The @school project : developmental considerations in the design and delivery of cognitive-behavioural therapy for adolescent school refusal

The @school project : developmental considerations in the design and delivery of cognitive-behavioural therapy for adolescent school refusal

Sauter, F.M.

Citation

Sauter, F. M. (2010, June 23). The @school project : developmental considerations in the design and delivery of cognitive-behavioural therapy for adolescent school refusal. Retrieved from https://hdl.handle.net/1887/15718

Version: Not Applicable (or Unknown)

License: Licence agreement concerning inclusion of doctoral thesis in the Institutional Repository of the University of Leiden Downloaded

from: https://hdl.handle.net/1887/15718

Note: To cite this publication please use the final published version (if applicable).

General Introduction

& % 8]VeiZg&

& &

<ZcZgVa>cigdYjXi^dc

6cm^Zin"WVhZY hX]dda gZ[jhVa^& ^h Vc ViiZcYVcXZ egdWaZb X]VgVXiZg^oZY Wn V ndjc\

eZghdcÉhY^[[^Xjain^c\d^c\idhX]dda!VXXdbeVc^ZYWnZbdi^dcVaY^higZhhdci]ZeVgi

d[ i]Z ndjc\ eZghdc VcY eVgZciVa ViiZbeih id gZijgc i]Z ndjc\ eZghdc id gZ\jaVg

hX]ddaViiZcYVcXZ#

ƽ>iVaahiVgiZYl]Zc>lVh\d^c\[gdbbnHZXdcYNZVg½^c=^\]HX]ddaid

bnI]^gYNZVg#LZ]VkZide^X`hjW_ZXih[dgdjg<8H:ÉhPiZgi^VgnZcigVcXZ

ZmVbhRVcYhdl]Zc>]VYVbZZi^c\l^i]bn<j^YVcXZiZVX]Zg!]ZidaY

bZI]^gYNZVglVh\d^c\idWZWg^aa^Vci[dgbZ½I]ZgZVa^inlVhY^[[ZgZci#

>]VYhZg^djhigdjWaZl^i]bn<ZgbVciZVX]ZgVcYhdVh`ZYidWZbdkZY

XaVhh½Wji i]Zn gZ[jhZY Wajcian# DkZg i]^h eZg^dY d[ i^bZ > YZX^YZY id

_jhi\didi]ZhX]ddaa^WgVgnYjg^c\<ZgbVcXaVhhZh###Cdi]^c\lVhhV^Y!

VeVgi[gdb>lVhidaY>lVhWgZV`^c\i]ZaVlWnYd^c\hd###I]Zc>hiVgiZY

WZXdb^c\ hXVgZY d[ hX]dda# > ldjaY ]VkZ eVc^X ViiVX`h dc i]Z lVn½>

XdjaYcÉiXdcXZcigViZdcVcni]^c\½I]Zc>hiVgiZY\Zii^c\e^X`ZYdc½6[iZg

V l]^aZ! > lVh [ZZa^c\ gZVaan adl VcY hd½> idaY bn bjb > lVhcÉi \d^c\

VcnbdgZ#H]Ze]dcZYi]ZhX]ddaXdchiVcianVcY\dibZZi^c\hWji^ilVh

iddaViZ#>[Zaia^`Zcdi]^c\ldjaY]ZaebZWZi]ZgZ#>[ZaiVaaZg\^Xidi]Z

Wj^aY^c\½>adkZaZVgc^c\VcY>ÉbV\ddYhijYZciWji>XVcÉiWZVihX]dda

VcYbdk^c\hX]ddaYdZhcÉihZZba^`ZVkZgn\ddYdei^dc#>ÉbhXVgZY>Éaa

bV`ZVbZhhd[bna^[ZWji>hZZcddi]ZglVndji½Æ

Gdh^Z!V\ZY&*HXVgZYd[hX]dda!'%%*

EZgh^hiZcihX]ddagZ[jhVaedhZhVh^\c^[^XVcii]gZViidVndjc\eZghdcÉhhdX^Va!Zbdi^dcVa!

VcYVXVYZb^XYZkZadebZciVcYXVc_ZdeVgY^oZadc\Zg"iZgbdXXjeVi^dcVa[jcXi^dc^c\

VcY bZciVa ]ZVai] ;aV`^Zgh`V"EgVfj^c! A^cYhigŽb!  <^aaWZg\! &..,0 =ZncZ! @^c\!

Idc\Z!8ddeZg!'%%&#>cVYY^i^dc!hjXXZhh[jabVcV\ZbZcid[hX]ddagZ[jhVad[iZc

egZhZcihVX]VaaZc\ZideVgZcih!hX]ddahiV[[!VcYbZciVa]ZVai]egd[Zhh^dcVah=ZncZ

 @^c\! '%%)# Ndjc\ eZdeaZ l^i] hX]dda gZ[jhVa [gZfjZcian bZZi Y^V\cdhi^X Xg^iZg^V

[dg ^ciZgcVa^o^c\ ehnX]dad\^XVa Y^hdgYZgh :\\Zg! 8dhiZaad!  6c\daY! '%%(0 =Zghdk!

&.-*# 6h hjX]! Xd\c^i^kZ VcY WZ]Vk^djgVa iZX]c^fjZh jhZY ^c igZVi^c\ ^ciZgcVa^o^c\

Y^hdgYZgh!hjX]Vhi]ZgZhigjXijg^c\d[Xd\c^i^dchVcYhnhiZbVi^XYZhZch^i^oVi^dc!VgZ

d[iZc^cXdgedgViZY^cigZVibZcih[dghX]ddagZ[jhVa=ZncZGdaa^c\h!'%%'0@ZVgcZn!

'%%(#8d\c^i^kZ"WZ]Vk^djgVai]ZgVen87I^hXdch^YZgZYVcZ[[^XVX^djh^ciZgkZci^dc

[dg hX]dda gZ[jhVa ^c ndjc\ eZdeaZ! l^i] ZcXdjgV\^c\ Zbe^g^XVa Zk^YZcXZ id hjeedgi

^ih Veea^XVi^dc Z#\#! =ZncZ Zi Va#! '%%'0 @^c\ Zi Va#! &..-# 87I [dg hX]dda gZ[jhVa

^h V^bZY Vi egdbdi^c\ gZ\jaVg VcY kdajciVgn ViiZcYVcXZ VcY gZa^Zk^c\ Zbdi^dcVa

hnbeidbhhjX]VhVcm^ZinVcYYZegZhh^dc#>cY^k^YjVaVcYeVgZcihZhh^dch!VhlZaaVh

XdchjaiVi^dcl^i]hX]ddah!VgZhZZcVh^bedgiVcieVgihd[i]ZigZVibZci#

>c VYdaZhXZcXZ! hX]dda gZ[jhVa ^h eVgi^XjaVgan egZkVaZci! XdbeaZm! VcY

igZVibZci"gZh^hiVci =ZncZ! &...0 AVhi! =VchZc!  ;gVcXd! &..-# >cYZZY! hX]dda

gZ[jhVa VeeZVgh id WZ bdgZ Xdbbdc Vbdc\ VYdaZhXZcih gZaVi^kZ id X]^aYgZc Z#\#!

