The phonetics and phonology of an Aden dialect of Arabic.

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AN ADEN DIALECT OF ARABIC.

i

Acknowledgement .

The w rite r o f th is th e s is wishes to express

h is boundless thanks and gratitu de to P ro fe s so r J.R. F ir th O .B .E .,M .A ., f o r h is keen su p ervision and ce a s e le ss

c o n s tr u c t iv e c r i t i c i s m o f the work, togeth er with the f a t h e r ly a ttitu d e he has always shown, making the w rite r f e e l at home a l l through h is long a s s o c ia t io n with the L in g u is t ic and Phonetic Department o f the S.O.A.S.

Thanks are a ls o due to kr. J. Carnochan B.A. f o r h is c r i t i c i s m o f the te c h n ic a l term inology o f t h is work, kr. T.F. M itch ell B.A. f o r his c r i t i c i s m o f the scheme

and ord er o f the va riou s parts o f th is t h e s is , and Mr. H.J.F.Adam f o r h is tremendous te c h n ic a l help in preparing the i l l u s t r a t i o n s o f the t h e s is .

Any shortcomings that might be found in the work are due s o l e l y to the w r ite r , and whatever part o f the work i s to be found s a t i s f a c t o r y , i t i s only because o f t h e ir help*

f

CHAPTER. ________C O N T E N T S .____________ P A G Acknowle dge ment.

Table o f Contents.

A bbreviations.

P refa ce. 1

GENERAL SECTION .

Ch. I. In trod u ction .

11

Ch. I I . The Techniques Employed.

15

1 - P ercep tion

13

2

^{- Recording}

22

3 - Palatography

25

if - Kymography

30

5 - Radiography

33

Ch. I I I . L is t <Sb D e fin it io n o f Symbols. ^if Ch. IV. The Polysystem ic Character o f

Language.

1^.2

Ch. V. Notes on Grammar.

1 - Word

2

^- M orphological Types

50

5 - A f f i x a t i o n

58

if - Remarks on Syntax.

63

I l l

khaptER. ___________ C O N T E N T S ._________ P A G E PHONOLOGICAL SECTION .

Ch. VI. Consonants and Vowels. 79

1 - D e fin it io n s . 73

2 - The A.D.Consonantal Units

defined.

9

^C

2 - C l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f Consonants. 111 if - D is t r ib u t io n o f Compatible Units. 11/

5 - Vowel Units d efin ed . 1l£

6 - Vowel Sequences. 12J

Ch. VII The S y lla b le s .

1 - The S y lla b le in A.D. 1JC

2 - Words and S y lla b le s . 1J(

J - S y lla b ic Structure esc D is tr ib u tio n . 1if1

Ch. V III P rosod ies.

a) P rosodies o f Medial P o s it io n .

1

- Function

15

^{^}

2

- Eero p lo s io n

16

⁽

5 - Anaptyxis.

17

^c

b) P rosodies o f f i n a l p o s i t i o n

if - D iphthongization

17

^{^}

5 - Opener Vowel q u a lity

171

CHAPTER. C O N T E N T S .________ P A G c) P rosodies o f Various P o s it io n s

6 - V oicin g and Unvoicing 175

7 - T ensity and Laxity

189

8 - G l o t t a liz a t i o n

189

5 - A s p ira tio n

19

^{^}

10 - W.N.Y. Prosody 1

98

11 - Quantity 20if

12 - Prominence 209

15

^- In ton a tion 218,

PHONETIC SECTION.

Ch. IX D e fin it io n s o f terms used. 2^5

The Consonants.

1 - C l a s s i f i c a t i o n

251

2 - The Consonants in D e ta il

A - The P lo s iv e s .

258

B - The F r ic a t iv e s

296

C

- The L iquids.

927.

Ch. XI The Vowels*

1 - The C l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f Vowels. 361+

2 - The fr o n t c lo s e vowels.

979

5 - The f r o n t h a l f - c l o s e vowels.

579

4 - The open vowels.

982

5 - The back h a l f - c l o s e vowels

987

Chapter C O N T E N I

8

^.

6

- The back c lo s e vowels 7 - The c e n t r a l vowels.

APPENDICES.

NOTES ON PALATOGjxAPHY .

" " KYMOGRAPHY.

" 1’ RADIOGRAPHY.

ILLUSTRATIONS.

• • • • • •

• • • • • •

. . . ADEN DIALECT.

. . . CLASSICAL ARABIC.

. . . JUNCTION.

. . . PHONETIC

IMPLICATION.

. . . SPOKEN GROUP.

N O T E .

When referen ce i s made to palatograms in studying the p h o n etic consonants, as w ell as in some p a rts o f the p h o n o lo g ica l s e c t io n , the page re fe r r e d to i s in the appendix o f i l l u s t r a t i o n s .

■■ 1 G E N E R A L S E C T I O N .

P R E F A C E

The t i t l e o f t h is th esis i s "The p h on etics and phonology o f an Aden d i a l e c t o f A r a b ic .” Three terms

are necessary to be c l a r i f i e d here; these are Aden, d ia le c and A rabic.

1. *’ Aden colon y and p r o t e c t o r a t e s cover some 112000 square m iles and s t r e t c h along the southern coa st o f Arabia from the Shaikh Said peninsula op p osite Perim

Island eastwards f o r some

700

miles to the f r o n t i e r o f Oman. On the north west they are bounded by Yemen.

Further to the east the f r o n t i e r merges with the d e s e r t.

I t s depth from Hadramaut, or southern c o a s t , v a rie s from 5° m iles in the west to 200 miles in the e a s t . * 1

2. , f The Port o f Aden i s formed by two v o lc a n ic peninsulas - Aden (tfabal Shamsan) and L i t t l e Aden

(Jabal Ills an) - which are connected with the mainland to the north by short necks o f sand. The area o f the Crown Colony i s sm all, only

75

square m ile s , e x c lu s iv e

o f i t s two dependencies - Perim Island

(5

square m ile s ), and Kuria Muria Islands

(50

square m ile s ). The

p op u la tion o f the colon y at the census in

19

^{**-b was}

80,516

o f whom. 51000 were males. I t in clu d es Arabs

(

56

^,

500

) , Somalis, Indians and Jews

. 11

The d i a l e c t studied here i s o f the fPort o f Aden*

or more a ccu r a te ly o f the part o f t h is p o r t known as 1'The C ra te r* ' .

''T h e term ' d i a l e c t ' has a connotation in te c h n ic a l l i n g u i s t i c usage which i s somewhat d i f f e r e n t from i t s ordinary meaning. To the l i n g u i s t there i s no r e a l d i f f e r e n c e between a ' d i a l e c t ' and a 'la n gu a g e' which can be shown to be r e la t e d , however, rem otely, to another language. By referen ce the term i s r e s t r i c t e d to a form o f speech to be u n i n t e l l i g i b l e to the speakers o f the

l a t t e r .

" 2

The term 'A r a b ic ' in the t i t l e in clu d es a number o f contemporary spoken d i a l e c t s in the re g io n between the A t la n t ic Coast o f North A fr ic a and the Western Perian

f r o n t i e r and from S yria to the Southern Sudan. Such term does not exclude C la s s ic a l A r a b ic , which v a r ie s in p ron u n ciation from one country in the reg ion to the other*

as the term 'Modern A ra b ic' would. This l a t t e r term covers the spoken unwritten d i a l e c t s o f the Arabs o f today.

