the B o u e fo rc es . A f t e r the wa r, G b e n e k i r i
b e c a m e K i n g of a g r e a t e r Boue. He had to m o v e p a r t of his c o m p o u n d
f r o m U w e g w e r e to K o n o Bo ue , the c a p i t a l town, w h e r e he w a s g i v e n a
p e r m a n e n t p i e c e of ground. F o r m e n w i t h the t i t l e of G b e n e w e r e not
s u p p o s e d to be t e n a n t s on a n o t h e r p e r s o n ' s land.
T h i s p a r t i a l r e m o v a l of G b e n e k i r i to K o n o B o u e r e s u l t e d in the
e s t a b l i s h m e n t of tw o G a a n N o o b a n a , n a m e l y G a a n N o o b a n a U w e g w e r e , and
G a a n N o o b a n a K o n o . T h e line of r u l e r s h i p p a s s e d to t he latter.
G b e n e k i r i w a s l a ter d e i f i e d as th e "g od of w i n e " Y o m i i , in m e m o r y of
his w o r k and for i n t r o d u c i n g th e r a f f i a p a l m an d th e p a l m w i n e i n d u s t r y
in t o Og oni. B e s i d e s , G b e n e k i r i h a d m a n y g r e a t son s, four of w h o m
a t t a i n e d the t i t l e of G b e n e , n a m e l y G b e n e a k a - k i r i , G b e n e s u t e ,
G b e n e k p a n i d o o k u n u and G b e n e w e e . T h e s e an d o t h e r d e s c e n d a n t s of G b e n e
k i r i w e r e not o n l y i n t e r e s t e d i n O g o n i h i s t o r y b ut th e y w e r e a l s o the
m a k e r s of the h i s t o r y . W i t h thi s f a m i l y t r a d i t i o n , i n a d d i t i o n to my
o w n k n o w l e d g e of O g o n i l a n g u a g e s an d t r a d i t i o n s , I fel t s t r o n g l y that
I w a s s u f f i c i e n t l y e q u i p p e d to u n d e r t a k e this r e s e a r c h .
B e s i d e s f a m i l y b a c k g r o u n d an d i n t e r e s t , I a l s o d r e w i n s p i r a t i o n
f r o m th e w o r k of o t h e r s c h o l a r s on t he reg io n. T h e s e i n c l u d e
P r o f e s s o r A l a g o a ' s A H i s t o r y of th e N i g e r D e l t a , T h e S m all B r a v e C i t y -
S t a t e , a nd A l a g o a an d F o m b o ’s C h r o n i c l e of G r a n d B o n n y ; P r o f e s s o r
I s i c h e i ' s two v o l u m e s on the H i s t o r y of the I g b o P e o p l e ; P r o f e s s o r
H o r t o n ' s w o r k o n the e v o l u t i o n of the K a l a h a r i st at e, " F r o m F i s h i n g
V i l l a g e to C i t y - S t a t e " , N.C. E j i t i w u ’s Ph.D. T h e s i s o n t he h i s t o r y of
the O b o l o (An doni); as w e l l as the e a r l i e r w o r k by P r o f e s s o r G.I. J o n e s
T h e T r a d i n g S t a t e s of the Oil R i v e r s ; and the m o r e r e c e n t w o r k by
D a v i d N o r t h r u p , T r a d e w i t h o u t R u l e r s .
C o n s i d e r i n g all t h e s e w o r k s , I n o t i c e d h o w c l o s e t h e s e s c h o l a r s
h a v e c o m e to c o m p l e t i n g the h i s t o r y of the r e g i o n , e x c e p t Ogoni.
T h e r e f o r e I d e c i d e d to fill the gap.
A l l this n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g , I p r o b a b l y w o u l d n o t h a v e b e e n the on e
to do this r e s e a r c h but fo r the a d v i c e of m y M.A. d e g r e e e x a m i n e r s at
the U n i v e r s i t y of M i n n e s o t a . A f t e r the or al e x a m i n a t i o n in th e s p r i n g
of 1980, t h e s e m e n told m e to c o n s i d e r s e r i o u s l y the id e a of t a k i n g up
a u n i v e r s i t y t e a c h i n g a p p o i n t m e n t w h e n I r e t u r n e d to N i g eria. T h i s
a d v i c e w a s g i v e n in th e k n o w l e d g e that I w a s a l r e a d y in g o v e r n m e n t
s e r v i c e an d th at I w a s g o i n g b a c k to r e s u m e m y d u t i e s as a s e n i o r
o f f i c i a l i n the R i v e r s S t a t e C i vil S e r v i c e C o m m i s s i o n . And, of c ourse,
the p r o s p e c t s w e r e v e r y a t t r a c t i v e . T h i s a d v i c e set m e t h i n k i n g m o r e
t h a n s e r i o u s l y . It b r o u g h t all the o t h e r f a c t o r s i n t o b o l d p e r s p e c t i v e
T h e d e c i s i o n w a s no t e a s y but I a c ted on th e advice. I r e s u m e d d u t i e s
i n th e C o m m i s s i o n in A u g u s t , 1980, then in O c t o b e r I a c c e p t e d an a p p o i n t
m e n t in th e U n i v e r s i t y of Port H a r c o u r t as an A s s i s t a n t L e c t u r e r in
A f r i c a n H i s t o r y . By J u n e 1981, I b e g a n w o r k on this pro je ct.
O n c e s t a r t e d , o t h e r p e o p l e c a m e to m y a s s i s t a n c e , to w h o m I e x p r e s s my
g r a t i t u d e . F i r s t , to m y s u p e r v i s o r , P r o f e s s o r R o l a n d Oli ver, w h o
d e s p i t e h is v e r y b u s y s c h e d u l e , t o o k ti m e to r e a d e v e r y line of this
thesis; and th a t h e d id f r o m m y long-h a n d , n o t m i n d i n g m y bad h a n d
w ri t i n g . T h i s g a v e h i m t h e o p p o r t u n i t y to see c l e a r l y w h e r e I w a s go in g, and h e o f f e r e d m e u s e f u l a d v i c e and g u i d a n c e t h r o u g h o u t the p r o
ject. M o r e o v e r , P r o f e s s o r O l i v e r ke p t e v e r y a p p o i n t m e n t I b o o k e d w i t h
h i m t h r o u g h o u t the y e a r s of thi s s t u d y and r e s p o n d e d p r o m p t l y to my
l e t t e r s w h e n I w a s on f i e l d w o r k in Ni g e r i a . T h e s e q u a l i t i e s b o t h
i m p r e s s e d a nd i n s p i r e d me, and I sha ll ever be g r a t e f u l for them.
