The Majang Language

(1)

Cover Page

The handle http://hdl.handle.net/1887/73814 holds various files of this Leiden University dissertation.

Author: Joswig, A.

Title: The Majang Language Issue Date: 2019-06-04

(2)

The Majang Language

(3)

LOT phone: +31 20 525 2461 Kloveniersburgwal 48

1012 CX Amsterdam e-mail: lot@uva.nl

The Netherlands http://www.lotschool.nl

Cover illustration: A Majang farm house. Picture taken in Goji, February 8, 2014 (Andreas Joswig).

ISBN: 978-94-6093-321-9 NUR 616

(4)

The Majang Language

Proefschrift

ter verkrijging van

de graad van Doctor aan de Universiteit Leiden, op gezag van de rector magnificus prof.mr. C.J.J.M. Stolker,

volgens besluit van het College voor Promoties te verdedigen op dinsdag 4 juni 2019

klokke 16.15 uur

door

Andreas Joswig geboren te Celle, Duitsland

in 1968

(5)

copromotor: Dr. Constance Kutsch Lojenga

promotiecommissie: Prof.dr. Gerrit Dimmendaal, University of Cologne Prof.dr. Maarten Kossmann

Prof.dr. Doris Payne, University of Oregon Dr. Jenneke van der Wal

(6)

Table of Contents 1

Acknowledgements

I want to thank the following people for their contribution to this study:

The main language consultant for this study was Joseph Kalakun. In many of the research sessions Joseph was supported by his colleagues of the Majang Bible Translation Project, Hawariyat Babure, Epheson Teramaj, and, until 2011, Abyot Girma. This was graciously permitted by the Illubabor Bethel Synod of the EECMY. James Kim and Gallo Aylate helped setting up the research sessions. Furthermore, James and his wife Whashu shared their knowledge and material on the Majang language.

Other Majang speakers contributing to this work were Yordanos Addisu, Kadiree Nyamor, Nibeyat Dimesse, and Ashine Astin.

Tyler Schnoebelen generously shared his personally collected Majang Data with me. Sandra Hufnagel transcribed most words of the Comparative Afri- can Word List, initially supported by Stefanie Hauser.

Pete Unseth shared more data and analysis with me. He once intended to write this very language description, and I am glad that he entrusted me with completing this work.

I am grateful to Drs. Moges Yigezu and Getachew Anteneh for the ideas and inspiration we shared with each other while working on the same language.

I benefited from practical help by various friends and colleagues. David Ford spent hours editing sound files, and even more on proofreading. Seyoum Berhe translated materials from Amharic to English. Tefera Endalew provided logistical help in Mizan Teferi. Other workers of the Bench-Maji MLE project, particularly Efrem Belay, helped me immensely in later stages.

My doctoral supervisor Maarten Mous and co-promoter Constance Kutsch- Lojenga gave good feedback on all parts of this study, and more came from the committee members Gerrit Dimmendaal, Doris Payne, Jenneke van der Wal and Maarten Kossmann. Further conversations I had with Mary Pearce, Keith Snider, Helga Schröder, Colleen Ahland, Michael Ahland, Mike Bryant, Joshua Smolders, Anne-Christie Hellenthal, Don Killian, Manuel Otero, Mike Cahill, Roger Blench, and Tom Payne. More occasional advice was given by numerous participants on the SIL Linguistics Discussion List.

Colin Davis created the language map on page 37. Anne-Christie Hellenthal provided the Dutch Samenvatting at the end of this book.

(19)

Funding was provided by my personal supporters, channeled through my sending organization Wycliffe Germany. Wycliffe also provided an addition- al grant for finalizing the research in 2016 (thanks to Martin Sauer). Other funds came through an SIL project for languages in Western Ethiopia.

Finally, I want to express my warm gratitude to my wife Corinna, and to my daughters Teresa and Sara.