&=ZgZV[iZg`cdlcVhhX]ddagZ[jhVa#

@ZVgcZn! :^hZc!  H^akZgbVc! &..*0 AVhi! &..'# >c iZgbh d[ hZkZg^in! \gZViZg aZkZah

d[VWhZciZZ^hb]VkZWZZcgZedgiZY[dghX]dda"gZ[jh^c\VYdaZhXZcihi]Vc[dghX]dda"

gZ[jh^c\X]^aYgZc=VchZc!HVcYZgh!BVhhVgd!AVhi!&..-#<^kZci]ViVYdaZhXZcih

l^i] Vcm^Zin VgZ d[iZc Y^V\cdhZY l^i] hZkZgVa XdcXjggZci Vcm^Zin Y^hdgYZgh! Vh lZaa

VhYZegZhh^dcDaaZcY^X`!?VggZii!<g^aah"IVfjZX]Za!=dkZn!Lda[[!'%%-!VYdaZhXZci

hX]ddagZ[jhZghbVnZm]^W^i]^\]aZkZahd[XdbdgW^Y^in#I]ZhZ[VXidghbVnWZgZaViZY

id ^c[Zg^dg igZVibZci gZhedchZ ^c VYdaZhXZci hX]dda gZ[jhZgh# HZkZgVa hijY^Zh ]VkZ

gZedgiZY i]Vi hX]dda"gZ[jh^c\ VYdaZhXZcih ^begdkZ id V aZhhZg ZmiZci [daadl^c\

igZVibZci!gZaVi^kZidndjc\ZgX]^aYgZc=ZncZ!&...0AVhiZiVa#!&..-#;jgi]ZgbdgZ!

i]Z VYdaZhXZci eZg^dY ^h VhhdX^ViZY l^i] V WgdVY gVc\Z d[ ^cigVeZghdcVa Z#\#!

Xd\c^i^kZYZkZadebZci!^ciZgeZghdcVaZ#\#!Vjidcdbnhig^k^c\h^ci]Z[Vb^anXdciZmi!

VcY Zck^gdcbZciVa X]Vc\Zh Z#\#! VeegdVX]^c\ hX]dda"aZVk^c\ V\Z l]^X] ]VkZ i]Z

ediZci^VaidZ[[ZXii]Zi]ZgVeZji^XegdXZhhVcYi]ZdjiXdbZhd[igZVibZci=dabWZX`!

DÉBV]Vg!6WVY!8daYZg!JeYZ\gdkZ!'%%+#

6c VlVgZcZhh d[ W^dad\^XVa! hdX^Va"Zbdi^dcVa! ehnX]dhdX^Va! VcY Xd\c^i^kZ

[VXidgh heZX^[^X id VYdaZhXZcXZ ^h i]ZgZ[dgZ ZhhZci^Va l]Zc ldg`^c\ l^i] hX]dda"

gZ[jh^c\VYdaZhXZcih#7nXdcYjXi^c\ÈYZkZadebZciVaan"Veegdeg^ViZ87IÉ!dgXd\c^i^kZ"

WZ]Vk^djgVa ^ciZgkZci^dch l]^X] iV`Z ^cid VXXdjci i]Z YZkZadebZciVa aZkZa d[ Vc

^cY^k^YjVaXa^Zci!Xa^c^X^VchXVc^cXgZVhZi]Z^gX]VcXZhd[hjXXZhh[jaanZc\V\^c\ndjc\

eZdeaZ ^c igZVibZci =dabWZX` Zi Va#! '%%+# >cYZZY! YZkZadebZciVaan"Veegdeg^ViZ

igZVibZcih[dgVcm^djhVYdaZhXZcihVgZWZ\^cc^c\idZbZg\ZZ#\#!@ZcYVaa!8]djY]jgn!

=jYhdc!LZWW!'%%'0H^fjZaVcY!Gncc!9^VbdcY!'%%*#L]^aZhZkZgVaigZVibZci

djiXdbZhijY^Zhji^a^o^c\87I[dghX]ddagZ[jhVa]VkZWZZcejWa^h]ZYZ#\#!=ZncZZi

Va#! '%%'0 @^c\ Zi Va#! &..-! i]Z Z[[^XVXn d[ V YZkZadebZciVaan"Veegdeg^ViZ VeegdVX]

l^i]VYdaZhXZcihX]ddagZ[jhZgh]VhcdinZiWZZc^ckZhi^\ViZY#

I]ZgZ[dgZ! i]Z bV_dg V^bh d[ i]Z XjggZci gZhZVgX] lZgZ/ ^ id egZeVgZ [dg

V deZc ig^Va d[ V YZkZadebZciVaan"Veegdeg^ViZ 87I [dg VYdaZhXZci hX]dda gZ[jhVa

Wn YZkZade^c\ V bdYjaVg^oZY igZVibZci bVcjVa! VcY YZkZade^c\ bZVhjgZh l]^X]

VaadlZY [dg i]Z ZmVb^cVi^dc d[ YZkZadebZciVa egZY^Xidgh d[ igZVibZci djiXdbZ0 ^^

id^beaZbZcii]^h87IVcYYZiZgb^cZ!WnbZVchd[i]ZdeZcig^Va!l]Zi]Zgi]Z87I

[dg VYdaZhXZci hX]dda gZ[jhVa lVh VhhdX^ViZY l^i] ^begdkZbZcih ^c ViiZcYVcXZ!

Zbdi^dcVa hnbeidbh! VcY hZa["Z[[^XVXn! VcY lVh VXXZeiVWaZ [dg ndjc\ eZdeaZ!