O t h e r p e r s o n s w h o c o n t r i b u t e d to th e s u c c e s s of th i s w o r k i n c l u d e
P r o f e s s o r J.R. Gra y, w h o r e a d s o m e of m y d r a f t s a n d o f f e r e d me v a l u a b l e
s u g g e s t i o n s ; Dr. R . J .A.R. R a t h b o n e , w h o a l s o o f f e r e d m e v a l u a b l e advice ;
I a m e s p e c i a l l y g r a t e f u l to Dr. S u s a n M a r y M a r t i n , for t h e g r e a t a m o u n t
of t i m e s he w a s w i l l i n g to s p a r e in r e a d i n g t h r o u g h t h e w h o l e the s i s
and m a k i n g u s e f u l s u g g e s t i o n s . S i m i l a r t h a n k s go to P r o f e s s o r G.I. Jon e s
of C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s i t y , w h o a l l o w e d me to see m a n y of his papers , and
so m e c h a p t e r s of h i s f o r t h c o m i n g w o r k on E a s t e r n N i g e r i a ; to P r o f e s s o r
K a y W i l l i a m s o n of t he U n i v e r s i t y of Port H a r c o u r t , f o r a l l o w i n g m e to
r e a d a t y p e d c o p y of h e r l atest wor k , " L i n g u i s t i c E v i d e n c e of th e P r e
h i s t o r y of the N i g e r Delta ". I a m a l s o g r a t e f u l to P r o f e s s o r J.D. Fa g e
of B i r m i n g h a m U n i v e r s i t y , f o r his us e f u l c r i t i c i s m s a nd s u g g e s t i o n s
w i t h r e s p e c t to m y t r e a t m e n t of f i e l d w o r k m a t e r i a l an d m y u se of E u r o p e a n
s o u rces; to Dr. A n d r e w R o b e r t s of S . O . A . S . , L o n d o n , w h o s e h e l p f u l
c r i t i c i s m s and s u g g e s t i o n s b r o a d e n e d m y p e r s p e c t i v e s r e g a r d i n g the p r o b l e m s of m e t h o d o l o g y ; P r o f e s s o r s E.J. A l a g o a , S.J.S. Cookey, R o b i n
H o r t o n ; Dr. P.D. K i n a k o , Dr. N w a n a N z e w u n w a , a n d Dr. P e t e r Okafor, all of the U n i v e r s i t y of P o r t H a r c o u r t , to w h i c h I a m g r a t e f u l for p r o v i d i n g
I s h o u l d a l s o like to t h a n k P r o f e s s o r P a u l M a r s c h k e of C o n c o r d i a
Co l l e g e , St. Pa ul , a n d P r o f e s s o r s L a n s i n e K a b b a a n d A l l e n I s a a c m a n , for
t h e i r c o n t i n u e d suppo rt . M y t h a n k s are a l s o d u e to the St a f f s of the
U n i v e r s i t y of L o n d o n L i b r a r i e s , m o r e e s p e c i a l l y t he S t a f f s at S.O .A .S .
L i b r a r y , the B r i t i s h L i b r a r y , the B o d l e i a n L i b r a r y , R h o d e s Ho u s e , O x f o r d
for t h e i r c o - o p e r a t i o n and w i l l i n g a s s i s t a n c e . I a m g r a t e f u l a l s o to
the C u r a t o r and S t a f f s of t h e E t h n o g r a p h i c D e p a r t m e n t , M u s e u m of M a n k i n d
L on, f or s p a r i n g the t i m e for m e to v i s i t t h e i r st ore, w h e r e I w a s
able to i d e n t i f y s o m e ite m s of O g o n i orig i n , s u c h as the i r o n m o n e y
d e s c r i b e d b y D a p p e r . S i m i l a r th a n k s a re a l s o d u e to t he S t a f f s of the
N a t i o n a l A r c h i v e s , Enu gu, N i g e r i a , and to t h e S t a f f s of t h e ive rs S t a t e
A r c h i v e s at t h e C e n t r e f o r A r t s and C u l t u r e , P o r t H a r c o u r t , N i g e r i a ,
for t h e i r c o - o p e r a t i o n .
P e r h a p s this w o r k w o u l d n e v e r h a v e b e e n w r i t t e n w i t h o u t t he c o - o p e r a
tion and th e g r e a t i n t e r e s t s h o w n for it b y t he m a n y i n f o r m a n t s w h o m
I i n t e r v i e w e d d u r i n g m y fie l d w o r k . I w o u l d h a v e l i k e d to list all t h e i r
na m e s h e r e , b u t 1 c a n n o t do th is for la c k of spa ce . I t h e r e f o r e w i s h to e x t e n d m y w a r m e s t g r a t i t u d e to all of t h e m f o r t h e i r w i l l i n g n e s s to
r e s p o n d to m y m a n y q u e s t i o n s d u r i n g the i n t e r v i e w s , m a n y of w h i c h w e r e
w i t h o u t p r i o r n o t i c e . In th at r egard, I l i k e to m e n t i o n H i s R o y a l
H i g h n e s s , J.P. Bag i a , the G b e n e m e n e of G o k a n a ; H i s R o y a l H i g h n e s s ,
G.N. K. G i n i n w a , t h e G b e n e m e n e of Tee; H i s R o y a l H i g h n e s s , M.A .M.
T o n w e III, the G b e n e m e n e of Boue; H is H i g h n e s s E d w a r d N w e b o n K p e a of
M o g h o ; C h i e f J.D. O s a r o n u of O g o l o m a , On ne; C h i e f Oji A w a l a of O g a a l e ; T h e R e v e r e n d S.O. L a a k e of A g b e t a , Onn e; C h i e f O b o N g o f a of A l e e t o ; C h i e f M b a e d e e F r a n c i s M p e b a of N y o o g o ; P r i n c e F.B. T e e d e e of Gure;
P r i n c e T e e r a I n a y o of K o n o Bo ue ; C h i e f M. D. N w i k o g b a r a of Sii; Ch ie f
J.P. T i g i r i of Bie n; C h i e f E.B. N y o o n e an d E l d e r s of Le we ; Chi ef
E m m a n u e l A d o o k o n of Bien; C h ief J.B. Y o m i i of K o ; c h i e f J.B. O b u h of
K a b a n g h a ; C h i e f D o m i n i c K e e k e e of K pong; C h i e f G.N. N w i k o g b a r a of Tern;
C h i e f G.N. L o o L o o of Ko; C h i e f M.N. A k e k u e of K p u i t e ; C h ief N n a a
K p u g i t a of K e n e k e ; C h i e f U r a n e e F r a n k I w e r e b e of U w e g w e r e ; C h i e f D.D.