Andreas Joswig, Winsen/Aller, March 21, 2019

(20)

List of abbreviations and symbols 15

List of abbreviations and symbols

ꜜ morpheme downstep

[ ] phonetic transcription, feature notation / / phonemic transcription { } underlying (lexical) items

in phonology section

< > orthographic transcription

+ morpheme boundary

= clitic boundary

# word boundary

* ungrammatical form or construction

1S 1^st person singular 1P 1^st person plural 2S 2^nd person singular 2P 2^nd person plural 3S 3^rd person singular 3P 3^rd person plural A transitive agent

ABS absolutive

AC anticausative

ADV adverbializer, adverb

AP antipassive

ATR advanced tongue root

AUX auxiliary verb

C consonant

C1, C2 first and second consonant in a consonant cluster

CF centrifugal direction

CJ conjoint marking

CND conditional marker

CONJ conjunction

CONTR contrastive pronoun

COP copula

CP centripetal direction

DAT dative

DEM demonstrative DEM differential ergative

marking

DFUT distant future

DIR directional derivation

DIST distal (far from speaker or hearer)

DJ disjoint marking

DUR durative verb

ERG ergative

EV epenthetic vowel

EXT stem extension F1, F2 formant 1, formant 2

H high tone

HR close to the hearer

HORT hortative

Hz Hertz

IMP imperative/jussive

IMPS impersonal form

INCHOA inchoative form

INCPT inceptive derivation

INF infinitive marker IPA International Phonetic

Association

IPFV imperfective

L low tone

L word downstep (floating L)

LOC locative

MEDPST medium past

MOD modified case form

NEG negative

NFUT near future

NOM nominative

NOMIN nominalization

NP noun phrase

(21)

OCP Obligatory Contour Prin- ciple

ORD ordinal number

PFV perfective

P patient, transitive object

PL plural

POSS possessive

PRAG pragmatic particle

PRCTV precative particle

QUEST question particle

QUOT speech-clause introduction

R syllable rhyme

RECPST recent past

REF anaphoric reference

REFOBJ referential-object marker

REL relative marker

RELPST relative past

REMPST remote past

S intransitive subject;

subject

SA agent-like intransitive subject

SFT sentence-final topicality marker

SG singular

SIMUL simultaneous form

SP close to the speaker S^P patient-like intransitive

subject

STV stative verb

SUB subordination marker TBU tone-bearing unit

TF deictic transfer (from one deictic center to another)

V vowel; verb

VP verb phrase

(22)

List of bound morphemes 17

List of bound morphemes

The following is an alphabetic list of all bound morphemes of the Majang language, as encountered in this work. _V in a prefix stands for the first stem vowel in a total vowel harmony context. In a suffix it refers to the class vowel of the verb (_à, _ɛ, or _i). The following tonal conventions are used to refer to the underlying tone of the morpheme:

• -_i(no tone indicated): a toneless morpheme – the morpheme copies the previous tone.

• -_í,: the morpheme takes the polar (opposite) tone of the previous tone.

• -_í: the morpheme’s high tone replaces all other tones on the stem.

In brackets for each morpheme a reference points to the relevant lowest-level numbered section where information on this morpheme is given.

Form Gloss Allomorphs Function

-à ^DIR derivation with an expelling or completive

sense (IV.2.2.4) -à^L ^PL.^ABS.^MOD,

PL.NOM,

PL.NOM/ERG.MOD,

-à^L plural nominative, plural modified absolutive and plural modified

nominative/ergative marker for àk^L-_{or àk}^L- plural nouns (IV.1.3.1)

-_á 1S.DJ -_à^L,_-àː,_-àː 1S disjoint for all verbs (IV.2.3.1) -à 1S.CJ 1S conjoint for all verbs (IV.2.3.1)

-à^L ^DAT -à^L,_-à,_{-à ː}, -à*ː dative case marker for most NP constituents (IV.1.3.2)

-à^L ^SG.^ABS,

SG.NOM/ERG.MOD

singular absolutive and singular modified ergative/nominative marker for à^L-singular nouns (IV.1.3.1)

-_àːj^L NOM nominative marker of om ‘one’ (IV.3.2.1)

-àːr ^CF centrifugal-direction marker for a-class

verbs (IV.3.3.1)