1

1. The Middle East. A P o l i t i c a l and Economic Survey.

RIIA.1950 - p. 101*-.

2. S a p ir, S e le cte d Writings o f Edward S a p ir, p .

85

^.

- 5 -

The polycommunal ch a ra cter o f the Aden population w i l l , l a t e r , be r e la te d to the d i a l e c t studied as fa r

as the vocabulary is concerned. The Arabs, as can be seen from the above q u ota tion s, are the la r g e s t sin g le community, but they are not a l l ’ Aden born*. The term

’ Aden born* has, in the adm inistrative c o n te x t, a s p e c ia l im p lic a tio n as opposed to newcomers among the p op u la tion . Those newcomers are c h i e f l y from the neighbouring d i s t r i c t s o f the South such as the

P r o t e c t o r a t e s and Yemen, As the town sta rte d in i t s h is t o r y as a fis h in g v i l l a g e , the fishermen o f the town claim to be the o ld e s t group in settlem ent. This claim seems to win acceptance by a l l o th e rs . The fishermen are few in numbers. Second to these in

a n t iq u it y o f residence are some old fa m ilie s who planted themselves in the p o r t long b efore the c o lo n i z a t io n o f South Arabia and who are i n f l u e n t i a l w ith in the Aden

town. The fam ily o f my informant i s one o f these,*

t h e r e f o r e , not only he, but also h is fa th e r at l e a s t are ’ Aden b orn ’ . These f a m ilie s , b esid e the fishermen., are the speakers o f the Aden d i a l e c t . An educated

member o f an Aden fa m ily , such as my informant i s , can be d e s c rib e d as ’ b i d i a l e c t a l ’ in d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l

s e t t i n g s . Within the c i r c l e o f the fa m ily , as w ell as when ta lk in g to any f e l l o w Adenese, he speaks Aden D ia le ct

town, he speaks a m odified fAden D i a l e c t * : a mixture o f C. A. and A. D. words p h o n o lo g ic a lly conforming to the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f Aden D ia le c t . The c o n tr a s t has then t o be made between Aden D ia le c t and *Aden D ialect*

as t h is has to be made f o r every d i a l e c t o f Modern Arabic as fa r as educated speakers are concerned.

Care, however, has had to be taken to separate these two and t o exclude *Aden D ia lect* o f the educated

speakers as fa r as p o s s ib le from the data o f t h i s work, and to study an Aden d i a l e c t spoken by my informant as in h is fam ily c i r c l e *

The Indians o f Aden are two types - Gujarati

speakers, l o c a l l y known as Banian, and Muslims, known as Buhra. Both s e c t io n s are very s u c c e s s fu l tr a d e r s , and togeth er they form a community second only to the Arabs in s i z e . But they have t h e i r s e c ta r ia n

d i f f e r e n c e s . The Somalis are mainly from B r i t is h

Somaliland, and in numbers they come a f t e r the combined Indian community. The Jews are the l e a s t in number.

The Indian o r i g i n o f the fa m ily o f my informant has long been fo r g o t te n . Members o f the Luqman fam ily p rid e themselves on being Arabs, and when the question o f th e ir o r i g i n i s brought up, they can be angry indeed The e l d e s t member o f the fa m ily , a lawyer, owns and

- 5 -

manages a weekly *Fataatul J a z iir a * wlitriiis opposed by another weekly ’ J^nnahua* on the question o f the future o f Aden town in r e l a t i o n to a *South Arabian Union1.

When th e l a t t e r weekly used the name *Buhraf in re fe re n ce to Mr.Lugman, t h is provoked the most

unfavourable r e a c t io n in the former newspaper. Many gen era tion s o f the fam ily have been born in Aden and interm arrying with the Arabs, and the Indian o r ig in o f the fa m ily i s only something o f the p a st. My

informant was born, bred and educated in Aden. He has v i s i t e d India and some d i s t r i c t s in South Arabia and

i s now reading f o r the Bar in L in coln *s Inn. During my f i e l d work in Aden, Mr.M.A.Luqman a rriv ed from

London and I met him there as I did many o f h is fam ily.

I t has been stated that Aden i s a B r i t i s h Crown Colony and i s polycommunal in ch aracter. I t i s a ls o a p r in c i p a l ju n c tio n f o r t r a n s it trade between South Asia and East A fr ic a and an important s t a t io n f o r the B r i t i s h Navy. The variou s races re s id e n t in Aden are

n e c e s s a r ily in a c tiv e in te rc o u rs e and belong to some o f the dynamic nations o f the world. There are,

t h e r e f o r e , numerous loan-words in Aden D ia le c t from the languages spoken in Aden. The A.D. borrows from C.A.

or more c o r r e c t l y N e o - c la s s ic a l Arabic o f the radio and

and press and film s ) as fa r as p o l i t i c a l jargon and terms are concerned. Even the Aden newspapers are to a la rg e extent dependent in both vocabulary and s t y l i s t i c ch aracter on the Egyptian p r e s s . Since Aden has/Jndian a d m in istra tion , apart from the f a c t

o f having Indian r e s id e n t s , i t i s understandable that some Indian words have found t h e ir way in to the Aden D i a l e c t , Indian film s are shown in Aden and at l e a s t one cinema shows nothing e ls e uhere. E n g lish , the p resen t o f f i c i a l language o f Aden, has quite a la rg e number o f words in the d i a l e c t , and these words are e i t h e r found as they are o r , i f con tra ry to the

system atic p a ttern in g o f the d i a l e c t , are brought in l i n e with t h is p a tte r n in g , as can be seen in the

f o llo w in g examples o f borrowed words and t h e ir meanings.

-

7

^-

WOED. ME AlnING. WOBD. MEANING.

h in j inch s o o j a r i i s o l d i e r

dal Jar to d i s ­

charge . f a r a n j i i European

^French).

©dreewar d r iv e r J aab modern shop

winj winch daxtar d octo r

r o o f a l l o a f e r nars nurse

cabat cupboard © sb ita al h o s p it a l

buuc book banJala bungalow

r e e l tr a in r o o l i i bus

inootar motor faaJ an fa s h io n

baabuur vapour mooc^a mode

t i r i c e l e c t r i c b a j j a f to pay o f f

Julub bulb

{ g lo b e ) cansal to cancel

waaj i r wire damfal to say

1

^damn

f o o l in swea;

c o o t coat bacsan to box

Jamiiz s h ir t n e e b ii navy

© s b ir in j spring 9 l Saamii the army

b a a d r ii pressed manwar man o

1

^war

miiz table b e e la t p i l o t

carar c o l l a r war/a workshop

liaf i i e o f f i c e w iic week

WOfiD. MEANING. WORD. MEANING.

cu loon ja a colony ‘Suscuul sch ool

m o o t a r s i i c i l m otorcycle JannaJ to change b i i s c i l b ic y c le hafteem h a l f - time

d s b ic t a r inspec uor tireeram throw - arm cam/aneer commissioner b a l a n t i c i t penalty

s i c i t r i i s e cre ta ry Jawwal to score a g o a l.