eVgZcih!hX]ddahiV[[!VcYXa^c^X^Vch0VcY^^^idZmeadgZl]Zi]Zgi]ZdjiXdbZhd[i]Z

87I[dgVYdaZhXZcihX]ddagZ[jhValZgZ^c[ajZcXZYWnYZkZadebZciVa[VXidghhjX]Vh

i]ZVYdaZhXZcihÉXd\c^i^kZXVeVX^i^ZhVcYVjidcdbnYZkZadebZci!VcYi]ZXa^c^X^VchÉ

YZkZadebZciVaan"Veegdeg^ViZ YZa^kZgn d[ i]Z igZVibZci# 7Zadl! Vc dkZgk^Zl d[ i]Z

X]VgVXiZg^hi^Xh!egZkVaZcXZ!VcYbVcV\ZbZcid[kVg^djhineZhd[hX]ddaViiZcYVcXZ

egdWaZbh ^h egdk^YZY! [dXjh^c\ ^c eVgi^XjaVg dc hX]dda gZ[jhVa ^c VYdaZhXZcXZ^'#

':aZbZcihd[i]^hX]VeiZg]VkZVeeZVgZYegZk^djhan^cHVjiZg'%%)#;dgVgZXZciVcYXdbeaZiZ

gZk^Zld[VgVc\Zd[^hhjZhgZaViZYidhX]ddagZ[jhVa!hZZ=ZncZ'%%+#

& ' & (

;daadl^c\i]^hdkZgk^Zl!i]Z]nedi]ZhZhd[i]ZXjggZcigZhZVgX]VcYVcdjia^cZd[i]^h

Y^hhZgiVi^dcVgZegZhZciZY#

School attendance problems

<d^c\ id hX]dda ^h V [VXi d[ a^[Z [dg bdhi X]^aYgZc VcY VYdaZhXZcih ^c lZhiZgc^oZY

Xdjcig^Zh l]ZgZ hX]dda ViiZcYVcXZ ^h Xdbejahdgn# Ndjc\ eZdeaZ heZcY V aVg\Z eVgi

d[ i]Z YVn Vi hX]dda VcY ^i ^h i]Z eaVXZ l]ZgZ bdhi d[ i]Z^g VXVYZb^X! hdX^Va! VcY

eZghdcVa^ciZgVXi^dchiV`ZeaVXZEViidc!7dcY!7jiaZg!<adkZg!'%%(#6YY^i^dcVaan!

hX]ddah VgZ ^bedgiVci hdX^ZiVa ^chi^iji^dch [dg i]Z ZYjXVi^dc d[ ndjc\ eZdeaZ! [dg

i]Z hi^bjaVi^dc d[ edh^i^kZ djiXdbZh! VcY [dg i]Z egZkZci^dc d[ egdWaZb WZ]Vk^djgh

;ZacZgZiVa#!'%%&0<gZZcWZg\ZiVa#!'%%(#;dgbVcn[Vb^a^Zh!i]ZW^\\ZhiY^aZbbVh

[VXZY ^c i]Z bdgc^c\ VgZ YZX^Y^c\ l]^X] Xadi]Zh id lZVg VcY l]Vi id eVX` ^c i]Z

YV^anajcX]Wdm#>chdbZ]djhZ]daYh!]dlZkZg!hX]ddaViiZcYVcXZXVcWZVhdjgXZd[

jehZi! Xdc[a^Xi! VcY Xg^h^h [dg Vaa XdcXZgcZY# <^kZc i]Z hjWhiVci^Va XdchZfjZcXZh d[

cdc"ViiZcYVcXZ[dgndjc\eZdeaZ!Z[[ZXi^kZ^YZci^[^XVi^dcVcYbVcV\ZbZcid[hX]dda

ViiZcYVcXZegdWaZbh^hd[ZhhZci^Va^bedgiVcXZ#

Distinguishing between problematic versus non-problematic absence

6c^bedgiVci^hhjZ^ci]ZVXXjgViZ^YZci^[^XVi^dcd[hX]ddaViiZcYVcXZegdWaZbh^hi]Z

Y^hi^cXi^dc WZilZZc Ècdc"egdWaZbVi^XÉ VcY ÈegdWaZbVi^XÉ VWhZciZZ^hb# ;gZfjZcian!

h^\cVaa^c\ d[ egdWaZbVi^X VWhZciZZ^hb ^h [dXjhZY dc i]Z gViZ d[ cdc"ViiZcYVcXZ!

VhlZaaVhl]Zi]Zgi]ZVWhZcXZ[gdbhX]dda^haZ\^i^bViZ^#Z#!l^i]gZVhdchV\gZZY

jedc Wn hX]dda VcY eVgZcih! hjX] Vh ^aacZhh! [jcZgVah! VcY gZa^\^djh ]da^YVnh#

EgdWaZbVi^XVWhZciZZ^hbi]ZgZ[dgZZmXajYZhaZ\^i^bViZVcYiZbedgVgnVWhZcXZhYjZ

id^c[gZfjZciandXXjgg^c\ZkZcihi]ViXVcWZXdbeZchViZY[dgViVaViZgYViZ^#Z#!l^i]

ZmigV XaVhh ldg`# @ZVgcZn '%%( hj\\ZhiZY i]Z [daadl^c\ Xg^iZg^V [dg YZiZgb^c^c\

egdWaZbVi^XVWhZciZZ^hb/V^[VhX]dda"V\Zndji]]Vhb^hhZYbdhi>*%d[hX]dda

i^bZ[dgViaZVhiildlZZ`h0dgW^[VY^hijgWVcXZ^ci]Zndjc\eZghdcÉhdg[Vb^anÉh

YV^angdji^cZ[dgVeZg^dYd[ViaZVhiildlZZ`h^hXVjhZYWni]ZY^[[^Xjai^ZhVhhdX^ViZY

l^i]\d^c\idhX]dda#Di]ZghijY^Zh]VkZgZedgiZYViiZcYVcXZgViZhd[WZilZZc&*VcY

'*eZgXZciVhWZ^c\egdWaZbVi^XZ#\#!7ZgchiZ^cZiVa#!'%%%0<VaadlVn!&.-*>c=ZncZ

VcY XdaaZV\jZhÉ '%%' igZVibZci djiXdbZ hijYn! V gViZ d[ .% eZgXZci ViiZcYVcXZ

XVaXjaViZYWniVaan^c\i]ZcjbWZgd[]Va[YVnhi]Zndjc\eZghdclVhegZhZci^ci]Zild

lZZ`heg^dgidi]ZVhhZhhbZcilVhgZedgiZYVhVÈhjXXZhh[jaÉdjiXdbZ#6iiZcYVcXZ

d[aZhhi]Vc.%eZgXZciViiZcYVcXZlVhgZ\VgYZYVhÈcdc"hjXXZhh[jaÉ#

>c Y^hi^c\j^h]^c\ WZilZZc ÈegdWaZbVi^XÉ VcY Ècdc"egdWaZbVi^XÉ ViiZcYVcXZ!

i]Z AVl dc 8dbejahdgn :YjXVi^dc PAZZgea^X]ilZiR ^c I]Z CZi]ZgaVcYh bV`Zh Vc

^c^i^Va Y^hi^cXi^dc WZilZZc ÈY^hVaadlZYÉ VcY ÈVaadlZYÉ VWhZcXZh# I]Z aViiZg gZ[Zgh

id VWhZcXZh YjZ id ^aacZhh dg heZX^Va X^gXjbhiVcXZh hjX] Vh [jcZgVah dg gZa^\^djh

dXXVh^dch#>cVYY^i^dc!i]ZgViZd[cdc"ViiZcYVcXZ^hVahdiV`Zc^cidVXXdjci/Veje^a

bVn]VkZjeid&%ÈVaadlZYVWhZcXZhÉl^i]eZgb^hh^dcVnZVg#9^hVaadlZYVWhZcXZh

dgVaaVWhZcXZhl^i]djieZgb^hh^dcd[bdgZi]Vci]gZZXdci^cjdjhYVnhdg&$-^i]d[

aZhhdc i^bZ ^c [djg lZZ`h bjhi WZ gZedgiZY id i]Z adXVa ZYjXVi^dc lZa[VgZ hZgk^XZ