-àːtɔ̀ ^PL.^ERG plural ergative marker for àːtɔ̀k^L-plural nouns (IV.1.3.1)

(23)

Form Gloss Allomorphs Function -àːtɔ̀^L ^PL.ABS.MOD,

PL.NOM,

PL.^NOM/^ERG.^MOD

plural nominative, plural modified absolutive, and plural modified nominative/ergative marker for àːtɔ̀k^L-plural nouns (IV.1.3.1) -àːtɔ̀k^L ^PL.ABS plural plain absolutive marker for àːtɔ̀k^L-

plural nouns (IV.1.3.1)

-àk ^IMP.SG imperative singular marker (IV.2.3.4)

-àk^L ^PL.^ABS, ^PL -àk^L,_-ák, -àk plural plain absolutive marker for àk^L-_or àk^L-plural nouns, and their plural formative for dative, locative and possessive case (IV.1.3.1)

-àkɔ̀^L ^PL.ABS,

PL.NOM/ERG.MOD

plural absolutive, and plural modified nominative/ergative marker for àkɔ̀^L-plural nouns (IV.1.3.1)

-àkɔ̀k^L ^PL.NOM plural plain nominative marker for àkɔ̀^L- plural nouns (IV.1.3.1)

-àkɔ̀k^L ^PL.^ERG plural plain ergative marker for àkɔ̀^L-plural nouns (IV.1.3.1)

-àltà^L ^DAT dative marker of om ‘one’ (IV.3.2.1)

-àltè ^LOC locative marker of om ‘one’ (IV.3.2.1)

-àn^L ^INF, NEG -à*n^L,_-ɔ̀n^L infinitive marker, negative verb marker (IV.2.2.1)

-án ^PL.^ABS, ^PL plural absolutive marker for án-plural nouns, and their plural formative for dative, locative and possessive case (IV.1.3.1) -àn^L ^PL.^NOM/^ERG.^MOD plural modified nominative/ergative marker

for án-plural nouns (IV.1.3.1) -àn^L ^SG.ABS,

SG.^NOM/^ERG.^MOD -àn^L singular absolutive and singular modified nominative/ergative marker for án(t)^L or àn(t)^L-singular nouns (IV.1.3.1)

-à n ^PL.ERG plural plain ergative marker for án-plural nouns (IV.1.3.1)

(24)

Form Gloss Allomorphs Function -ànt^L ^SG.NOM, SG.LOC,

SG

-ànt singular plain nominative and locative marker for án(t)^L- or àn(t)^L-singular nouns, and their singular formative for dative and possessive case (IV.1.3.1)

-à nt^L ^SG.ERG singular plain ergative marker for án(t)^L- or àn(t)^L-singular nouns (IV.1.3.1)

-àr 3P.DJ 3P disjoint marker for a-class verbs (IV.2.3.1) -àr 3P.CJ 3P conjoint marker for a-class verbs

(IV.2.3.1)

-à*r 2P.DJ -àrí 2P disjoint marker for a-class verbs (IV.2.3.1) -àrɗ ^RELPST.3P,

REFOBJ.3^P

3P relative-past marker and 3P referential- object marker for a-class verbs (IV.2.3.2) -àrí 2P.CJ 2P conjoint marker for a-class verbs

(IV.2.3.1)

-_àrkɛj INCHOA 2P and 3P inchoative subordinate-tense formative for a-class verbs (IV.2.3.2) preced- ing TF

-árkí ɗ ^RELPST.CP.3P,

REFOBJ.CP.3P

3P centripetal relative-past marker, and 3P

centripetal referential-object marker for a- class verbs (IV.2.3.3)

-ɗ ^RELPST.3S,

REFOBJ.3S,

RELPST, REFOBJ

3S relative-past marker, and 3S referential- object marker for a-class verbs, also their relative-past formative for 1S, 2S and 1P

forms (IV.2.3.2) -ɗiː^L ^AP.3S, AP.3P, AP,

AC.3S, AC.3P, AC

-ɗiː 3S/3P detransitivization (antipassive or anticausative) marker for - and ɛ-class verb suffixes i-class verbs, and their detransitivization formative for all other persons (IV.2.2.2)