J o o l i i goal keeper dismis screw d r iv e r

balJan pension. bacla

noot

buckle note

niimicharaam ungrateful ^amjdaar sub-inspe c t o r

ra n ja la lame xabardaar caution

bundeera f l a g ba^aw aala messenger

ra^da road beesa p ice

(Indian co in )

s a rca a l c h i e f >aana anna

(Indian coin ) J u u c il p o l i c e

s t a t io n Joolwaala goal keeper

hawardaar c h i e f

con sta ble ^fcelaan g a o le r

)9 (

W O R D U E A M I M O

ceec baac back ( f o o t b a l l )

santar centre

leenmeen linesman

r i f r i i r e fe r e e

baasinJ passing

©sbeet speed

© steerin g s ta r in g

b i r i c brake

hoob stop

nambar number

b ir m ii t permit

b o o t r i i s p ort - tr u s t

c o o b i f cabbage

b e e t a r i i torch - l i g h t o r b a t te r y .

baraj to use a brush

buruj* a brush

buruj aat brushes

1 0 E D. M E A N I N G .

bun| p o in t

huuc hook

lahwaae hooka

bart p a rt

baasnoot pass note

sastara s i s t e r (m edical)

cini^i c l i n i c

banJar puncher

habatiim overtime

d iis m is s to dism iss

b a c la a t buckles

banc a e l e c t r i c fan

b a j i i j a small garden

b altan Indian s o l d i e r

(p la toon )

SIaar p ic k le s

b a a n iiS a js i c y water.

- 1 1 -

Sorne o f these words, as can be seen on the

p reced in g pages, have been submitted to the p h o n o lo g ica l system o f the d i a l e c t during the p ro ce s s o f borrowing.

The main p rocess is to modify the fo llo w in g :

1

^- im possible p attern to be p o s s i b l e , eg. c f .

d r iv e r - ©dreewar

2 - fo r e ig n sounds to A.D. sounds as in the above comparison.

INTRODUCTION.

- 1 1 - <*-

I N T R O D U C T I O N

L in g u is t ic s as an Autonomous d i s c i p l i n e .

'Those who are engaged in the in v e s t ig a t io n o f languages have but re c e n tly begun to claim f o r t h e ir study the rank and t i t l e o f a s c ie n c e . I t s develop­

ment as such has been wholly the work o f the present century, although germs go back to a much more an cien t date. I t has had a h i s t o r y , in f a c t , not unlike that o f oth er s c ie n c e s o f ob serva tion and in d u ction - f o r example, g e o lo g y , chem istry, astronomy, p h y sics - which the i n t e l l e c t u a l a c t i v i t y o f modern time has b u i l t up upon the scanty ob serva tion s and crude

in d ic a tio n s o f other d a y s . ' L in g u is t ic s had been an in t e g r a l p a rt o f ancient p h ilo s o p h ic a l thinking. When, in l a t e r times, i t came to be recognized as a separate branch o f study, l i n g u i s t i c s could not do without the help o f other s c i e n t i f i c and p h ilo s o p h ic s u b je c t s . T h erefore, l i n g u i s t i c ^ thoughts were contaminated and confused with p h ilo s o p h ic a l, p s y c h o lo g ic a l, l o g i c a l , t h e o l o g i c a l and even m ythological thinking and some terms and expressions o f these s u b je c ts were imported

1. W.D. Whitney, Language and the Study o f Language.

London. 1880, p .

1

^{. * ,}

in to l i n g u i s t i c s . Such contamination and con fu sion l e d , as i t d i d , to types o f approach to l i n g u i s t i c problems that could hardly be d e sc rib e d as l i n g u i s t i c . But with the broadening o f in t e r e s t in the study o f

language, such s ta te o f a f f a i r s was destin ed to come to an end. 'For h i s t o r i c a l reasons which are r e a d ily understandable, the s c i e n t i f i c study o f language was d e fin in g i t s t e r r i t o r y and methods, and v e d ie a tin g i t s p o s i t i o n as a separate d i s c i p l i n e , with the p ost -

Napoleonic period in Western Europe. I t s f i r s t e f f o r t s were a f f e c t e d by the i n t e l l e c t u a l clim ate then

p r e v a le n t * f ^

Modern L i n g u i s t i c s , then, i s the outcome o f the

e ig h te e n th , nineteenth and tw entieth ce n tu r ie s . In each o f these c e n t u r ie s , l i n g u i s t i c a c t i v i t i e s have been

taking a d e f i n i t e and d i s t i n c t ch a ra cter from that o f the other two c e n tu r ie s . The eigh teen th century was one o f c l a s s i c a l p h ilo lo g y with broadening o f the o u tlo o k and the indulgence in s p e c u la tio n s on the

o r i g i n o f language and comparing the r e la t iv e value o f languages. Such sp ecu la tion s and comparisons are not

2. Margaret Schlatfch, Early B ehaviourist Psychology and Contemporary L in g u is t ic s . Word. Vol. 2. 1 9H . pp

. 25

^-

36

^.

w ithin the range o f modern l i n g u i s t i c # s tu d ie s o f today.

The paramount event at the end o f that century was the d is c o v e r y o f Sanskrit by S ir William Jones in the year

1/86

which marked the beginning ofnttodern l i n g u i s t i c s and i t s new approaches.

1

Within a few years o f Jones*

d e c la r a t io n the new ’ s c ie n c e o f language’ had begun i t s course as a s p e c i f i c f i e l d o f study, independent o f the study o f l i t e r a t u r e . In the course o f the fo llo w in g century i t s students had to work out f o r themselves both the forms o f i t s d i s c i p l i n e and the technique o f i t s methods

. ’ 1

In the nineteenth century these ’ forms o f d i s c i p l i n e ’ and that ’ technique o f methods’ were c h i e f l y concerned with the h i s t o r i c a l aspect o f la n g u a g e .’ Those who know the popular works o f Otto Jespersen w i l l remember

how fir m ly he d e cla re s that l i n g u i s t i c s cie n ce i s

h i s t o r i c a l . And those who ha’ve n o tic e d the f l y - l e a v e s o f the volumes o f the New English D ic tio n a r y - g e n e ra lly r e f e r r e d to as the Oxford D iction a ry - w i l l remember the guarantee, ’ on h i s t o r i c a l p r i n c i p l e s ’ , which explains

the N. in N.E.D. 2 This h i s t o r i c a l a sp e ct and the - 1 3 -

1. M.M. Lewis. Language in S o c ie t y , p*232.

2

. F ir t h , P e rs o n a lity and Language in S o c ie t y ,

S o c i o l o g i c a l Review, V ol.X L II. S ect. two* 1950.

P 0 7 .

tendency towards mechanism brought l i n g u i s t i c s not only in harmony with but a ls o under the patronage o f the

n atural s c ie n c e s e s p e c i a l l y b io lo g y . This was not only r e f l e c t e d in the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f languages, and the in tr o d u c tio n o f the terms 'f a m i l y 1, 'parent

la n g u a g e ', ' s i s t e r la n g u a g e ', but a ls o in the treatment o f a given language as a growing or decaying organic being as can be found in the works o f Max M uller, f o r example, and in the fo llo w in g t y p ic a l q u ota tion

1

S ' i l e s t v e r it e banale a u jo u rd 'h u i, c ' e s t que l e s langues sont des organismes vivants dont l a v i e , pour e tre d 'o r d r e purement i n t e l l e c t u e l , n 'e n e s t pas moins r e e l l e e t peut se comparer a c e l l e des organismes du regne v e g e t a l ou du regne animal

. ' 1

Not only did the natural s c ie n c e s p a tron ize

l i n g u i s t i c s t u d ie s , but a ls o the s o c i a l s c ie n c e s d id , such as psychology and s o c io lo g y . Students o f t&e language in the nineteenth century were c a rr ie d along with the general i n t e l l e c t u a l current which was at i t s

f u l l energy, and sought guidance, in d e a lin g with l i n g u i s t i c s , from the uncoordinated techniques o f the va riou s branches o f s c ie n c e . 'There were those who