D e e m u a of G b a m ; Mr. D.L. E j o o of A g b e t a ; an d Mr. A ' E a n G b i g b o of
K w a a k w a a .
F i n a l l y , I l i k e to t h a n k m y F i e l d A s s i s t a n t , Mr . G b e n e t e e B o o b u r a ,
b e c a u s e of h i s e x c e l l e n t q u a l i t i e s . Th i s y o u n g m a n d i d not d i s a p p o i n t
m e o ne d a y t h r o u g h o u t th e f i e l d w o r k ; and w e did n ot m i s s a s i n g l e
a p p o i n t m e n t . O n e m a y no t f u l l y k n o w the i m p o r t a n c e of t h o s e q u a l i t i e s
until o ne h as to de a l in b u s i n e s s w i t h a p e o p l e a c c o r d i n g to t h o s e
p e o p l e ’s t i m e and n ot a c c o r d i n g to the ti me o n e likes. In t h e sa m e
ve in , I m u s t t h a n k Mrs. R u t h C r a n m e r , w h o li k e G b e n e t e e B o o b u r a , has
th e a b i l i t y to r e s p o n d to d u t y p r o m p t l y , so that sh e w a s ab l e to p r o d u c e
this f i n e t y p i n g w i t h i n the s h o r t e s t p o s s i b l e time.
C H A P T E R O N E : I N T R O D U C T I O N
In m o s t thes e s , w r i t t e n w i t h the ai d of s e c o n d a r y m a t e r i a l s , the a u t h o r s u s u a l l y d e v o t e a c o n s i d e r a b l e s p a c e in the i n t r o d u c t i o n c o m
p a r i n g th e s e c o n d a r y s o u r c e s w i t h the n e w work.. T h i s t h e sis, h o w e v e r , is b a s e d e n t i r e l y on m y f i e l d w o r k m a t e r i a l , b e c a u s e t h e r e w e r e no
s e c o n d a r y w o r k s a v a i l a b l e on th e area. F o r this r e a s o n , m u c h of thi s
i n t r o d u c t i o n w i l l be d e v o t e d to e x p l a i n i n g t h i s m a t e r i a l , as u s e d in the
bo d y of the the sis. In the c a s e of s e c o n d a r y s o u r c e s , c o p i e s ar e
n o r m a l l y a v a i l a b l e in l i b r a r i e s for r e a d e r s to c h e c k on p o i n t s of i n t e r e s t .
Th i s is n o t q u i t e the ca s e w i t h f i e l d w o r k m a t e r i a l s . T h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n
is t h e r e f o r e i n t e n d e d to s e r v e a l s o as a r e f e r e n c e s o u r c e for c e r t a i n m a t e r i a l s u s e d in th e t h e s i s w h i c h c o u l d not be e x p l a i n e d in d e t a i l for
o b v i o u s r e a s o n s . So m e c o m p a r i s o n s w i t h w o r k s of a s i m i l a r k i n d w i l l ,
h o w e v e r , be m a d e in C h a p t e r Two, w h e r e the p r o b l e m s of m e t h o d o l o g y are d i s c u s s e d .
T h e O g o n i a re l o c a t e d on the m a i n l a n d f r i n g e of the E a s t e r n N i g e r
D elta. T h e t e r r i t o r y e x t e n d s f r o m the Imo R i ver in the east to the
m u n i c i p a l i t y of P o r t H a r c o u r t in the wes t , an d f r o m N d o k i in the n o r t h
to t h e A n d o n i f l a t s and B o n n y in the south. O g o n i land is an a g r i c u l
t u ral r e g i o n a n d it is h e a v i l y c u l t i v a t e d w i t h y a m s as t h e p r i n c i p a l
crop. T h e r e a re n o t m a n y b i g r i v e r s , e x c e p t fo r th e Imo, w h i c h f o r m s
the b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n O g o n i t e r r i t o r y and I b i b i o l a n d . T he c l i m a t e is
1
g e n e r a l l y h u m i d and the v e g e t a t i o n is of the e q u a t o r i a l r a i n f o r e s t type.
1. For d e t a i l s a b out the c l i m a t e an d g e o g r a p h y of this region , see
R e u b e n K. Ud o, G e o g r a p h i c a l R e g i o n s of N i g e r i a , ( Berkeley: U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a Pr e s s , 1970), pp. 1-9, 46 -98.
’’E n v i r o n m e n t s and P e o p l e s of N i g e r i a ” in O b a r o Ikime, ed., G r o u n d w o r k of N i g e r i a n H i s t o r y (Ibadan: H e i n e m a n n E d u c a t i o n a l B o o k s (Nig. ) L t d., 19 80), pp. 7-24.
T h e r e are t h r e e l a n g u a g e s s p o k e n in O g o n i , viz . K a na, G o k a n a ,
and Le me. T h e K a n a l a n g u a g e is s p o k e n b y t h e l a r g e s t n u m b e r of
c i t i z e n s , an d it is s p o k e n in t he e a s t e r n h a l f of the t e r r i t o r y on
b o t h s i d e s of the L u u b a a r a riv er . G o k a n a is s p o k e n i n th e w e s t - c e n t r a l
p a r t of O g o n i d i v i s i o n , w h i l e t he L e m e l a n g u a g e is s p o k e n in the
w e s t e r n sect o r . A ll t h r e e l a n g u a g e s a re i n t e r - r e l a t e d , but th e y ar e
all d i s t i n c t f r o m all t he o t h e r l a n g u a g e s s p o k e n in t h e area.