PGZ\^dcVVa7jgZVjAZZgea^X]iRDkZg]Z^Y#ca!'%%.#

9Zhe^iZ i]ZhZ aZ\Vaan YZ[^cZY Xg^iZg^V! bVcn hX]ddah VcY ZYjXVi^dcVa

^chi^iji^dch^ci]ZCZi]ZgaVcYhd[iZcYZiZgb^cZVcYVeeani]Z^gdlcXg^iZg^V[dgl]Vi

aZkZa d[ VWhZciZZ^hb ^h gZ\VgYZY Vh egdWaZbVi^X 7dh! Gj^_iZgh!  K^hhX]Zg! &..'#

;jgi]Zg! hX]dda ViiZcYVcXZ gZXdgYh VgZ cdi jc^[dgban `Zei VXgdhh 9jiX] hX]ddah

HiZ`ZiZZ! BV`!  I^Zgda[! '%%.# L]Zc VcY ]dl hX]dda hiV[[ iV`Z VXi^dc ^c XVhZh d[

Y^hVaadlZY VWhZciZZ^hb Z#\#! XdciVXi^c\ ZYjXVi^dc lZa[VgZ hZgk^XZh d[iZc YZeZcYh

dci]Z^cY^k^YjVahX]ddahÉeda^XnVcYgZ\jaVi^dchGZ\^dcVVa7jgZVjAZZgea^X]iÄOj^Y"

=daaVcYCddgYPG7AR!'%%(#BVcnhX]ddahiV[[[V^aidgZedgiVWhZciZZ^hb^ci]ZZVgan

hiV\ZhVcYdcanXdciVXiZYjXVi^dclZa[VgZhZgk^XZh^[i]ZVWhZciZZ^hb^hX]gdc^XG7A!

'%%(# 6 cZ\Vi^kZ XdchZfjZcXZ d[ i]^h egVXi^XZ ^h i]Vi i]Z ViiZcYVcXZ egdWaZb bVn

WZXdbZ^cXgZVh^c\anY^[[^XjaiidigZVi#GZhZVgX]]Vhhj\\ZhiZYi]Vii]Zadc\Zgndjc\

eZdeaZVgZVWhZci[gdbhX]dda!i]ZbdgZa^`Zan^i^hi]Vii]Znl^aaXdch^YZgi]ZbhZakZh

jcVWaZidXdeZl^i]kVg^djhVheZXihd[hX]dda!VcYi]ZbdgZY^[[^Xjai^i^hid\Zii]Zb

idgZhjbZgZ\jaVgViiZcYVcXZD`jnVbV!>`VYV!@jg^WVnVh]^!@VcZ`d!&...0KVaaZh

DYYn!&.-)#

Prevalence of problematic versus non-problematic absence

GZedgiZYgViZhd[hX]ddacdc"ViiZcYVcXZWdi]egdWaZbVi^XVcYcdc"egdWaZbVi^XkVgn

l^i]^c i]Z a^iZgVijgZ# :hi^bViZY ^ciZgcVi^dcVa gViZh d[ cdc"ViiZcYVcXZ gVc\Z [gdb .

id'%eZgXZcid[ndjc\eZdeaZVWhZci[gdbhX]ddaViVcn\^kZci^bZ!YZeZcY^c\dci]Z

YZ[^c^i^dcd[VWhZciZZ^hbjhZY@ZVgcZn!'%%&#=^\]ZggViZhd[cdc"ViiZcYVcXZVgZ

d[iZcgZedgiZY[dg]^\]hX]ddahijYZcihgZaVi^kZideg^bVgnhX]ddahijYZcih#:ehiZ^c

VcY H]ZaYdc '%%' gZedgiZY Vc VkZgV\Z YV^an VWhZciZZ^hb gViZ d[ hZkZc eZgXZci ^c

&' 6bZg^XVc ]^\] hX]ddah# H^b^aVgan! 7dh VcY XdaaZV\jZh &..' gZedgiZY V gViZ d[

VWhZciZZ^hb d[ .#& eZgXZci ^c V hVbeaZ d[ (+ ]^\] hX]ddah ^c I]Z CZi]ZgaVcYh# 6

hjgkZnWni]Z9jiX]>chi^ijiZ[dgEjWa^XDe^c^dcVcYBVg`ZiGZhZVgX][djcYVcVkZgV\Z

cdc"ViiZcYVcXZgViZ^c9jiX]]^\]hX]ddahd[,#.eZgXZciCZYZgaVcYhZ>chi^ijjikddg

YZEjWa^Z`ZDe^c^ZZc]ZiBVg`idcYZgodZ`PICH"C>EDR!'%%'#

9ViV dc i]Z egZkVaZcXZ d[ egdWaZbVi^X cdc"ViiZcYVcXZ ^h hXVgXZ# 6 gZXZci

9jiX] hijYn gZedgiZY i]Vi *#* eZgXZci d[ ()* eg^bVgn hX]dda hijYZcih hjgkZnZY

lZgZ VWhZci [gdb hX]dda l^i]dji V kVa^Y gZVhdc Kj^_`! =ZncZ!  KVc :[[ZgZc!