-ɗù 3P 3P marker for some u-class stative verbs

(IV.2.4.3)

-e ^LOC -è,_-é locative marker for nouns, usually singular (IV.1.3.2)

(25)

-eːr^L ^PL.ABS, PL plural absolutive marker for eːr^L-plural nouns, and their plural formative for dative, locative and possessive case (IV.1.3.1) -er ^PL.ERG plural plain ergative marker for eːr^L-plural

nouns (IV.1.3.1)

-er ^PL.ABS, PL.ERG -e ːr plural plain absolutive and plural plain ergative marker for eːr-plural nouns (IV.1.3.1) -er^L ^PL.NOM,

PL.NOM/ERG.MOD

plural nominative and plural modified nominative/ergative marker for eːr^L-plural nouns (IV.1.3.1)

-ɛ ^LOC -ɛ,_-ɛ^L locative marker, mostly for possessive pronouns and plural nouns (IV.1.3.2)

-ɛ^L ^PL.^ABS,

PL.NOM/ERG.MOD

-ɛ plural absolutive and plural modified nominative/ergative marker for ɛ^L-plural nouns (IV.1.3.1)

-ɛ 3^S.^DJ -e 3^S disjoint marker for -class verbs (ɛ-class verb suffixes IV.2.3.1)

-ɛ ^ERG ergative marker for possessive pronouns

(IV.3.1.4)

-ɛ ^HR hearer-deixis marker for demonstratives and

relative pronouns (IV.3.1.5) -ɛ 3S.CJ -e 3S conjoint marker for -class verbs ɛ-class verb suffixes

(IV.2.3.1)

-ɛ^L ^NOM nominative marker for possessive pronouns

(IV.3.1.4)

-ɛ^L ^IMP.PL imperative plural marker (IV.2.3.4)

-ɛː^L ^INF, ^NEG -eː^L infinitive and negative marker for -class ɛ-class verb suffixes verbs (IV.2.2.1)

-ɛː ^IMPS.CJ -ɛ conjoint impersonal marker (IV.2.3.1) -ɛː^L ^IMPS -ɛ^L disjoint impersonal marker (IV.2.3.1) -ɛːɗ ^RELPST.3S,

REFOBJ.3^S,

RELPST, REFOBJ

-eːɗ 3S relative-past and referential-object marker for -class verbsɛ-class verb suffixes , and their formative for other persons of RELPST and REFOBJ verbs (IV.2.3.2)

(26)

-ɛːɗ ^INF, NEG -eːɗ infinitive and negative marker for -class ɛ-class verb suffixes verbs (IV.2.2.1)

-ɛːk ^PL plural formative for dative, locative and pos-

sessive cases of ɛ^L-plural nouns (IV.1.3.1) -ɛːk^L ^PL.NOM plain plural nominative marker for ɛ^L-plural

nouns (IV.1.3.1)

-ɛ ːk ^PL.^ERG plain plural ergative marker for ɛ^L-plural nouns (IV.1.3.1)

-ɛːr ^CF -eːr centrifugal-direction formative for 1S, 2S

and 1^P forms of -class verbs (ɛ-class verb suffixes IV.2.3.3) -ɛːr 2^P.^CJ -eːr 2^P conjoint marker for -class verbs ɛ-class verb suffixes

(IV.2.3.1)

-ɛ ːr ^CF.3S -e ːr 3S centrifugal-direction marker for -class ɛ-class verb suffixes verbs (IV.2.3.3)

-ɛ*ːr 2^P.^DJ -ɛrí,_-e*ːr, _{-erí 2}P disjoint marker for -class verbs (ɛ-class verb suffixes IV.2.3.1) -ɛːt ^INF, NEG -eːt infinitive and negative marker for -class ɛ-class verb suffixes

verbs (IV.2.2.1)

-ɛːtàr ^CF.3^P.^CJ -eːtàr 3^P conjoint centrifugal-direction marker for -class verbs (

ɛ-class verb suffixes IV.2.3.3)