J o s e p h H. G r e e n b e r g in 196 3 c l a s s i f i e d t he O g o n i l a n g u a g e s as
b e l o n g i n g to th e B e n u e - C o n g o b r a n c h of t h e N i g e r - C o n g o f a m i l y of A f r i c a n 2
l a n g u a g e s . O n t h e b a s i s of G r e e n b e r g ’s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , P r o f e s s o r K a y W i l l i a m s o n of t he U n i v e r s i t y of Po r t H a r c o u r t h a s d i s t i n g u i s h e d s e v e n
l i n g u i s t i c g r o u p s or c l u s t e r s w i t h i n th e N i g e r De l t a . T h r e e of t h e s e
a re f r o m th e B e n u e - C o n g o b r a n c h and f o u r f r o m t h e K w a branc h. T h e l a n g u a g e s s p o k e n b y the n e i g h b o u r s of Og o n i , viz . Ijo, Igbo, Edo, I t s e -
k i r i - I g a l a , etc., b e l o n g to th e K wa b r a n c h of t h e N i g e r - C o n g o f a m i l y
of A f r i c a n l a n g u a g e s , w h i l e the A b u a - O g b i a a n d t h e E f i k - I b i b i o c l u s t e r s
ar e f r o m t h e B e n u e - C o n g o bran c h . The O g o n i l a n g u a g e s ar e c l a s s i f i e d as
a d i s t i n c t g r o u p w i t h i n the B e n u e - C o n g o branch. O n the o t h e r han d,
A n d o n i (Obol o) w h i c h is a s o u t h e r n n e i g h b o u r of O g o n i , is c l a s s i f i e d as 3
a s e p a r a t e l a n g u a g e w i t h i n t he E f i k - I b i b i o l a n g u a g e cl uster.
F u r t h e r m o r e , H a n s Wo l f f , w h o p u b l i s h e d h i s a n a l y t i c a l w o r k o n t he
N i g e r D e l t a l a n g u a g e s i n 1959, a nd o n the O g o n i l a n g u a g e s i n 1964, c o n
c l u d e d th a t the O g o n i l a n g u a g e s w e r e " c e r t a i n l y n e i t h e r Ijo, n o r Kw a
2. G r e e n b e r g , J o s e p h H . , T h e L a n g u a g e s of A f r i c a , 2nd edn.
( B l o o m i n g t o n : I n d i a n a U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 19 66 ), pp. 16 2- 17 1.
3. W i l l i a m s o n , Ka y, " L a n g u a g e s of t he N i g e r D e l t a " , N i g e r i a M a g a z i n e , Vol. 97, (1968), pp. 124 -1 30 .
l a n g u a g e s " . ^ T h e n a f t e r c o m p a r i n g t he O g o n i l a n g u a g e s w i t h the t w o
o t h e r N i g e r D e l t a l a n g u a g e g r o u p s w i t h i n t he B e n u e - C o n g o bran c h , he
a l s o f o u n d that the O g o n i l a n g u a g e s r e v e a l e d " no s p e c i a l s i m i l a r i t i e s
to I b i b i o - E f i k , t h e i r c l o s e s t n e i g h b o u r s to t h e eas t, or to the A b u a
g r o u p of l a n g u a g e s s p o k e n i n the E a s t e r n N i g e r D e l t a ... " On the
b a s i s of t h e s e l i n g u i s t i c c o m p a r i s o n s , W o l f f c o n c l u d e d that u n t i l
f u r t h e r c o m p a r a t i v e d a t a w e r e a v a i l a b l e , " O g o n i m u s t be r e g a r d e d as a
d i s t i n c t g r o u p w i t h i n that b r a n c h " . ^
T h e l i n g u i s t i c d i f f e r e n c e s d i d not p r e v e n t t h e f l o w of t r a d e and
c u l t u r a l c o n t a c t s b e t w e e n O g o n i and h e r n e i g h b o u r s . It w i l l b e s h o w n
in th is s t u d y tha t t h e r e w a s a g r e a t deal of c o n t a c t b e t w e e n the v a r i o u s
e t h n i c g r o u p s t h r o u g h o u t this regi o n , not o n l y t h r o u g h t r a d e b ut also
t h r o u g h c u l t u r a l a nd d i p l o m a t i c e x c h a n g e s . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e r e w a s
e x c h a n g e of s e c r e t c u l t s b e t w e e n O g o n i and Ibi bio. T h e r e w a s a l s o the
t r a n s m i s s i o n of s o m e i n s t r u m e n t s of s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , s u c h as th e
u s e of e l i t e t itles, as d e m o n s t r a t e d b y t he t r a n s m i s s i o n of the l e o p a r d
t r a d i t i o n b e t w e e n O g o n i and Igbo, and the h e a d - h u n t e r s s o c i e t y b e t w e e n
K a l a h a r i a nd I g b o . ^ T h e r e w e r e al so g r e a t o v e r l a n d t r a d e r o u t e s f r o m
t r a d i n g p o i n t s or m a r k e t - p l a c e s on th e O g o n i c o a s t s to the Igbo h i n t e r
land. T h e s e m a r k e t - p l a c e s or c e n t r e s of t r a d e o p e r a t e d in s o m e
4. W o l f f , H a n s , " N i g e r D e l t a L a n g u a g e s I : C l a s s i f i c a t i o n ” ,
A n t h r o p o l o g i c a l L i n g u i s t i c s , Vol. I, 8 (1 959 ), p. 36 an d pp. 32-55.
5. W o l f f , H a n s , " S y n o p s i s of O g o n i L a n g u a g e s " , J o u r n a l of A f r i c a n L a n g u a g e s , Vol. Ill, 1 (1964), p. 38, a nd pp. 38-51.
6. I b i d .
7. N z i m i r o , I kenna, S t u d i e s i n Ibo P o l i t i c a l S y s t e m s , ( L o n d o n , F r a n k C a s s & Co. L t d., 19 72), pp. 33-36.
g r e s p e c t s l i k e th e 'Ports of t r a d e1 d e s c r i b e d by K a r l Po lanyi. T h e y
w e r e l o c a t e d at s t r a t e g i c p o i n t s on the O g o n i c o a s t s . T h e y o p e r a t e d
an e q u i t a b l e a nd d u r a b l e m e d i u m of e x c h a n g e in t h e f o r m of i r o n m oney.