'%&%# GZhZVgX] ^cid hX]dda VWhZciZZ^hb ^c i]Z [^ghi [djg nZVgh d[ ]^\] hX]dda ^c

I]Z CZi]ZgaVcYh ^cY^XViZY i]Vi i]Z cVi^dcVa VkZgV\Z d[ jcZmeaV^cZY VcY i]ZgZ[dgZ

egZhjbVWanÈY^hVaadlZYÉVWhZciZZ^hbViVcni^bZlVh'#.eZgXZciICH"C>ED!'%%'#

>cVbdgZgZXZcihjgkZn!i]ZidiVagViZd[egdWaZbVi^XVWhZciZZ^hb[dgi]ZhX]ddanZVg

'%%("'%%)VhZhi^bViZYWnhX]ddahiV[[[gdb&)9jiX]]^\]hX]ddah!lVh[djcYidWZ

&'eZgXZciHVjiZg!'%%)#

& ) 8]VeiZg&

& *

<ZcZgVa>cigdYjXi^dc

Differentiation amongst types of problematic absenteeism

9^[[ZgZci^Vi^c\WZilZZci]ZY^[[ZgZciineZhd[egdWaZbVi^XVWhZciZZ^hb^hVc^bedgiVci

Xdch^YZgVi^dc[dgi]ZhjXXZhh[jabVcV\ZbZcid[hX]ddaViiZcYVcXZegdWaZbh#L]^aZ

hdbZhX]daVghYdcdihjeedgii]ZY^[[ZgZci^Vi^dcWZilZZcineZhd[hX]ddaViiZcYVcXZ

egdWaZbh Z#\#! AVjX]aVc! '%%(0 Andc  8daiZg! '%%,! gZhZVgX] hj\\Zhih i]Vi

Y^[[ZgZci ineZh d[ ViiZcYVcXZ egdWaZbh bVn ]VkZ Y^[[ZgZci YZkZadebZciVa eVi]lVnh

VcY VZi^dad\^Zh 7Zg\! '%%'0 @ZVgcZn! '%%&! VcY bVn i]ZgZ[dgZ gZfj^gZ Y^[[ZgZci

VeegdVX]ZhidbVcV\ZbZciEVXX^dcZ"9nhoaZlh`^8dciZhhV"@^hajh!&.-,0Hi^X`cZn

B^aiZcWZg\Zg!&..-#>ci]Z9jiX]aVc\jV\Z!i]ZZmegZhh^dchÈhX]ddalZ^\Zg^c\ÉPhX]dda

gZ[jhVaR! Èdc\Zddgadd[Y hX]ddakZgoj^bÉ PY^hVaadlZY hX]dda VWhZciZZ^hbR! Èhe^_WZaZcÉ

PigjVcXnR!ÈhX]dda[dW^ZÉPhX]ddae]dW^VR!VcYÈhX]ddao^Z`iZÉPhX]ddah^X`cZhhRVgZd[iZc

jhZY ^ciZgX]Vc\ZVWan l]Zc gZ[Zgg^c\ id i]Z jcZmeaV^cZY VcY egdWaZbVi^X VWhZcXZ

d[ V ndjc\ eZghdc [gdb hX]dda# H^b^aVgan! iZgbh hjX] Vh hX]dda e]dW^V! hZeVgVi^dc

Vcm^Zin! hX]dda Vkd^YVcXZ! ehnX]dcZjgdi^X igjVcXn! hX]dda gZajXiVcXZ! VcY igjVcXn

]VkZVaaWZZcjhZYidYZhXg^WZegdWaZbVi^XVWhZciZZ^hb=ZncZ!'%%+#>cXdch^hiZci

aVWZaa^c\d[hX]ddaViiZcYVcXZegdWaZbhbVngZhjai^cXdc[jh^c\VcYZkZcZggdcZdjh

^c[dgbVi^dc WZ^c\ VXXjbjaViZY VWdji Y^[[ZgZci ineZh d[ egdWaZbVi^X VWhZciZZ^hb

=ZncZ@^c\!'%%)0@ZVgcZn!'%%(0Hi^X`cZnB^aiZcWZg\Zg!&..-#

6[jcXi^dcVabdYZad[hX]ddaViiZcYVcXZegdWaZbhYZkZadeZYWn@ZVgcZnVcY

XdaaZV\jZh @ZVgcZn! '%%'0 @ZVgcZn  6aWVcd! '%%)0 @ZVgcZn! AZbdh!  H^akZgbVc!

'%%+0@ZVgcZnH^akZgbVc!&..+Vaadlh[dgY^hi^cXi^dchidWZbVYZWZilZZcineZh

d[ egdWaZbVi^X VWhZciZZ^hb# I]Z bdYZa ^YZci^[^Zh [djg [jcXi^dch hZgkZY Wn V ndjc\

eZghdcÉh gZ[jhVa id ViiZcY hX]dda/ V Vkd^YVcXZ d[ i]Z ZmeZg^ZcXZ d[ Vcm^Zin dg

[ZVg[jacZhh gZaViZY id ViiZcY^c\ hX]dda0 W Vkd^YVcXZ d[ hdX^Va h^ijVi^dch i]Vi VgZ

[ZVgZY dg l]^X] XVjhZ Vcm^Zin0 X ViiZci^dc"hZZ`^c\ dg Wg^c\^c\ VWdji V gZYjXi^dc

^ci]Z[ZZa^c\d[hZeVgVi^dcVcm^Zin0VcYYZc_dnbZcid[gZlVgY^c\ZmeZg^ZcXZhi]Vi

hX]dda cdc"ViiZcYVcXZ bVn Wg^c\# @ZVgcZn Vahd YZkZadeZY V idda id VhhZhh i]ZhZ

[djg [jcXi^dch d[ egdWaZbVi^X VWhZciZZ^hb/ i]Z HX]dda GZ[jhVa 6hhZhhbZci HXVaZ

HG6H0@ZVgcZn!&..(VcY^ihgZk^h^dcHG6H"G0@ZVgcZn!'%%'#I]ZHG6H"GV^bhid

^YZci^[ni]Z[jcXi^dchd[i]Zndjc\eZghdcÉhVWhZcXZ[gdbhX]dda!hdi]ViegZhXg^WZY

igZVibZcihXVcWZVhh^\cZY#

6ai]dj\]i]ZHG6H"GVcY^ihVhhdX^ViZY[jcXi^dcVaegd[^aZhegdk^YZVjhZ[ja

[gVbZldg`[dgXdcXZeijVa^o^c\VcYVYYgZhh^c\cdc"ViiZcYVcXZ!Vcdi]ZgVeegdVX]id

Y^hi^c\j^h]^c\ WZilZZc Y^[[ZgZci ineZh d[ egdWaZbVi^X hX]dda VWhZciZZ^hb ^h d[iZc

Veea^ZY# IneZh d[ egdWaZbVi^X VWhZciZZ^hb XVc Vahd WZ Y^[[ZgZci^ViZY WVhZY dc

i]Z^g VZi^dad\n! e]ZcdbZcdad\n! VcY Xdcig^Wji^c\ [VXidgh! gVi]Zg i]Vc WVhZY hdaZan

dc i]Z [jcXi^dc i]Vi i]Z WZ]Vk^djg hZgkZh [dg i]Z ^cY^k^YjVa# I]^h VeegdVX] n^ZaYh

i]gZZXViZ\dg^Zhd[hX]ddaViiZcYVcXZegdWaZbh/igjVcXn!hX]ddagZ[jhVa!VcYhX]dda

l^i]YgVlVa7Zg\!'%%'0:aa^di!&...0=ZncZZiVa#!'%%&0AVjX]aVc!'%%(⁽#;daadl^c\

VWg^Z[Y^hXjhh^dcd[igjVcXnVcYhX]ddal^i]YgVlVa!i]ZX]VgVXiZg^hi^Xh!egZkVaZcXZ!