-ɛːꜜtàr ^CF.3^P.^DJ -ɛːꜜtàr 3^P disjoint centrifugal-direction marker for -class verbs (

-ɛtàːrɔ̀ ^CF.2P -eːtàːrɔ̀ 2P centrifugal-direction marker for -class ɛ-class verb suffixes verbs (IV.2.3.3)

-ɛr ^INCPT -er,_-ɛr,_-er inceptive-derivation marker for -class ɛ-class verb suffixes verbs (IV.2.2.3)

-ɛr^L 3P.DJ -er^L 3P disjoint marker for -class verbs (ɛ-class verb suffixes IV.2.3.1) -ɛr 3^P.^CJ -er 3^P conjoint marker for -class verbs ɛ-class verb suffixes

(IV.2.3.1) -ɛrɗ ^RELPST.3P,

REFOBJ.3^P -erɗ 3P relative-past marker and referential- object marker for -class verbs (ɛ-class verb suffixes IV.2.3.2) -ɛrɗɔ̀^L ^RELPST.2^P,

REFOBJ.2P

-erɗɔ̀^L 2^P relative-past marker, and referential- object marker for -class verbs (ɛ-class verb suffixes IV.2.3.2)

(27)

Form Gloss Allomorphs Function -ɛrgeːɗ ^TF.3P.DJ -ergeːɗ

-ɛrgeː^L

3P disjoint deictic-transfer direction marker for -class verbs (ɛ-class verb suffixes IV.2.3.3)

-ɛrꜜgeːɗ ^TF.3P.CJ -erꜜgeːɗ -ɛrgeː^L

3P conjoint deictic-transfer direction marker for -class verbs (ɛ-class verb suffixes IV.2.3.3)

-ɛrgiɗɔ̀ ^TF.2^P.^CJ -ergiɗɔ̀ 2^P conjoint deictic-transfer direction marker for -class verbs (ɛ-class verb suffixes IV.2.3.3)

-ɛrgiɗɔ̀^L ^TF.2P.DJ -ergiɗɔ̀^L 2P disjoint deictic-transfer direction marker for -class verbs (ɛ-class verb suffixes IV.2.3.3)

-ɛrkí ^CP.3^P.^DJ -erkí 3^P disjoint centripetal-direction marker for -class verbs (

-ɛrkí ^CP.3P.CJ -erkí 3P conjoint centripetal-direction marker for -class verbs (

-g ^PL plural marker for demonstratives and

relative pronouns (IV.3.1.2) -ge ːɗ ^TF.3S.DJ,

TF.3^P.^DJ -geː^L 3S and 3P disjoint deictic-transfer direction marker (IV.2.3.3)

-ge2ːɗ ^TF.3S.CJ,

TF.3P.CJ

-geː^L 3S and 3P conjoint deictic-transfer direction marker (IV.2.3.3)

-gíɗ ^TF -gùɗ deictic-transfer direction marker for first and second person forms (IV.2.3.3) -i^L ^PL.ABS,

PL.^NOM/^ERG.^MOD

plural absolutive and plural modified nominative/ergative formative for i^L-plural nouns (IV.1.3.1)

-í 3S.DJ -ù, _{í ː} 3S disjoint marker for i-class verbs (IV.2.3.1) -í 3^S.^CJ -ù 3^S conjoint marker for i-class verbs

(IV.2.3.1)

-í ^PL.ERG plain plural ergative marker for ik^L-plural nouns (IV.1.3.1)

-ì ^SP speaker-deixis marker for demonstratives

and relative pronouns (IV.3.1.2) -í^L ^PL.NOM,

PL.^NOM/^ERG.^MOD

plural nominative and plural modified ergative marker for ík^L-plural nouns (IV.1.3.1)

(28)

-íː^L ^INF, NEG infinitive and negative marker for i-class verbs (IV.2.2.1)

-iː^L ^AP.3S, AP.3P, AP,

AC.3S, AC.3P, AC

-iː 3S/3P detransitivization (antipassive or anticausative) marker for a-class verbs, and their detransitivization formative for all other persons (IV.2.2.2)