1. A.Darmenstater, La Vie des Mot

6

^{, p .^ .}

b e lie v e d that the c h i e f clue to the understanding o f the nature o f language was psychology - to understand how language works we must study the mental p ro ce s s e s o f i t s speakers. And those who held that the study o f language must be s o c i o l o g i c a l , that language i s a form o f behaviour developed in the course o f manf s e f f o r t s to s a t i s f y h is needs in s o c i e t y

. 1

^{Such an}

a t t it u d e o f l i n g u i s t s could not p o s s i b l y produce

autonomous l i n g u i s t i c study prompted s o l e l y by l i n g u i s t i c requirements. N ev erth eless, that century i s

re s p o n s ib le f o r the advancement o f t h is scie n ce to g r e a t len g th s. I t has witnessed a g rea t deal o f

c r e a t iv e e f f o r t s which resu lted in gen eral statements we now con sid er as axiom atic: the grouping o f languages, sound laws, a n a lo g ic a l c r e a tio n and oth er e q u a lly

v i t a l con cepts. Induction replaced deduction in

handling l i n g u i s t i c data and some w h im s ic a litie s o f the p a st were exposed and d isca rd ed.

1

In the course o f

t h e ir d e t a ile d research es Indo-European l i n g u i s t s have g ra d u a lly developed a technique which i s probably more

n e a rly p e r f e c t than that o f any oth er scien ce d ea lin g with man’ s i n t u i t i o n s

. 12

1. M.M.Lewis, Lang, in Soc. - p .2J 2 . 2. S a p ir, S elected Writings - p .1 6 0 .

l i n g u i s t i c s was h i s t o r i c a l , that o f the twentieth is d e s c r i p t i v e . ’ D e sc rip tiv e l i n g u i s t i c s i s deserving i t s p la ce more and more as an autonomous group o f r e la te d d i s c i p l i n e s - such as p h o n e tic s , phonology,

grammar, le x ico g r a p h y , semantics and what m^r be c a lle d the s o c i o l o g y o f la n g u a g e .* At the beginning o f t h is cen tu ry, the in flu en ce o f mechanism was s t i l l f e l t in l i n g u i s t i c study, and an American v e r s io n o f t h is d o c tr in e has been introduced as p s y c h o lo g ic a l

btfhdviourism which coloured American l i n g u i s t i c s as

can be seen in B lo o m fie ld ’ s Language. At the same time, attempts were made to d isen tan g le l i n g u i s t i c techniques from ou tsid e in flu e n c e s ; the most s u c c e s s fu l o f these has been the Saussurean formal approach l a b e l l e d by communist l i n g u i s t s ’ s t a t i c mechanical structuralism *^ .

J u st as Bloomfield was a fo ll o w e r o f Weiss’ s

p s y c h o lo g ic a l behaviourism, de Saussure was an adherent o f Durkheim’ s s o c i o l o g i c a l s tru ctu ra lism , and in both cases l i n g u i s t i c s i s d e riv in g i t s technique from an a l i e n source to the s a c r i f i c e o f l i n g u i s t i c autonomy at the b a s is . One sees language as an ensemble o f

1. F ir t h , i b id . 2. F ir t h , i b i d . 3. F ir th , i b i d .

- 1 7 -

'c o n d it io n e d r e f l e x e s ' and the oth er views i t as a s tru ctu re that can even be d escrib ed with such

dimensions as h o riz o n ta l and v e r t i c a l in the explanation o f h is two terms ' synchronique' and ’ d ia ch ron iq u e' .

Looking at language as a s o c i a l conventional

i n s t i t u t i o n composed o f systems and c a t e g o r ie s o f signs makes an autonomous l i n g u i s t i c s c ie n c e a p o s s ib le

achievement. In f a c t , the a l l i e d techniques o f the va riou s branches o f d e s c r ip t iv e l i n g u i s t i c s used in the

'L i n g u i s t i c and P honetic Department* o f the S.O.A.S. , b u i l t on the fu n c t io n a l p oin t o f view and keeping the s o c i a l f a c t o r in s i g h t , are autonomous in ch a ra cter.

'The fu n c tio n a l p o in t o f view has not been chosen at random. I t i s d eriv ed from the co n c e p tio n o f language as a means o f in t e r c o u r s e , as a t o o l o f d e f i n i t e u s e

' . 1

B u ilt on the two concepts o f'f o r m 'a n d 'f u n c t i o n ' the d e s c r ip t iv e l i n g u i s t i c techniques render natural and s o c i a l scie n ce s a n c i l l a r y instead o f p a tro n iz in g and r id themselves o f a lie n concepts and term inology.

The teachings o f P r o f .F i r t h are aimed in that d i r e c t i o n . 'For my own p a r t and f o r a number o f my c o lle a g u e s , I venture to think l i n g u i s t i c s i s a group o f re la te d techniques f o r the handling o f language events. We

regard our group o f d i s c i p l i n e s as designed f o r system atic

1

. A .M a rtin et, Phonology as F unctional P h on etics,

P u b lic a t io n s o f the P h i l o l o g i c a l S o c ie t y XV,19^6*p . 5*

they do n ot n e c e s s a r ily have a p o in t o f departure in another scie n ce o r d i s c i p l i n e such as p sy ch ology, s o c i o l o g y , or in a sch o ol o f m etaphysics

. 1

This i s a ls o the l i n e taken f o r thfe

6

work, and

i t w i l l be n o tice d that ’ form* and f u n c t i o n

1

are kept in mind in d ea lin g with every aspect o f the d i a l e c t studied in t h is work. I f e e l in c lin e d to d escrib e t h is type o f approach as ’ fu n c tio n a l form alism 1.

1. F ir t h , i b i d .

C H A P T E R I I , The Techniques Employed ,

THE TECHNIQUES EMPLOYED.

1

- PERCEPTION.

I have had Mr.Luqman as my c h i e f informant, an account o f whom has already been given . The f i r s t task was to g e t some passages o r s t o r i e s re c o rd e d , and write these in a phonetic t r a n s c r ip t io n in the presence o f

the inform ant, f o r though the A. D. and my own d i a l e c t can be d escrib e d as mutually i n t e l l i g i b l e , i t was not at a l l easy to e s t a b l i s h a word d i v i s i o n in a number o f ca s e s . Words which have been obscure on the record s were, at my req u est, repeated by the informant and

t r ie d again on the record u n t il they are recognised by p e r c e p tio n . My informant has a ls o had tg& the task o f p rep a rin g l i s t o f words and sentences defin ed f o r him, eg. I to ld him to prepare, in a lp h a b e tic a l ord e r,

a l l the word in the d i a l e c t o f the f f a ? l f stru ctu re

a f t e r p ro v id in g him with an example, i . e . a word o f cv cc form.