T h e r e w a s a l s o an a c t i v e b r o k e r a g e o r g a n i z a t i o n w h i c h p r o v i d e d b r o k e r a g e 9
s e r v i c e s an d c r e d i t f a c i l i t i e s . T h u s t he l o n g - d i s t a n c e t r a d e r s w e r e
a s s u r e d of the sa l e of t h e i r goo ds. For t h e s a f e t y of b o t h local and
f o r e i g n t r a d e r s a n d f o r t h e s e c u r i t y of t h e i r g o o d s , m a r k e t s w e r e e n
t r u s t e d to t h e p r o t e c t i o n of p o w e r f u l g o d s . ^
T h e t r a d e b e t w e e n t he O g o n i c o a s t and t h e I g b o h i n t e r l a n d and t he
t r a d i n g a r r a n g e m e n t s d e s c r i b e d a b o v e e x i s t e d b e f o r e t he a r r i v a l of the
f i r s t E u r o p e a n s in t h e B i g h t of Bi af ra. T h e p r e - P o r t u g u e s e t r a d e w i t h
t he h i n t e r l a n d w a s b a s e d o n t he e x o t i c p r o d u c t s of t he s ea as w e l l as
on salt. T h e p e o p l e s of th e h i n t e r l a n d v a l u e d t h e s e t h i n g s e x c e e d i n g l y .
T h e r e w a s a b i g sal t i n d u s t r y in the c i t y of B a n g h a , w h i c h w a s l o c a t e d
on th e c o a s t of O goni. D u a r t e P a c h e c o P e r e i r a , w h o v i s i t e d t h e B i g h t
of B i a f r a at t h e en d of t h e f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r y , d e s c r i b e d this sa lt
i n d u s t r y and t h e v o l u m e of t r a d e that c a m e f r o m t h e h i n t e r l a n d and f r o m
o t h e r c o a s t a l a r e a s as a r e s u l t of i t . ^ a
8. R e v e r e , R o b e r t B. "' N o M a n ' s Co as t': P o r t s of T r a d e in t he E a s t e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n " i n K a r l P o l a n y i et a l , T r a d e and M a r k e t s in E a r l y E m p i r e s , (G lencoe: T h e F r e e P r e s s , I l l i n o i s , 1957), pp. 38- 63;
A r n o l d , R o s e m a r y , " A Po r t of Tra de: W h y d a h o n t h e C o a s t of G u i n e a " , i n Ka r l P o l a n y i et a l , T r a d e and M a r k e t s .... , pp. 154-1 76 .
9. B a r i g w e r e , Inee, (Ch ie f) of I L o o L o o (A ge d c. 98). I n t e r v i e w e d at I L o o L o o on 3. 1. 84 . T e x t 48, pp. 1 6 7 - 1 7 3
J.B. Y o m i i , (C hi ef ) of Ko, I n t e r v i e w e d at K o on 15.3.8 4. Te x t 29, pp. 1 0 4 - 1 0 7
10. B a e d e e , E l i (C hi ef) of E e p i e (Aged c. 55). I n t e r v i e w e d at E e p i e on 2 3 . 1 2 . 8 3 . T e x t 43, pp. 147 -1 51.
11a. P e r e i r a , P a c h e c o D u a r t e , E s m e r a l d o d e S i t u O r b i s , (Vers 1 5 06-08).
Tr. R a y m o n d M a u n y , C e n t r o a e - E s t u d o s d a G u i n e P o r t u g u e s a , No. 19.
( B i s s a u / 195 6), p. 147.
A l t h o u g h P e r e i r a d i d n o t m e n t i o n t h e n a m e of t h e t o w n of w h i c h he e s t i m a t e d its p o p u l a t i o n to be a b o u t 2 , 0 0 0 h o u s e h o l d s , lib so m e h i s t o r i a n s of this r e g i o n h a v e i d e n t i f i e d t he t o w n as Bon ny. 12 S o m e s c h o l a r s , h o w e v e r ,
do n o t t h i n k th a t it w a s Bo nny, n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g t h e fa c t that B o n n y w a s t h e
l e a d i n g t r a d i n g t o w n i n t he a r e a i n the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . F o r e x a m p l e ,
P r o f e s s o r C o o k e y s u g g e s t s th at the t o w n w a s n e i t h e r B o n n y n o r E l i m K a l a h a r i ,
b u t th at it w a s n e v e r t h e l e s s c l o s e to b o t h of t h e s e t o w n s in that g e n e r a l
area* A c c o r d i n g to P r o f e s s o r Cookey:
T h e t r a d i t i o n s of th e C e n t r a l D e l t a r e c o r d e d b y A l a g o a t e n d to e m p h a s i z e the C e n t r a l D e l t a as t h e o r i g i n a l s o u r c e of salt m a n u f a c t u r e . H o w e v e r , as n o t e d in th e a c c o u n t of P e r e i r a , a n o t h e r c e n t r e c l o s e to B o n n y and E l i m K a l a h a r i w a s p r o d u c i n g salt by t h e e n d of the f i f t e e n t h c e ntury. (13)
W h e n t he e a r l y E u r o p e a n s a r r i v e d o n the c o a s t s of t h e B i g h t of B i a f r a ,
it w a s at o n e of t he p o r t s of t r a d e l o c a t e d at G b e e , n e a r M o g h o o n the
c o a s t of O g o n i that t h e y f o u n d a n i n d i g e n o u s s t a n d a r d m e a n s of e x c h a n g e - an i r o n c u r r e n c y . 14 For, as Dr. N o r t h r u p h a s r e c e n t l y a r g ued, this
i r o n m o n e y w a s n o t i n t r o d u c e d b y E u r o p e a n s . 15 T h r o u g h l i n g u i s t i c
s t u d i e s i n t h e N i g e r D e l t a , P r o f e s s o r K a y W i l l i a m s o n h a s t r a c e d the
m o v e m e n t of t r a d e a n d c u l t u r a l e x c h a n g e s f r o m o r i g i n a l c e n t r e s
lib. P r o f e s s o r J.D. F a g e h a s g i v e n the a p p r o p r i a t e t r a n s l a t i o n of the o r i g i n a l P o r t u g u e s e w o r d , v e z i n h o s , u s e d b y P e r e i r a , as " h e a d s of
h o u s e h o l d s " . See J.D. F a ge, "A C o m m e n t a r y on D u a r t e P a c h e c o P e r e i r a ' s A c c o u n t of t he L o w e r G u i n e a C o a s t l a n d s in h i s E s m e r a l d o d e S i t u O r b i s a n d o n S o m e O t h e r E a r l y A c c o u n t s " , H i s t o r y i n A f r i c a , Vol. 7, (1980) pp. 4 8-75.