VcYigZVibZcid[hX]ddagZ[jhVal^aaWZ[jgi]ZgZmVb^cZY#

Truancy

8]^aY"bdi^kViZYVWhZciZZ^hb^ckdakZhVndjc\eZghdcÉhgZ[jhVaidViiZcYhX]ddaVcY$

dgi]Z^gY^[[^Xjainl^i]gZbV^c^c\^cXaVhhZh[dgVcZci^gZYVn@ZVgcZnH^akZgbVc!

&..%#IgjVcXngZ[ZghidX]^aY"bdi^kViZYVWhZcXZl]^X]^hX]VgVXiZg^oZYWnjcaVl[ja

hX]ddacdc"ViiZcYVcXZl^i]djii]Z`cdlaZY\ZVcYXdchZcid[i]ZeVgZcih#6iiZbeih

VgZbVYZWni]Zndjc\eZghdcidXdcXZVai]Zcdc"ViiZcYVcXZ[gdbeVgZcihVcYhX]dda

hiV[[@ZVgcZn!'%%(#7Vgi]Éh&.-+YZhXg^ei^dcd[&+"nZVg"daY?jYn^aajhigViZhhdbZ

d[i]Z[ZVijgZhd[igjVcXn/

ƽh]Z gVgZan ViiZcYh hX]dda [dg V l]daZ YVn dg dc V BdcYVn dg ;g^YVn#

>chiZVY!h]ZegZ[ZghidYg^c`l^i]]ZgWdn[g^ZcYdg[gZfjZcii]Zh]dee^c\

bVaahl^i][g^ZcYh½?jYnhjgZanZc_dnhi]ZeaZVhjgZhd[cdc"ViiZcYVcXZ½ Ph]ZR½\Zih[ZlgZlVgYh[gdbViiZcY^c\XaVhhVcYaVX`hhZa["bVcV\ZbZci

higViZ\^Zh[dgYZVa^c\l^i]i]ZbVcn[gjhigVi^dchd[hX]dda#Ç

7Vgi]!&.-+!e#''*

EgZk^djh gZhZVgX] ]Vh YZbdchigViZY V gZaVi^dch]^e WZilZZc igjVcXn VcY VXVYZb^X

jcYZgVX]^ZkZbZci! Vh lZaa Vh ehnX]deVi]dad\n hjX] Vh XdcYjXi Y^hdgYZgh VcY

]neZgVXi^k^inY^hdgYZghX[#7Zg\!'%%'#HijY^Zh^cidgViZhd[VWhZcXZYjZidigjVcXn

gZedgii]ViVeegdm^bViZani]gZZid[djgeZgXZcid[hijYZcihigjVcidcVcn\^kZcYVn!

YZeZcY^c\ dc i]Z YZ[^c^i^dc d[ igjVcXn jhZY VcY i]Z i^bZ d[ i]Z hX]dda nZVg 7Zg\!

&..'0 7dh Zi Va#! &..'# IgjVcXn"gZaViZY VWhZciZZ^hb ]Vh WZZc gZedgiZY id WZ aZhh

Xdbbdc^ceg^bVgnhX]ddahi]Vc^c]^\]hX]ddah<VaadlVn!&.-'!&.-*#8VhZgZedgih

^c i]Z a^iZgVijgZ ]VkZ ^cY^XViZY i]Vi hZkZgVa higViZ\^Zh VYb^c^hiZgZY Wn eVgZcih dg

hX]dda hiV[[ VgZ jhZ[ja ^c VYYgZhh^c\ igjVcXn"WVhZY hX]dda VWhZciZZ^hb! ^cXajY^c\

XadhZ hjeZgk^h^dc VcY hjgkZ^aaVcXZ d[ hijYZcih! WZ]Vk^djg XdcigVXih! Xdci^c\ZcXn

bVcV\ZbZci!VcYgZlVgYh[dg\ddYWZ]Vk^djg7Zaa!GdhZc!9ncaVX]i!&..)07Zg\!

&.-*07Zg\!'%%'0:ehiZ^cH]ZaYdc!'%%'0@ZVgcZnH^akZgbVc!&...0BVX9dcVaY!

<Vaa^bdgZ!  BVX9dcVaY! &.,%0 CddcVc  I]^WZVjai! &.,)# IgZVibZci VeegdVX]Zh

[dgigjVcXnXVcVahd^ckdakZXdchjaiVi^dcl^i]ZmiZgcVaXdbbjc^inV\ZcX^Zh=Vchdc

 =dZ[i! &.-'0 BVii^hdc! '%%'0 Bjge]n  Lda`^cY! &..+# ;dg ZmVbeaZ! ZYjXVi^dcVa

lZa[VgZd[[^XZgh^#Z#!V`^cidi]Z9jiX]ÈaZZgea^X]iVbWiZcVVgÉXVcbV`Z]dbZk^h^ih

VcYVgZ^ckdakZY^ci]Z_jY^X^VaegdXZYjgZhi]ViXVcWZVgZhjaid[igjVcXn7Zg\!&.-*0

Lg^\]iLVgYaZ!&..+#

(I]ZZm^hiZcXZd[Vb^mZYineZd[VWhZciZZ^hb!l]ZgZWnndjc\eZdeaZY^heaVnVXdbW^cVi^dcd[

hX]ddagZ[jhVaVcYigjVcXnX]VgVXiZg^hi^Xh!VhlZaaVh[ZVijgZhd[hX]ddal^i]YgVlVa!]VhWZZcgZedgi"

ZY^cegZk^djhhijY^Zh!i]dj\]gVgZan^cXa^c^XVah^ijVi^dch7ddah!;dhiZg!7gdlc!7Zg\!&..%#>il^aa

i]ZgZ[dgZcdiWZ[jgi]Zg^ckZhi^\ViZY^ci]ZegZhZcigZhZVgX]#

& + & ,

School withdrawal

6XXdgY^c\id@ZVgcZn'%%(!eVgZci"bdi^kViZYVWhZciZZ^hb^hXdch^YZgZYegdWaZbVi^X

l]Zc i]Z hX]dda YdZh cdi VXXZei i]Z gZVhdch \^kZc Wn i]Z eVgZci [dg i]Z ndjc\

eZghdcÉh VWhZcXZ# HX]dda l^i]YgVlVa ^h eVgZci"bdi^kViZY VWhZciZZ^hb! ^c i]Vi ^i ^h

VhhdX^ViZYl^i]eVgZciVadgXVgZ\^kZgVbW^kVaZcXZdgdeedh^i^dcidi]Zndjc\eZghdc

ViiZcY^c\ hX]dda gZ\jaVgan @V]c  CjghiZc! &.+'# ;dg ZmVbeaZ! h^X`cZhh XVc WZ

jhZY Vh Vc ZmXjhZ [dg i]Z cdc"ViiZcYVcXZ l]^aZ i]Z ndjc\ eZghdc VXijVaan hiVnh Vi