No p e r c e p tiv e technique i s s a t i s f a c t o r y without in t r o s p e c t io n on the p art o f the student and repeating the u ttera n ces to the informant u n t i l he i s s a t i s f i e d with the p ron u n ciation . Some t r i c k s have a ls o to be played on the informant t o examine h is i n t e g r i t y . Some­

times he passes a bad or fa u lt y p ron u n ciation as c o r r e c t ,

e i t h e r because he i s being cou rteo u s, or t ir e d or

u n a tten tive. When h is a tte n tio n i s drawn to the t r i c k , he i s apt, in the fu tu r e , to be more c a r e f u l with h is

approval o f the s tu d e n t’ s p ron u n ciation . I t i s important to develop a technique o f p u ttin g q uestions to the

informant. A badly chosen or unwisely put question might e i t h e r r e s u lt in a misleading answer or prove p u zzlin g to the informant. For example, i t would not do at a l l to allow any s p e c ia liz e d t e c h n ic a l term to fig u r e in the q u e s tio n ; because as f a r as the informant i s concerned, such t e c h n ic a l term i s n on sen sica l. No student would, f o r example, ask h is informant, untrained as he i s , to giv<

him an utterance with a tune two in to n a tio n . N either does a student ask to be given a l i s t o f words w ith, f o r example, vc as i n i t i a l . ’ Tune two* and *vc* are q u ite out o f p lace in such co n te x ts.

I t i s eq u ally important to avoid g e tt in g the informant aware o f the issue in v o lv e d , i . e * the aim

sought in the p ron u n cia tion , i f through long a s s o c ia t io n with the work he came to appreciate such is su e s . For example, i t would be wrong to t e l l him

*1

want to see

i f the case i s t h is or t h a t ’ , because t h i s w i l l make him con sciou s o f h is p ron u n ciation and perhaps in c lin e d

h im self to choose a p ron u n ciation which i s o fte n wrong.

I t would not do e it h e r to fa ce him with an o p tio n a l

I f i t i s p o s s i b l e , w rite i t in the l o c a l s c r i p t and ask m to read; or i f he is i l l i t e r a t e or the d i a l e c t i s not w r it t e n , ask him. 'what do you c a l l so and so ? ' and*his

answer w i l l in v olve the p ron u n cia tion re q u ire d , which, on r e q u e s t , can be repeated as many times as necessary.

The advantage o f p e r c e p tio n over instrumental techniques l i e s in the f a c t that the human ear i s the

most p e r f e c t instrument f o r l i n g u i s t i c purposes, and that the m aterial to be studied by p e r c e p t io n i s the l i v i n g language i t s e l f in co n tr a s t to w i p e - o f f s in p a la to g ra p h y , modulations in kymography and the p ic t u r e s o f X-Rays

which are not language. A b s tra ctio n s from p e r c e p t io n are d i r e c t but those from instrumental techniques are

i n d i r e c t . One instrumental tech n iqu e, at l e a s t , is adopted to extend the area o f p e r c e p t io n with the

in t r o d u c t io n o f a p o t e n t ia l permanence to the u ttera n ce.

This technique i s re c o r d in g , next to be d is cu ss e d .

- 2 2 -

2

- SECONDING.

Recording, as has already been s a i d , i s adopted as an ex ten sion o f p e r c e p tio n with the in tr o d u c tio n o f a p o t e n t i a l permanence o f the u tte ra n ce , through the permanence o f the d i s c , or any o th er record such as

tape or w ire- An unlimited r e p e t i t i o n o f a recorded utterance can be attained through the l i f t i n g and

p la c in g the needle at a c e r t a in p la ce on the d i s c where t h is utterance b eg in s. D iscs are reckoned, among

o th e r means o f r e c o rd in g , as the b est capable o f g iv in g as much fe a tu re s o f the sound as p o s s i b l e , but record in g in gen eral f a l l s f a r behind the l i v i n g v o ice o f the

informant in t h is connection f o r two reasons : f i r s t , the l i v i n g v o ic e i s much c le a r e r in q u a lit y and the re c o rd is only a second rate p ro d u ctio n o f i t , and

second, because record in g i s only an o r a l s en sa tion while the l i v i n g v o ic e can be coupled with a v is u a l o b se r v a tio n o f the organs o f speech. ’ What we c a l l the v oca l organs or the organs o f speech are o f course not p rim a rily and not s o l e l y concerned with the

p ro d u ctio n o f sound. The l i p s , the te e th and the tongue might be c a lle d organs o f e a t in g , the larynx and the

lungs organs o f b rea th in g

.* 1

The absence o f o b se rv a tio n o f these organs makes the p e r c e p tio n o f a recorded

1 . B loch & Trager, Outline o f L in g u i s t ic A n a l y s i s ,p .

1

^J.

Another drawback o f record in g as compared to l i v i n g v o i c e s is.iithat i f you have a b lu rred utterance on the record you cannot hope f o r a c l e a r e r one through

r e p e t i t i o n as you do when the informant pronounces the examples.

Records are about the only documents to be consulted when checking up ob serva tion s on so many aspects o f the work such as vowel q u a l i t i e s , in t o n a t io n , s t r e s s and

so on. Such l i n g u i s t i c fe a tu re s are not to be checked upon, in the absence o f the informant, in any

instrumental technique except r e c o r d s . This g iv e s

re c o r d in g among instrumental techniques a value eq u alled by no oth er.

I t i s important to be c a r e fu l in choosing the

m a teria l to be record ed. For t h i s m aterial i s suppoed to serve a d e f i n i t e purpose in the work. Moreover, the s p e c i f i c s u b je c t to be studied may req u ire a d i f f e r e n t m aterial from that o f some other s u b je c t . A student o f anthropology may i n t e r e s t h im self in the same re c o rd in g m aterial as does a p h o n e ticia n , but t h is i s not

n e c e s s a r ily s o , f o r an a n th r o p o lo g is t can hardly be in t e r e s te d in sets o f words o r in paradigms.

The record in g m aterial f o r a student o f p h on etics in clu d e s s

1

- Prepared l i s t o f words.

2

^-

’ 1

n a rra tiv e s.

J - Extemporaneous n a r r a tiv e s .

- Dialogues and con versation s and s im ila r fu n c tio n s .

The p a r t to be prepared req u ires the s k i l l o f the student and a keen sense o f ch o ic e with an in s ig h t in the work and the future examples to be chosen.

'Palatography has been used since the p ion eer work o f R o u s s e lo t

. 11

Though th is technique sta rted with the use o f palatograms o f is o la t e d sounds, these palatograms

not

are now /treated as r e l i a b l e , since language is made o f complete utterances and not o f is o l a t e d sounds.

Word-palatograms, and even sentence-palatogram s,

are now the outcome o f t h i s technique. Such palatograms are o f two types :

1

- Examples chosen with only one sound

a r t i c u l a t i o n capable o f g iv in g a w i p e - o f f on the a r i t i f c i a l palate ( o r u n i-c o n ta c t palatogram s).

2 - Examples with more than one sound a r t i c u l a t i o n o f such c a p a b i l i t y , but none o f the a r t ic u l a t i o n s in the utterance i s i n t e r f e r i n g with the wipe- o f f o f any oth er. Up to three sound

a r t ic u l a t i o n s can be found in an example, e . g . (i A£ l ' /U:C’ ' ( t h i s i s c a lle d a m u lti-c o n ta c t palatogram ).

In t h is l a t t e r typ e, the ch oice o f a r t ic u l a t i o n s must be c a r e f u l. The above example, c f , con ta in s d e n t a l, p o s t - a l v e o l a r and p o s t - p a l a t a l w i p e - o f f s , none

1. F ir t h , Word-Palatograms And A r t i c u l a t i o n , B u lle t in

o f the S.0.& A. S. - V o l-X I I , P arts 5 & k. 19^8.pp-857-6i|

5 - PALATQGRAPHY.