12. I s i c h e i , E l i z a b e t h , A H i s t o r y of N i g e r i a , (L ag os, L o n d o n , N e w York:
L o n g m a n , 1 9 83), pp. 166 and 153.
13. C o o k e y , S . J . S . , "Trad e, S o c i a l M o b i l i t y a n d P o l i t i c s i n t h e N i g e r De l t a : A R e c o n s i d e r a t i o n " , J o u r n a l of A f r i c a n S t u d i e s , Vol. 7, 2
(19 80 ), pp. 83 -90.
14. D a p p e r , O l f e r t , D e s c r i p t i o n of A f r i c a , Vol. II. Tr. J o h n O g i l b y (L ondon, T h o . J o h n s o n , 1670), p. 482.
15. N o r t h r u p , D a v i d , T r a d e W i t h o u t R u l e r s : P r e - c o l o n i a l E c o n o m i c
D e v e l o p m e n t i n S o u t h e a s t e r n N i g e r i a , (O xf ord: C l a r e n d o n Pr e s s , 1978) p. 159.
of d i s t r i b u t i o n to v a r i o u s a r eas or c o m m u n i t i e s i n t h e N i g e r Del ta,
as w e l l as to t he h i n t e r l a n d . O n e of s u c h w o r d s s t u d i e d b y P r o f e s s o r
W i l l i a m s o n w a s t h e O g o n i w o r d f or m o n e y , k p u g i
.^
T h e n a m e O g o n i is n o t w e l l - k n o w n , n e i t h e r i n O g o n i itself, n o r in
t he o u t s i d e w o r l d . A p a r t f r o m the f e w l i n g u i s t i c s t u d i e s c i t e d ab ove,
n o t h i n g h a s b e e n p u b l i s h e d on Ogo ni . No e t h n o g r a p h i c s t u d y or a n t h r o
p o l o g i c a l r e p o r t h a s b e e n d o n e o n Ogoni. T h u s o n e of t h e d i f f i c u l t
p r o b l e m s of this s t u d y is that t h e r e is no e x t a n t m a t e r i a l on O g o n i to
w h i c h o n e c o u l d r e f e r in a s t u d y of this kind. It is t h e r e f o r e of
v i t a l i m p o r t a n c e to n o t e f r o m t he o u t s e t th a t t h e h i s t o r y of O g o n i is a
h i s t o r y t o l d by the O g o n i t h e m s e l v e s . It is a h i s t o r y t o l d f r o m the
i n s i d e to t h e o u t s i d e w o r l d , e v e n t h o u g h t h e p e o p l e w h o t o l d it h a r d l y
k n e w of a n y o t h e r w o r l d o u t s i d e of t h e i r own. T h i s p l a c e s th e h i s t o r y
of O g o n i i n a u n i q u e c a t e g o r y .
In c o n t r a s t , h o w e v e r , a l m o s t all th e n e i g h b o u r s of O g o n i w h o s e
h i s t o r i e s h a v e b e e n w r i t t e n , h a v e s o m e k i n d of p u b l i s h e d a c c o u n t s in
E u r o p e a n b o o k s s h o w i n g t h e i r d e a l i n g s w i t h e u r o p e a n s in p r e - c o l o n i a l
times. F o r e x a m p l e , P r o f e s s o r I s i c h e i h a s p u b l i s h e d t w o v o l u m e s on
the h i s t o r y of the Igbo, o n e of w h i c h is e n t i t l e d I b o P e o p l e and the
E u r o p e a n s ; T h e G e n e s i s of a R e l a t i o n s h i p . ^ A n d P r o f e s s o r R y d e r h as p u b l i s h e d , B e n i n a n d th e E u r o p e a n s , 1 4 8 5 - 1 8 9 7 . 18 S i m i l a r l y , P r o f e s s o r
A l a g o a h a s p u b l i s h e d s e v e r a l w o r k s on the h i s t o r y of the Ijo pe op le .
16. W i l l i a m s o n , Kay , " L a n g u a g e s of th e N i g e r D e l t a " , o p . c i t . , p p . 124-30.
17. I s i c h e i , E l i z a b e t h , A H i s t o r y of t he I g b o P e o p l e , (London: T he M a c M i l l a n Pr e s s , Ltd . , 1976).
T h e Ib o P e o p l e a n d t he E u r o p e a n s ; T h e G e n e s i s of a R e l a t i o n s h i p to 1906, (London: F a b e r & F a b e r Ltd., 1973) 18. R y d e r , A . F . C . , B e n i n a n d t h e E u r o p e a n s 1 4 8 5 - 1 8 9 7 , (London: L o n g m a n
G r o u p Lt d., 19 69 ), P a p e r b a c k 1977.
T h e s e and m a n y o t h e r h i s t o r i o g r a p h i c a l w o r k s o n t h e N i g e r D e l t a in
p a r t i c u l a r , and o n S o u t h e r n N i g e r i a in g e n e r a l , c o n t a i n s u b s t a n t i a l
r e f e r e n c e s to p u b l i s h e d a c c o u n t s in E u r o p e a n w o r k s , s h o w i n g t he n a t u r e
of t h e i r r e l a t i o n s w i t h E u r o p e a n s .