]dbZ id add` V[iZg dg egdk^YZ XdbeVcn [dg [Vb^an bZbWZgh! dg ldg`h djih^YZ i]Z

]dbZYjg^c\hX]dda]djghIZVhaZn!'%%)#I]Z[daadl^c\k^\cZiiZ^aajhigViZhi]^hineZ

d[egdWaZbVi^XVWhZciZZ^hb/

Æ6cdi]Zg edhh^WaZ gZVhdc [dg cdc"ViiZcYVcXZ½^h i]Z eje^a hiVn^c\ Vi

]dbZ id add` V[iZg i]Z^g h^X` eVgZci# GZaViZY id i]^h bVn WZ i]Vi i]Z

eje^aÉheVgZcihVgZcdi[^idgXdbeZiZciZcdj\]iddg\Vc^oZi]Z^gX]^aY^c

i]Zbdgc^c\hid\ZigZVYn[dghX]dda#ÇAVjX]aVc!'%%(!e#&(+

9jZidi]ZaVX`d[gZhZVgX]^cidhX]ddal^i]YgVlVa!i]ZgZ^hgZaVi^kZana^iiaZ`cdlcVWdji

i]Z VZi^dad\n! egZkVaZcXZ! VcY igZVibZci d[ i]^h ineZ d[ hX]dda ViiZcYVcXZ egdWaZb#

GZhZVgX]^c<gZVi7g^iV^cWn<VaadlVn&.-*[djcYi]ViWZilZZc&.,)VcY&.,+!&&

id &* eZgXZci d[ ndjc\ eZdeaZ V\ZY * id && nZVgh! VcY &( id &, eZgXZci d[ ndjc\

eZdeaZV\ZY&'id&+nZVghlZgZeZgh^hiZcianVWhZci[gdbhX]ddal^i]i]Z^geVgZcihÉ

`cdlaZY\Z! XdchZci VcY VeegdkVa VcVad\djh id hX]dda l^i]YgVlVa# 6WhZcXZh l^i]

eVgZciVa `cdlaZY\Z VcY XdchZci lZgZ Vabdhi ZfjVaan Xdbbdc ^c eg^bVgn VcY ]^\]

hX]ddah *. VcY *& gZheZXi^kZan0 <VaadlVn! &.-'! &.-*# HigViZ\^Zh YgVlc [gdb

gZhZVgX]^cideVgZciVa^ckdakZbZci^chX]dda^c\bVn^c[dgbVeegdVX]ZhidbVcV\^c\

hX]dda l^i]YgVlVa# GZhZVgX] ]Vh h]dlc i]Vi eVgZci bdc^idg^c\ d[ ViiZcYVcXZ VcY

eVgZciVa Xdcig^Wji^dch id i]Z ZYjXVi^dc d[ i]Z^g X]^aY VgZ h^\c^[^XVcian VhhdX^ViZY

l^i]YZXgZVhZYVWhZciZZ^hb6cYZghdc!8]g^hiZchdc!H^cXaV^g!AZ]g!'%%)06hidcZ

 BXAVcV]Vc! &..&0 BXCZVa! &...# 6aiZgcVi^kZan! hX]dda hiV[[ bVn X]ddhZ id gZ[Zg

[Vb^a^Zhd[ndjc\eZdeaZcdiViiZcY^c\YjZidhX]ddal^i]YgVlVaidZmiZgcVaV\ZcX^Zh

hjX]VhhdX^VahZgk^XZhdghdX^Valdg`idVXfj^gZ[^cVcX^VaVcYbZciVa]ZVai]Vhh^hiVcXZ

7Vgi]!&.-+07Zg\!'%%'0IZVhaZn!'%%)#

School refusal

HX]dda gZ[jhVa ^ckdakZh V ndjc\ eZghdcÉh Y^[[^Xjain ^c \d^c\ id hX]dda! id\Zi]Zg l^i]

Zbdi^dcVaY^hijgWVcXZdci]ZeVgid[i]Zndjc\eZghdcVcYeVgZciVaViiZbeihid\Zi

i]Zndjc\eZghdcid\didhX]dda=ZncZ@^c\!'%%)#HX]ddagZ[jhVaXVcWZ\gVYjVa

dg hjYYZc ^c dchZi! VcY XZgiV^c ig^\\Zgh bVn WZ gZaViZY id ^ih dXXjggZcXZ! hjX] Vh

higZhh[ja ZkZcih Vi hX]dda dg ^c i]Z [Vb^an 7Zg\! '%%'0 :\\Zg Zi Va#! '%%(0 =ZncZ Zi

Va#!'%%'#7Zg\VcYXdaaZV\jZh7Zg\!'%%'07Zg\ZiVa#!&.-*YZkZadeZYVcjbWZgd[

Xg^iZg^VidYZ[^cZhX]ddagZ[jhVa!WVhZYdcgZhZVgX]^cidViiZcYVcXZegdWaZbh#I]ZhZ

Xg^iZg^V^cXajYZ/VgZajXiVcXZdggZ[jhVaidViiZcYhX]ddad[iZcaZVY^c\idegdadc\ZY

VWhZcXZ0Wi]Zndjc\eZghdcjhjVaangZbV^c^c\Vi]dbZYjg^c\hX]dda]djghgVi]Zg

i]Vc XdcXZVa^c\ i]Z egdWaZb [gdb eVgZcih0 X Y^heaVnh d[ Zbdi^dcVa jehZi Vi i]Z

egdheZXi d[ ViiZcY^c\ hX]dda Z#\#! hdbVi^X XdbeaV^cih! Vcm^Zin0 Y Vc VWhZcXZ d[

hZkZgZVci^hdX^VaWZ]Vk^djgWZndcYgZh^hiVcXZidViiZbeihid\Zii]Zbid\didhX]dda0

VcYZgZVhdcVWaZeVgZciVaZ[[dgihidhZXjgZi]Zndjc\eZghdcÉhViiZcYVcXZVihX]dda#

I]Z[daadl^c\k^\cZiiZX]VgVXiZg^oZhhdbZd[i]Z[ZVijgZhd[hX]ddagZ[jhVa/

ƽC^X`XdbeaV^cZYd[]ZVYVX]ZVcYcVjhZV½6ii]Vii^bZ½]^hbdi]Zg###

ZmegZhhZY ZmigZbZ [gjhigVi^dc Vi cdi WZ^c\ VWaZ id XdVm C^X` ^cid

gZijgc^c\idhX]dda½]ZgZbV^cZY^cYddghi]ZZci^gZi^bZ!PVcYRaZ[ii]Z

]djhZ dcan l]Zc VXXdbeVc^ZY Wn V eVgZci½Ç EVXX^dcZ"9nhoaZl`h^ 

8dciZhhV"@^hajh!&.-,!e#(,.