-

26

^-

o f which i s superimposed on the oth er. U ni-contact

%

p a la to g ra p h ic examples are much e a s ie r to ch oose, and in A .D ., as in a l l Modern Arabic D i a l e c t s , there i s an

abundance o f such examples. A ft e r c o l l e c t i n g the examples f o r palatography, with a view, o f co u r s e , to what q u estion s such tecnnique can answer, every example i s pronounced only once with the a r t i f i c i a l p a la te in i t s p la ce in the mouth. This a r t i f i c i a l p a la te i s then taken and p r o je c t e d on sem i-transparent paper and the image o f the palatogram i s traced on the same paper*

T h is palatogram i s kept u n t il on a future date another o f the same example i s traced b esid e i t on the same paper, t r a c in g the same example on the same paper on d i f f e r e n t dates w i l l p rovide an ample p ic tu r e o f the t y p ic a l

palatogram o f t h i s example. I say t y p i c a l because no two palatograms o f the same utterance are i d e n t i c a l in every d e t a i l ; they may be approxim ately s im ila r and can be put under a t y p o l o g i c a l ca te g o ry . With d i f f e r e n t examples and d i f f e r e n t p o s i t i o n the two palatograms

rep resen tin g a s o - c a l l e d same sound may be even

t y p o l o g i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t , because o f the p la y o f p r o s o d ic fe a t u r e s in a r t i c u l a t i o n s o f d i f f e r e n t sequences.

The p r o j e c t o r employed in my work has been invented in the Department o f L in g u i s t ic s and P honetics where I worked

.1

These palatograms are mainly used in

1. An account o f th is i s found in the p u b lic a t io n By

F ir th & Adam

1

Improved Techniques o f Palatography and Kymography.* B u ll e t in o f S .0 .& A .S .V o l .X I I I .P a r t 3,195o

an org a n ic d e s c r i p t i o n , and claim ing t h i s to be uniform in a l l cases o f any sound i s an a r b it r a r y g e n e r a liz a t io n not worthy o f c a r e fu l p h on etic resea rch . For as there

i s p r o s o d ic d if f e r e n c e in the a r t i c u l a t i o n o f the same sound in d i f f e r e n t c o n t e x t s , such d i f f e r e n c e is

co rresp on d in g ly matched in the shape and the s iz e o f the w ip e - o f f . For such purpose, the examples chosen must be comparable, i . e . with g r e a t s i m i l a r i t y and l i t t l e d i f f e r e n c e in t h e ir d e s c r ip t io n . For comparing the

sound in d i f f e r e n t p o s i t i o n s , eg. i n i t i a l v. medial, the b e s t i s to compare examples taken, at the same d a te.

For example, i n i t i a l ' t ' in f t a e : b ' with i t in * tirs b

1

and w ith f i n a l f t* in fbA:t* can be compared when the examples are pronounced on the same d a te. But

palatograms o f * tee :b* to be compared, must be taken on d i f f e r e n t d a tes. D iffe r e n c e o f verba l context c a l l s f o r unity in p h y s ic a l and p s y c h o lo g ic a l co n d itio n s

a sc e r ta in a b le only in unity o f time; but when the v e r b a l con tex t i s one, d i f f e r e n c e o f time i s required to show the d i s s i m i l a r i t y o f w i p e - o f f .

The id e a l examples to be chosen f o r t h is technique, I th in k , are those with open vow els, because the amount o f l a t e r a l con ta ct with these vowels i s l e s s than with

the c l o s e r ones, and i f e x c e s s iv e l a t e r a l w ip e -o ff i s in t e r f e r e n c e , the f r o n t c lo s e vowels can e a s i l y be l a b e l l e d i n t e r f e r in g .

Another fe a tu re that can be stu d ied in palatography i s t e n s i t y and l a x i t y o f a r t i c u l a t i o n . Tensity and l a x i t y are best understood in the co n te x t o f organic movement, i . e . a r t i c u l a t i o n . T en sity o f the tongue in a r t i c u l a t i n g anysound on the a r t i f i c i a l p a la te w i l l

n a tu r a lly r e s u lt in a wider w i p e - o f f . In f a c t the d i f f e r e n c e o f t e n s it y i s co rre sp on d in g ly matched in the l a t e r a l w i p e - o f f as in the w i p e - o f f o f the p la ce o f a r t i c u l a t i o n . This d if f e r e n c e in the l a t e r a l wipe- o f f i s the reason f o r the i n c l i n a t i o n above to d e scrib e the f r o n t c lo s e vowels as i n t e r f e r i n g , s in ce a l a t e r a l w i p e - o f f o f a fr o n t c lo s e vowel w i l l be expected, even

in la x a r t i c u l a t i o n , to be wide.

In A .D ., the d iffe r e n c e o f c lo s e n e s s in the vowels o f the same unit has been t r ie d in palatography. The

c h o ic e o f examples centred on the long vowel o f the CWC s y l l a b l e with id e n t i t y in a l l the examples o f the i n i t i a l or the f i n a l consonant and the change o f the o th e r from one to the other o f the seven groups, e . g .

J a s b - X A S b - b * : b - m :b - n n :b - dge :b - J*£ :b

to see i f there i s corresponding d i f f e r e n c e on the

gave, as was exp ected , no w ip e -o ff at a l l . But with the r e s t o f the examples, t h is correspondence has been found. T h is , o f co u rse , i s no attempt t o e s t a b l i s h correspondence between the w i p e - o f f and the a c o u s t ic q u a lity o f the vowel; such attempt i s c e r t a i n l y f a r fe tc h e d . But one might venture to attempt tyin g t h is d i f f e r e n c e in the palatogram with that o f the tongue p o s i t i o n due to the stru ctu re o f the s y l l a b l e , o f which

the vowel i s an in t e g r a l p a r t , as opposed to oth er comparable s y l l a b l e s in the l i s t .

Palatograms are not u ttera n ces but are

correspondences t o them at an instrumental le v e l*

‘ S im ila r ly , each instrumental technique used in

i n v e s t ig a t io n s o f repeated utterances i s an e x te n sio n o f b o d ily equipment, an a d d it io n a l sense, so to speak, able on ly to make i t s own s p e c i a l i z e d *‘ a b s t r a c t i o n * * from the u tte ra n ce , always w ithin the l i m i t a t i o n o f the

in s tru m e n t.* 4 One o f the l i m i t a t i o n s o f the palatograp hic technique i s that not every consonant can be handled

through i t ; in f a c t , on ly consonants a r t ic u l a t e d with the f r o n t o f the tongue are capable o f g iv in g palatograms.

Another one i s that not every su cce s sio n o f consonants can be chosen as an example, because o f the in te r fe r e n c e o f one a r t i c u l a t i o n with the w ip e - o f f o f the oth er.

1

. Firth,Word-Palatograms & A r t i c u l a t i o n s , B u l l e t i n . i b i d .

4. KYMOGRAPHY.

Kymography has i t s own course o f development and improvements o f both i t s instruments and techniques.

'The kymographic technique now employed produces a

" b la c k -o n -w h it e 1' w a v e-fora , having the e f f e c t o f g iv in g a c l e a r e r and more s t r i k i n g p ictu r e than was p r e v io u s ly the case. The p r a c t ic e o f varnishing the smoked paper has become unnecessary, thus e lim in a tin g one o f the more undesirable a sp e cts o f kymography by the usual method

. 1 1

In a mouth kymogram, there are :

1 - An imaginary li n e at r e s t which the s t y l e would draw on the re v o lv in g surface in the absence o f a g i t a t i o n . The e x c u rs io n o f the s t y l e during

an utterance is measured in r e l a t i o n to t h i s l i n e . 2 - An e x c u r s io n o f the s t y le above o r below the lin e

at r e s t in r e l a t i o n to the a i r p ressu re.