W i t h O g o n i h i s t o r y , t he p o s i t i o n is th e c o n t r a r y . T h e e a r l y P o r t u
gu e s e w h o t r a d e d w i t h O g o n i in the f i f t e e n t h an d s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s ,
left n o r e c o r d s w i t h d i r e c t r e f e r e n c e to t h e n a m e O g o n i . As s h o w n
b e l o w , o n e r e a s o n f or this is b e c a u s e O g o n i is n o t o n l y a c o r r u p t e d name,
but it is a l s o a c o m p l e t e m i s n o m e r . It w i l l be a r g u e d in this s t u d y
th at t e r m s like " C a l b o n g e r " , " C a l b o r g " , " C a l a p o n g a s " , etc., u s e d by t he P o r t u g u e s e , a re r e f e r e n c e s to O g o n i t o wns li k e B a n g h a , K a b a n g h a , etc. 19
F u r t h e r m o r e , it w i l l b e a r g u e d that t h e c a u s e of t h e c o n f u s i o n h a d n e v e r
b e e n tol d, and th a t as a r e s u l t , f u r t h e r c o m p l i c a t i o n s r e s u l t e d , m a n i
f e s t i n g in s u c h o t h e r m i s n o m e r s in the E a s t e r n N i g e r D e l t a as " C a l a b a r " ,
" O l d C a l a b a r " , and " N e w C a l a b a r " .20
T h e i n i t i a l m i s s i o n a r y e f f o r t b e g u n in O g o n i b y t h e P o r t u g u e s e
d u r i n g t h i s e a r l y p e r i o d e n d e d p r e m a t u r e l y by t h e m y s t e r i o u s d i s a p p e a r a n c e
of th e m i s s i o n a r y . A l t h o u g h the m i s s i o n a r y w a s l a t e r d e i f i e d as B a r i g o k a n a 21 ( G o k a n a d e i t y ) , th i s w a s do n e b y i n c o r p o r a t i o n i n t o the
19. Of. Waddell, H o p e M a s t e r t o n (Rev.). T w e n t y - n i n e Y e a r s in the W e s t I n d i e s a n d C e n t r a l A f r i c a 1 8 2 9 - 1 8 5 8 , 2nd edn. (Lon do n: F r a n k Cas s
& Co. L t d . , 1970), p. 309.
P.A. T a l b o t , P e o p l e s of S o u t h e r n N i g e r i a , Vo l. I, p. 184.
20. F i n n F u g l e s t a d h a s w r i t t e n a b o u t a s i m i l a r c o n f u s i o n a r i s i n g b e t w e e n t he n a m e s of th e t w o n e i g h b o u r i n g c o u n t r i e s of N i g e r i a and Nig e r , e s p e c i a l l y w h e n r e f e r e n c e is m a d e to t he c i t i z e n s of t h e t w o c o u n t r i e s . A H i s t o r y of N iger, 1 8 5 0 - 1 9 6 0 , (L ond on : C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s i t y Pr e s s , 1983), pp. 1-14.
21. K p ea, E d w a r d N w e b o n (His H i g h n e s s ) of M o g h o , (Ag ed c, 89). H e w a s i n t e r v i e w e d at M o g h o on 7.2 .84. Te x t 6, pp. 20-24.
local r e l i g i o n s . B e c a u s e s u c h l o c a l r e l i g i o n s w e r e s u r r o u n d e d b y so
m u c h s e c r e c y and m y s t e r i e s , no r e s e a r c h e r h a s b e e n ab l e to g a i n a c c e s s to any a r t i f a c t s left b e h i n d b y th is e a r l y m i s s i o n a r y . I v i s i t e d t h e
p r i e s t of th i s cu l t at M o g h o in M a r c h 1984. T h o u g h h e c o n f i r m e d th at
t h e ' g o d1 left c e r t a i n t h i n g s b e h i n d , i n c l u d i n g a be l l and a c e r t a i n
i m a g e , w h i c h a r e n o w a m o n g the s a c r e d i t e m s p r e s e r v e d i n the c u l t ’s
s h r i n e , I c o u l d n o t see t h e m b e c a u s e t h e s h r i n e c o u l d o n l y be o p e n e d
t r a d i t i o n a l l y f or r i t u a l s o n c e a yea r. T h u s t h e c h a n c e s of g a i n i n g
a c c e s s to the i n t e r i o r of this s h r i n e h a v e a l w a y s b e e n v e r y s l i m f o r
r e s e a r c h e r s . But it m u s t be s t a t e d that t h i s m i s s i o n a r y , w h o is n o w
w o r s h i p p e d as a god, w a s o n e of t he e a r l i e s t P o r t u g u e s e m i s s i o n a r i e s to this pa r t of W e s t A f r i c a , p r o b a b l y t he p r e d e c e s s o r of t h e C a p u c h i n m i s s i o n a r i e s of th e e a r l y s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y .22
N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g th e a b o v e p r o b l e m , the l a c k of E u r o p e a n r e c o r d s o n
O g o n i h i s t o r y d o e s not c o n s t i t u t e a p a r t i c u l a r l y s e r i o u s w e a k n e s s .
M a j o r A.G . L e o n a r d , the o n l y E u r o p e a n w h o m a d e a b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n of
O g o n i , d i d n ot v i s i t O goni. A s it w i l l be s h o w n la te r, h i s d e s c r i p t i o n is full of e r r o r s , an d c o u l d n ot b e u seful. 23 O g o n i h i s t o r y t h e r e f o r e
m a y be s e e n as o n e e x a m p l e in A f r i c a n h i s t o r y in w h i c h t he full i m p a c t
c o m e s f r o m t h e p e o p l e t h e m s e l v e s w i t h o u t the i n f l u e n c s of e x t e r n a l c u l t u r e s or of i n d i v i d u a l or g r o u p biases .24
22. R y d e r , A . F . C . , Beilin and th e E u r o p e a n s o p . c i t ., pp. 99-100.
23. L e o n a r d , M a j o r A . G., T h e L o w e r N i g e r a nd It s T r i b e s , (L on do n:
M a c M i l l a n & Co. L t d., 1906), pp. 24-5.
24. cf. S u s a n M a r y M a r t i n , 1,T h e H i s t o r y of t h e Oi l P a l m I n d u s t r y in S o u t h - e a s t e r n N i g e r i a : T h e C a s e of t he N g w a R e g i o n ” , Ph .D. T h e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y of B i r m i n g h a m , 1984, pp. 45 -4 6.
T h o r n t o n , J o h n Kel l y , " T h e K i n g d o m of K o n g o in t h e E r a of the C i v i l Wars, 1 6 4 1 - 1 7 1 8 " , Ph.D. T h e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a , L o s A n g e l e s , 1979, pp. 10-12.
T h e a n c e s t o r s of t h e O g o n i w h o c a m e i n t o t he t e r r i t o r y by sea in
cano e s , f i r s t s e t t l e d in the a r e a s o u t h o f the L u u b a a r a River. T h e y
c a l l e d t h e m s e l v e s K a n a p e o p l e (P y a K a n a ) . T h e n a m e O g o n i is new.
T h e i r c h i e f t o w n s i n c l u d e d N a ma, Ku g b a , Gure, K o no, L u a w i i , Sii, etc..