-iː^L ^INF, NEG -íː^L infinitive and negative marker for i-class verbs (IV.2.2.1)

-íː 1P.CJ 1P conjoint marker for all verbs (IV.2.3.1) -í,ː^L 1P.DJ 1P disjoint marker for all verbs (IV.2.3.1) -í ːɗ ^RELPST.3S 3S relative-past and referential-object

marker for i-class verbs (IV.2.3.2) -íːɗ ^INF, NEG infinitive and negative marker for i-class

verbs (IV.2.2.1)

-íːɗ ^RELPST relative-past formative for 1S, 2S and 1P

forms for i-class verbs (IV.2.3.2)

-íːr ^CF centrifugal-direction formative for 1S, 2S

and 1P forms for i-class verbs (IV.2.3.3) -í ːr ^CF.3^S 3^S centrifugal-direction marker for i-class

verbs (IV.2.3.3)

-í*ːr 2P.DJ -íːrí 2P disjoint marker for i-class verbs (IV.2.3.1) -íːr^L ^PL.^ABS, ^PL -íːr plural absolutive marker for íːr^L-plural

nouns, and their plural formative for dative, locative and possessive case (IV.1.3.1) -ìːrí 2^P.^CJ 2^P conjoint marker for i-class verbs

(IV.2.3.1)

-iːt ^INF, NEG infinitive and negative marker for i-class verbs (IV.2.2.1)

-íːtàr ^CF.3^P.^CJ 3^P conjoint centrifugal-direction marker for i-class verbs (IV.2.3.3)

-íːꜜtàr ^CF.3P.DJ 3P disjoint centrifugal-direction marker for i-class verbs (IV.2.3.3)

(29)

-íːtàːrɔ̀ ^CF.2P 2P centrifugal-direction marker for i-class verbs (IV.2.3.3)

-ík^L ^PL.ABS, PL -ík plain plural absolutive marker for ík^L-plural nouns, and their plural formative for dative, locative and possessive case (IV.1.3.1) -ín 2S.DJ -ùn,_-in^L,_-ùn^L 2S disjoint marker for all verbs (IV.2.3.1) -ín 2S.CJ -ùn 2S conjoint marker for all verbs (IV.2.3.1) -ir ^INCPT -ùr inceptive-derivation marker for i-class verbs

(IV.2.2.3)

-ír 3P.CJ -ùr 3P conjoint marker for i-class verbs (IV.2.3.1)

-í r ^CF.3S -ù r 3S centrifugal-direction marker for a-class verbs (IV.2.3.3)

-ir^L 3P.DJ -ùr^L 3P disjoint marker for i-class verbs (IV.2.3.1) -irꜜɗí ^RELPST.3P,

REFOBJ.3P

-ùrꜜɗù 3P relative-past and referential-object marker for i-class verbs (IV.2.3.2) -írɗɔ̀^L ^RELPST.2P,

REFOBJ.2P

-ùrɗɔ̀^L 2P relative-past and referential-object marker for i-class verbs (IV.2.3.2)

-írkí ^CP.3^P.^DJ -ùrkù 3^P disjoint centripetal-direction marker for i- class verbs (IV.2.3.3)

-írkí ^CP.3P.CJ -ùrkù 3P conjoint centripetal-direction marker for i-class verbs (IV.2.3.3)

-ɟù 3^P -ɟù 3^P marker for some u-class stative verbs (IV.2.4.3)

-k ^EXT stem extension, separates verbal stems end-

ing in a vowel from inflectional morphology (IV.2.3.1)

-k ^POSS -ik,_-ùk possessive-case marker for pronouns and some nouns (IV.1.3.2)

-k ^IMP.^SG -ík,_-ùk imperative singular marker (IV.2.3.4) -k ^CP.3S, CP 3S centripetal-direction marker for a-class

verbs, and centripetal-direction formative for all other verbs (IV.2.3.3)

(30)

=k ^SUB ŋɔ̀nk subordinate-clause marker at the end of

many subordinate clauses (V.8.2)