5

- Modulation or wave-form during an e x c u r s io n o f the s t y l e . This i s in r e l a t i o n to the presence o f v o i c e ; an absence o f v o ic e r e s u lt s in the absence o f modulation (but not n e c e s s a r ily o f excu rsion ) •

1. F ir th cc Adam, Improved Techniques in Palatography and Kymography - B u lle t in o f 3 .0 . A.S. V o l .X I I I ,

Part 5, 1950.

more V e r t i c a l on t h is l i n e with p l o s i o n than with any oth er manlier o f a r t i c u l a t i o n . The sudden relea se o f a ir in p l o s i o n causes the s t y le to make an excu rsion sometimes almost at a r ig h t angle w ith the lin e at r e s t . When measured from t h is l i n e , the d is ta n c e between the l i n e o f tr a c in g s and the lin e at r e s t can be relaued to the a i r pressure re g a r d le s s o f the manner o f a r t i c u l a t i o n . A gra d u a lly ascending l i n e o f tr a c in g c o r r e la t e d to a

f r i c a t i v e can tr a v e l as f a r from the l i n e at r e s t as that c o r r e la t e d to a p l o s i v e . The a i r p ressu re res p o n sib le f o r the d ista n ce o f e x c u r s io n can be r e la t e d to t e n s it y and l a x i t y o f a r t i c u l a t i o n . Tensity and l a x i t y theiL can, to a c e r t a in e x t e n t , be deduced from a kymograph t r a c in g , as can be seen in comparing a kymograph tra cin g corresp ond ing to an i n t e r v o c a l i c a r t i c u l a t i o n o f a

consonant with that corresponding to the a r t i c u l a t i o n o f the same consonant in double medial p o s i t i o n or in f i n a l p o s i t i o n . V oicin g and unvoicing are other fe a t u r e s which can be deduced from kymograph tra cin g s both o f mouth and larynx. As has already been s a id , modulation in the l i n e o f tra cin g s i s an in d ic a t io n o f

the presence o f v o i c e ; the absence o f t h i s modulation may be e q u a lly in d ic a t iv e o f the absence o f v o ic e . Also

-3 2 -

complete and incomplete p lo s io n s are to be studied through kymography, by observing the type o f

e x c u r s io n s and whether there are e x c u rs io n s or not.

Here i t should be emphasised that ! a kymograph tr a c in g i s not an utterance any more than i s a word o r a sentence in an ortography, or in a t r a n s c r ip t io n , no matter how broad o r narrow. I t i s only an

a b s t r a c t io n o f the p a r t i c u l a r kind which the machine with a l l i t s l im i t a t io n s i s able t o take from

d istu rb a n ces o f the a i r caused by the s p e a k e r .!

1. J.Carnochan, A Study in the Phonology o f an Igbo Speaker. B u ll e t in o f S.0.& A.S. V o l.X I I .P a r t 2.

A s t a t i c X-Ray p ic t u r e i s not a technique c l o s e l y in l i n e with l i n g u i s t i c resea rch , because when t h is technique i s employed f o r l i n g u i s t i c purposes, i t cannot handle a dynamic continuum o f u ttera n ce. I t i s only capable o f handling p ostures which are not l i n g u i s t i c . I t i s not a task o f th is work to p r e d i c t the use o f cin e-ra d iogra p h y f o r l i n g u i s t i c purposes, though t h is may be the general p r a c t i c e in fu tu re . The X-Rays technique adopted f o r my purpose involved the informant s i t t i n g sideways to the

camera. This p o s i t i o n was adopted to prevent super­

im p o s itio n , at any p o i n t , or one p a rt on the o th e r, e x c e p t the in e v it a b le superim positions o f the te e th on

the tongue. This p o s i t i o n i s u su ally obtained by

screen in g the informant and modifying h is pose u n t i l i t i s thought id e a l. Photographs taken with the head s l i g h t l y turning l e f t or r ig h t show r e s p e c t iv e l y a

narrower and wider pharyngeal c a v i t y than the p ic t u r e o f the id e a l p o s i t i o n photographed at r e s t

. 1

P o stu res, however, are n o n - l i n g u i s t i c l i g h t c a s t on l i n g u i s t i c a r t i c u l a t i o n s when the r e s u l t s obtained from

these p ic t u r e s are found to conform with those from other techniques, such as p e r c e p tio n and palatography.

5. RADIOGRAPHY.

1. Compare the photographs: r e s t , r o t a t i o n l e f t , r o t a t io n r i g h t .

L is t And D e fin it io n o f Symbols . C H A P T E R I I I .

L is t and d e f i n i t i o n o f symbols

There are symbols used in p h on etic t r a n s c r ip t io n f o r t h is work and others used f o r p h o n o lo g ica l t r a n s c r i p t i o n , which may be i l l u s t r a t e d as f o l l o w s :

1. Phonetic Symbols:

a) Consonants:

For a v o ice d b i l a b i a l p l o s i v e , e . g . bA lsd.

n a s a l, e . g . m*:t

sem i-vow el, e . g . w A l o d

v o i c e l e s s b i l a b i a l f r i c a t i v e , e . g . £a:b$Y:hojra

11

la b io - d e n t a l f r i c a t i v e , e . g . f * : t

v o ic e d ”

11 11

, e . g . jivz©£^

w

11

n a s a l, e .g . m*ir)fu:x emphatic dental p l o s i v e , e . g . c|a

2

^C

l a t e r a l , e . g . £Amalc|a:liin n a s a l, e . g .

b

m w

$ f v

”3 a

iu n«*

a

tt

it

tt

tt

tt

tt

tt

tt tt

tt

tt

tt

tt

tt

tt tt

back d e n t i - a l v e o l a r p l o s i v e ,

e »g* qAfcAdjsasbYr

t» tt tt tt tt f r i c a t i v e ,

e . g . yAmAa^a:l±h

11

v o i c e l e s s back d e n t i - a l v e o l a r p l o s i v e , e . g . -tVc^rttb

tt tt

tt tt

tt tt f r i c a t i v e ,

e . g . fAhAac^ah^-pu f hi M emphatic d e n t i - a l v e o l a r f r i c a t i v e ,

^ a : l i h

|- For a v o i c e l e s s emphatic g l o t t a l i z e d d e n t i-a lv e o la r p l o s i v e , e . g . -|;a:htr

^

11

^!t v o ice d emphatic d e n t i - a l v e o l a r f r i c a t i v e , e . g . qAraz^z3:nD”b

t ,f

11

v o i c e l e s s d e n t i-a lv e o la r p l o s i v e , e . g . t©£at>

s

11 11

^w

11 11

f r i c a t i v e , e . g . sffimh n w w v o ic e d emphatic d e n t i- a lv e o la r n a sa l,

/

e . g .