S u b s e q u e n t s e t t l e m e n t s w e r e f o u n d e d in the a r e a n o r t h of t he r i v e r w i t h
c h ief c e n t r e s at K p o n g , Ko, K a b a n g h a , etc.. T h e las t tw o w e r e p o r t s of
t r a d e on t h e Imo Ri v e r . F r o m K p o n g area, s u b s e q u e n t s e t t l e m e n t s w e r e
f o u n d e d i n T e e a r e a w i t h U w e k e as t h e m a i n town.
In t h e T e e area, t h e y f o u n d s o m e a u t o c h t h o n o u s pe o p l e s . B e c a u s e
of t r a d e and c u l t u r a l c o n t a c t s an d i n t e r c o u r s e w i t h t h e a u t o c h t h o n o u s
i n h a b i t a n t s i n this are a, t h e K a n a l a n g u a g e b e g a n to a l t e r p r o g r e s s i v e l y
f r o m this a r e a w e s t w a r d s . C e r t a i n t o wns i n t h i s a r e a s t ill b e a r a u t o c h
t h o n o u s p l a c e - n a m e s , s u c h as Gin, G o y i , O g o y i , B a n , H o r o , etc.. W a r
b r o k e ou t b e t w e e n t h e K a n a i m m i g r a n t s a n d t h e a u t o c h t h o n o u s i n h a b i t a n t s .
T h e l a t t e r w e r e o v e r c o m e a n d a b s o r b e d . A g r e a t n u m b e r of t h e m m i g r a t e d
to t he a r e a n o w k n o w n as G o k a n a , a n d s o m e to t h e a r e a n o w k n o w n as Leme.
( M a p p. 14) A s m a l l g r o u p d r i f t e d a l o n g t h e e d g e s of the Imo f o r e s t s
i n t o w h a t is n o w T e e b a a n ( T a a b a a n ) area. A r e m n a n t r e m a i n e d in t he
a r e a as d w e l l e r s in t h e a u t o c h t h o n o u s t o w n s r e f e r r e d to ab ov e. P r o
f e s s o r K a y W i l l i a m s o n r e c e n t l y d i s c o v e r e d that t h e i n h a b i t a n t s of t h ese
a u t o c h t h o n o u s t o w n s s p e a k a d i s t i n c t d i a l e c t w h i c h w a s s t ill d i f f e r e n t
f r o m the d i a l e c t s p o k e n in the re st of Tee:
T h i s g r o u p (Ogoni) h a s b e e n v e r y l i t t l e st udied.
E l e m e is c o n s i d e r a b l y d i s t i n c t f r o m K a n a an d Goka n a , w h i l e O g o i ( r e c e n t l y d r a w n to m y a t t e n t i o n by N w i n e e W i l l i a m s o n ) a p p e a r s on q u i c k i n s p e c t i o n to be i n t e r m e d i a t e bu t in so m e r e s p e c t s c l o s e r to E l e m e (25).
25. W i l l i a m s o n , Kay, " L i n g u i s t i c E v i d e n c e f or t h e p r e h i s t o r y of t he N i g e r D e l t a " . F o r t h c o m i n g .
S i m i l a r w a r s a l s o t o o k p l a c e i n the w e s t - c e n t r a l p a r t of t he t e r r i
tory, w h e r e t h e r e w a s a c o n c e n t r a t i o n of a u t o c h t h o n o u s i n h a b i t a n t s .
T h e c o n q u e s t of t h e p e o p l e in th is a r e a a nd t h e m e r g e r of t h e i r p o p u l a
ti o n w i t h that of t h e i n v a d i n g K a n a - s p e a k i n g p e o p l e g a v e ri s e to the
n o m e n c l a t u r e G o o h - K a n a or G o k a n a . B e c a u s e of t h e h i g h e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n
of t he a u t o c h t h o n o u s p o p u l a t i o n in th is area, t h e i r l i n g u i s t i c i m p a c t on t he i n v a d i n g K a n a p o p u l a t i o n w a s m u c h m o r e p r o n o u n c e d . T h u s a G o k a n a
26
l a n g u a g e e m e r g e d . As in the C e n t r a l (or Te e ) area, some p l a c e - n a m e s
of t h e a u t o c h t h o n o u s i n h a b i t a n t s of this a r e a s u r v i v e d , li ke t h e ( n o w
e x t i n c t ) t o w n s of G o i an d G o o h (or K o h ) .
F o r p u r p o s e s of r e g i o n a l or g e o g r a p h i c a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , c e r t a i n
t e r m s w e r e i n v e n t e d . T h o s e O g o n i p e o p l e w h o h a d o c c u p i e d the e a s t e r n
h a l f of t he t e r r i t o r y , and w h o h a d r e t a i n e d t h e o r i g i n a l K a n a l a n g u a g e
r e t a i n e d t h e n a m e K a n a P e o p l e (P y a K a n a ) . T h o s e in t he c e n t r a l area,
w h o s e K a n a s p e e c h h a d b e e n a f f e c t e d s o m e w h a t t h r o u g h c o n t a c t s w i t h t h e
a u t o c h t h o n o u s i n h a b i t a n t s of th a t area, w e r e d e s c r i b e d as t he " C e n t r a l
P e o p l e " or "P y a T e e - Y e e ", f r o m w h i c h t he s h o r t e n e d f o r m T e e is d e r i v e d .
T h o s e w h o h a d o c c u p i e d t h e p r e d o m i n a n t l y a u t o c h t h o n o u s t e r r i t o r y i n th e
w e s t c e n t r a l ar ea , w e r e r e f e r r e d to as the G o o h - K a n a , f r o m w h i c h the
s h o r t e n e d f o r m G o k a n a is d e r i v e d . T h e t e r m G o o h - K a n a or G o k a n a is
d e s c r i p t i v e , a n d it m e a n s " t h e K a n a w h o s e t t l e d on t h e f o r m e r t e r r i t o r y
of th e G o o h " , or " w h o o c c u p i e d G o o h l a n d " .
In t he K a n a l a n g u a g e , a t h i n g p o s s e s s e d p r e c e d e s the p o s s e s s o r i n
t he g e n i t i v e . F o r e x a m p l e , T o B a r i m e a n s G o d ' s H o u s e , or H o u s e of God.
26. cf. W o l f f , H a n s , "N i g e r D e l t a L a n g u a g e s ... ", o p . c i t ., pp. 23-53.