-k^L ^PL.ABS, PL plural absolutive marker for k^L-plural nouns, and their plural formative for dative, locative and possessive case (IV.1.3.1)

k- ^NEG negative auxiliary (V.7.2)

-_kàː INF.SG.ABS infinitive absolutive marker for stative verbs (IV.2.4.2)

-_kàː^L INF.SG.NOM/

ERG.MOD

infinitive modified nominative and ergative marker for stative verbs (IV.2.4.2)

-_kàːj INCHOA -kɛj inchoative-subordinate tense formative for 1^st and 2^nd person verbs (IV.2.3.2)

-káːn ^NOMIN.^PL plural agent nominalizations from non-agent nouns (IV.1.2)

-kàːt ^INF infinitive formative for stative verbs

(IV.2.4.2)

-_kàːt^L INF.^SG.^NOM singular plain nominative infinitive marker for stative verbs (IV.2.4.2)

-kà ːt ^INF.SG.ERG singular plain ergative infinitive marker for stative verbs (IV.2.4.2)

-kàk ^PL -kàk,_-kà plural formative for kàk-plural nouns (IV.1.3.1)

-kàn ^NOMIN agent nominalizations from non-agent

nouns (IV.1.2)

-kéːn ^NOMIN -keːn abstract nominalizations from non-abstract nouns (IV.1.2)

-kɛ^L ^INCHOA.3^S,

INCHOA.3P

3^S and 3^P inchoative subordinate-tense marker (IV.2.3.2)

-kù ^PL.ERG plural plain ergative marker for kùk^L-plural nouns (IV.1.3.1)

-kù^L ^PL.^ABS.^MOD,

PL.NOM/ERG.MOD,

PL.^NOM

plural nominative, plural modified absolutive and plural modified nominative/ergative marker for kùk^L-plural nouns (IV.1.3.1)

(31)

-kùːn ^SIMUL simultaneous subordinate tense formative

for 1S, 2S and 1P verbs (IV.2.3.2)

-kùn ^SIMUL.3S 3S simultaneous subordinate tense marker (IV.2.3.2)

-kùk^L ^PL.ABS, PL -kùk plural plain absolutive marker for kùk^L-plural nouns, and their plural formative for dative, locative and possessive case (IV.1.3.1)

-n ^SG singular marker for demonstratives and rela-

tive pronouns (IV.3.1.2) -n^L ^SG.^ABS,

SG.NOM/ERG.MOD

-ín^L,_-ùn^L, -àn^L,_-ín,_-ùn, àn

singular absolutive and singular modified nominative/ergative marker for n(t)^L- singular nouns (IV.1.3.1)

-nt^L ^SG.^NOM, ^SG -ínt^L,_-ùnt^L, -ànt^L,_-ínt, -ùnt,_-ànt

plain singular nominative marker for n(t)^L- singular nouns, and their singular formative for dative, locative and possessive case (IV.1.3.1)

=ŋ ^SFT, CND =iŋ, =ùŋ sentence-final topicality marker (III.4) and conditional-clause marker (on the protasis, V.8.3.2)

-onk ^POSS -o nk,_-onk possessive marker for most nouns (IV.1.3.2)

-ɔ̀ ^DIST distal deixis marker for demonstratives and

relative pronouns (IV.3.1.2)

-ɔ̀ ^PL.ERG -ɔ̀ plural plain ergative marker for ɔ̀k^L-plural nouns (IV.1.3.1)

-ɔ̀ 2^P.^CJ 2^P conjoint marker for many complex verbs

(IV.2.3.2)

-ɔ̀^L 2P.DJ 2P disjoint marker for many complex verbs (IV.2.3.2)

-ɔ̀^L ^PL.^ABS.^MOD,

PL.NOM,

PL.^NOM/^ERG.^MOD

plural nominative, plural modified absolutive and plural modified nominative/ergative marker for ɔ̀k^L-plural nouns (IV.1.3.1) -ɔ̀k^L ^PL.^ABS, ^PL -ɔ̀k plural plain absolutive marker for ɔ̀k^L-plural

nouns, and their plural formative for dative, locative and possessive case (IV.1.3.1)