1

^{" ,f ,f M} - a l v e o l a r l a t e r a l ,

/

e . g . j i l g i :

" ,f

11

d e n t i- a lv e o la r n a sa l, e . g . jir^dsem It

11

^,f

11 11 11

^• l a t e r a l , e . g . ji^saec'’

n ,f

11

tf a lv e o la r n a sa l, e . g . nojeh

1 11 11 11 11

l a t e r a l , e . g . ln'bAs r ft H ” " r o l l e d , e . g . rt>ham

11

^" " p o s t - a l v e o la r n a sa l, e . g . rt&:h

"

11 11 11 11

l a t e r a l , e . g . *|Csm

^ »

11

^{" " M} r o l l e d , e . g . j

11 11 11

p a la t a l p l o s i v e , e . g . j e : ! )

c w

11

v o i c e l e s s p a la t a l p l o s i v e , e . g . c e :n J

11

^{w M}

11

f r i c a t i v e , e . g . J e : f

*» ” v o ice d M 11 ⁹ e .g . m*: fiz z e s ;) ji<.h}

j ” 11 11 11 sem i-vow el, e . g . 3o:m g 11 ,f ,f v e la r p lo s iv e , e .g . xArAg^QJhtr

-3 5 -

k For a v o i c e l e s s v ela r p l o s i v e , e . g . £ammAk*|;a: h tr ji ,f

11

v o ice d p a la t a l n a sa l, e . g . jijije h

y tf M w v e la r f r i c a t i v e , e . g . yA:b x " " v o i c e l e s s v e la r f r i c a t i v e , e . g . xa:h

^ »» tf v o i c e d v e l a r na sa l, e . g . jirjxAr

q ,f ,r v o i c e l e s s uvular p l o s i v e , e . g . ^{q A ; m}

n ,f !t v o ice d uvular n a sa l, e.g.jiN qA ^ *

£ M M w pharyngeal f r i c a t i v e , e .g . £a:m

h

11 11

v o i c e l e s s pharyngeal f r i c a t i v e , e . g . ftasmYd

*•

h

11 11

v o ice d g l o t t a l f r i c a t i v e , e . g . hadae:

2

lf H v o i c e l e s s g l o t t a l p l o s i v e , e . g .

2

^anu

2

^(H>

b ) Vowels:

Short Long

4 i : For a pharyngealized fr o n t c lo s e vowel, e . g . £Q:^4mhum :

i is For a fr o n t c lo s e vowel which occurs with a consonant o f Group I I , e . g .

wA:xidhum : x i : b

Y Y: For a fr o n t c lo s e vowel which occurs a f t e r a consonant o f Group I I I , e . g .

mYnhum : bY: £

i i : For a fr o n t c lo s e vowel which occurs a f t e r a consonant o f Group IV, e . g .

£indu(h) s £ t :b

±

1

i Short

i : For a f r o n t c lo s e vowel which occurs a f t e r a consonant o f Group V, e . g .

ljt£bA s n±:b

i : For a fr o n t c lo s e vov/el v/hich occurs a f t e r a consonant o f Group VI, e . g . tldbAh s d*i:b i : For a fr o n t c l o s e vov/el which occurs a f t e r a

consonant o f Group V II, e . g . cidbA h : j i : b

g : For a pharyngealized f r o n t h a l f - c l o s e vov/el, e . g . ? € : f

e : For a fr o n t h a l f - c l o s e vowel which occurs witt a consonant o f Group I I , e . g . yesm

e: For a fr o n t h a l f - c l o s e vowel v/hich occurs aft<

a consonant o f Group I I I , e . g . b e : t

e: For a fr o n t h a l f - c l o s e vowel which occurs aft<

+

a consonant o f Group IV, e . g . £ e :n

3 I For a fr o n t h a l f - c l o s e vov/el which occurs with a consonant o f Group V, e . g . I

32

^I

31 For a fr o n t h a l f - c l o s e vowel v/hich occurs w ith a consonant o f Group V I, e . g . d32l 3 • For a fr o n t h a l f - c l o s e vov/el which occurs

*

with a consonant o f Group V II, e . g . I

3 2

^"b

Q: For a pharyngealized back open vowel, e . g . \abb : t Q:^

-3 7 - Long

A

A

a

T>

as

Short

a For a back open vowel which occurs with a consonant o f Group I I , e . g . yAinm : qA2in

*2

For an open vowel which occurs a f t e r a

consonant o f Group I I I , e . g . m A l l : m A : l

a: For an open vowel which occurs a f t e r a consonant o f Group IV, e . g .

fcaram : £a:m

d: For an open consonant which occurs a f t e r a consonant o f group V, e . g . ^lDrnm : lntm ae: For a fr o n t open vowel which occurs a f t e r a

consonant o f Group V I, e . g . ^tasmm : ^dassm e: For a fr o n t open vowel which occurs a f t e r a

consonant o f Group V II, e . g .

Jemm : J e:b

a-: For a pharyngealized back h a l f - c l o s e vowel, e . g . £

3

^-:m

o: For a back h a lf c l o s e vowel which occurs with

<

a consonant o f Group I I , e . g . qq;m

02

For a back h a lf c l o s e vov/el which occurs a f t e r a consonant o f Group I I I , e . g .

f

0 2

^h

o: For a back h a l f - c l o s e vov/el which occurs

■¥

a f t e r a consonant o f Group IV, e . g . Long

£!>: <3.

For a b a c k h a l f - c l o s e vowel which occurs a f t e a consonant o f Group V, e . g . Xo:m

For a back h a l f - c l o s e vowel which occurs a f t e r a consonant o f Group VI, e . g . tosb

%

For a back h a l f - c l o s e vowel which occurs a fte a consonant o f Group V II, e . g . co:m

♦

For a pharyngealized back c lo s e vowel, e . g .

3

«l-(;«mti h :

For a back c lo s e vowel which occurs with a consonant o f Group I I , e . g .

yuinmA h : v u : f

For a back c lo s e vowel which occurs a f t e r a consonant o f Group I I I , e . g .

bttfftt (h) • mtist

For a back c lo s e vowel which occurs a f t e r a consonant o f Group IV, e . g .

(h> : j/u:m

For a back c lo s e vowel which occurs a f t e r a consonant o f Group V, e . g . f&b£Ai ,h) : For a back c l o s e vowel which occurs a f t e r a

consonant o f Group V I, e . g . t u fb * : t u

: 1

For a back c lo s e vowel which occurs a f t e r a consonant o f Group V II, e . g .

f h> :

0

^{P o p} a v a r ie t y o f c e n t r a l vowels which can be s ta te d under two terms: The a n a p ty ctic and the VC vowels. These are d i f f e r e n t i a t e d in t r a n s c r ip t io n by the p o s i t i o n o f the symbol in r e l a t i o n t o the l i n e ; the former i s higher up, and the l a t t e r at the l e v e l o f the other sy m b ols.

4 V fhc A p p t n d i c es A ll t r a n s c r ip t io n in the p h on etic s e c t io n ^ is p h o n e tic;

when there i s p h on etic t r a n s c r ip t io n in the p h o n o lo g ica l

*

s e c t i o n , i t i s underlined with red.

c) Symbols o f f e a t u r e s : For g l o t t a l i z a t i o n

c F o r a s p ir a t io n

<% For the opener q u a lity o f the c l o s e vowel in the f i n a l s y l l a b l e in the word and the spoken group,

(put under the sym bol).

( ~ ) For n a s a liz a t io n (above the sym bol).

2. P h on ologica l sym bols:

5

For a v o i c e l e s s g l o t t a l p l o s i v e u n i t , e . g . £2tnii w

11

v o ice d b i l a b i a l "

11

» e . g . bdab t

11 11

v o i c e l e s s d e n t i- a lv e o la r p l o s i v e u n it , e . g .

t&db t M

11

v o ic e d p a la t a l p lo s iv e u n i t , e . g . jddb

Short Long