7ddahVcYXdaaZV\jZh&..%[djcYi]Vi]Va[d[i]Z^ghVbeaZd[hX]dda"gZ[jh^c\ndjc\

eZdeaZ Y^heaVnZY hnbeidbh d[ Vcm^Zin VcY$dg YZegZhh^dc# H^b^aVgan! 7j^iZaVVg! KVc

6cYZa!9jnm!VcYKVcHig^Zc&..)[djcYi]ViVcVcm^ZinY^hdgYZglVhi]ZbdhiXdbbdc

Y^V\cdh^h^cVhVbeaZd['*YVn"eVi^ZciVYdaZhXZcihl^i]hX]ddagZ[jhVa#>ci]Z^ghijYn

d[hX]ddaViiZcYVcXZegdWaZbh^cVXdbbjc^inhVbeaZ!7Zg\VcYXdaaZV\jZh&..(

[djcY i]Vi Veegdm^bViZan dcZ"[^[i] d[ i]Z cdc"ViiZcY^c\ ndjc\ eZdeaZ hVbeaZY bZi

i]Z Xg^iZg^V [dg Vc Vcm^Zin dg bddY Y^hdgYZg ^cXajY^c\ dkZgVcm^djh VcY \ZcZgVa^oZY

Vcm^Zin Y^hdgYZg! e]dW^Vh! VcY YZegZhh^dc VXXdgY^c\ id i]Z 9HB">>>"G 6bZg^XVc

EhnX]^Vig^X6hhdX^Vi^dc!&.-%#

6 `Zn X]VgVXiZg^hi^X d[ hX]dda gZ[jhVa ^h i]Vi ^i ^h bVg`ZY Wn ]ZiZgd\ZcZ^in

^c ^ih egZhZciVi^dc =ZncZ! '%%+# ;dg ZmVbeaZ! hdbZ hX]dda"gZ[jh^c\ ndjc\ eZdeaZ

VgZVWhZci[dghZkZgVabdci]h!di]ZghViiZcYhX]dda^ggZ\jaVgan!VcYnZiV\V^cdi]Zgh

ViiZcY hX]dda Wji Xdch^hiZcian Vgg^kZ aViZ# >c hVbeaZh d[ hX]dda"gZ[jh^c\ ndjc\

eZdeaZ! V l^YZ gVc\Z d[ Vcm^Zin Y^hdgYZgh VgZ [djcY id WZ egZhZci! ^cXajY^c\ hdX^Va

Vcm^Zin! hZeVgVi^dc Vcm^Zin! \ZcZgVa^oZY Vcm^Zin! VcY Vcm^Zin Y^hdgYZg cdi di]Zgl^hZ

heZX^[^ZY#HX]ddagZ[jhVa^hVahdVhhdX^ViZYl^i]bddYY^hdgYZghhjX]VhYZegZhh^dc

7ddahZiVa#!&..%07j^iZaVVgZiVa#!&..)0;aV`^Zgh`V"EgVfj^cZiVa#!&..,!ZheZX^Vaan

^c VYdaZhXZcXZ 7V`Zg  L^aah! &.,-# Ndjc\ eZdeaZ l^i] hX]dda gZ[jhVa d[iZc ]VkZ

egdWaZbh l^i] hdX^Va XdciVXih Z#\#! WZ^c\ Wjaa^ZY! Y^[[^Xjain ^c bV`^c\ [g^ZcYh0

7j^iZaVVg Zi Va#! &..)0 :\\Zg Zi Va#! '%%(# ;Vb^an [VXidgh hjX] Vh eVgZciVa higZhh!

eVgZciVaehnX]deVi]dad\n!bVg^iVaiZch^dc!VcY[Vb^anXdc[a^Xi]VkZVahdWZZca^c`ZY

idi]ZYZkZadebZciVcYbV^ciZcVcXZd[hX]ddagZ[jhVa=ZncZ!'%%+#

>c^ciZgcVi^dcVagZhZVgX]^cidi]ZegZkVaZcXZd[hX]ddagZ[jhVa!gViZhWZilZZc

%#& id '* eZgXZci ]VkZ WZZc X^iZY! YZeZcY^c\ dc [VXidgh hjX] Vh i]Z edejaVi^dc

hijY^ZYVcYi]ZXg^iZg^VjhZYidYZ[^cZhX]ddagZ[jhVa;gZbdci!'%%(0=ZncZ@^c\!

'%%)# EgZk^djh hijY^Zh ]VkZ gZedgiZY ZfjVa gViZh d[  hX]dda gZ[jhVa"gZaViZY cdc"

ViiZcYVcXZ ^c Wdi] eg^bVgn VcY ]^\] hX]dda hijYZcih Z#\#! <VaadlVn! &.-'! &.-*#

>c i]Z CZi]ZgaVcYh! Kj^_` Zi Va# '%&% gZedgiZY V egZkVaZcXZ d[ '#% eZgXZci ^c i]Z^g

hVbeaZd[9jiX]eg^bVgnhX]ddaV\ZYX]^aYgZc#6adlZgegZkVaZcXZlVhgZedgiZYWn

& - 8]VeiZg&

& .

<ZcZgVa>cigdYjXi^dc

i]Z hiV[[ d[ &) 9jiX] ]^\] hX]ddah ^c i]Z 9j^c VcY 7daaZchigZZ` gZ\^dc %#+ d[ Vaa

XVhZhd[egdWaZbVi^XVWhZciZZ^hb0HVjiZg!'%%)#>cXa^c^XVaan"gZ[ZggZYhVbeaZh!i]Z

egZkVaZcXZd[hX]ddagZ[jhVakVg^ZhWZilZZc[^kZeZgXZciVcY&+eZgXZci!l^i]]^\]Zg

gViZh d[iZc [djcY ^c VYdaZhXZci edejaVi^dch 7jg`Z  H^akZgbVc! &.-,0 BXH]VcZ!

LVaiZg!GZn!'%%&#

Effects of absence from school due to school refusal

HX]dda gZ[jhVa ^beVXih cZ\Vi^kZan dc ndjc\ eZdeaZ! i]Z^g eVgZcih! VcY hX]dda hiV[[#

H]dgi"iZgb XdchZfjZcXZh d[ hX]dda gZ[jhVa [dg i]Z ndjc\ eZghdc ^cXajYZ VXVYZb^X

jcYZgVX]^ZkZbZci! hdX^Va ^hdaVi^dc! VcY egdWaZbh l^i] eZZg gZaVi^dch]^eh =Zghdk!

&.,'0 =ZncZ Zi Va#! '%%&# Adc\"iZgb XdchZfjZcXZh d[ hX]dda gZ[jhVa XVc ^cXajYZ

ZbeadnbZci Y^[[^Xjai^Zh! Vci^hdX^Va WZ]Vk^djg! VcY V ]^\]Zg gViZ d[ ehnX]^Vig^X

^aacZhhZhhjX]VhYZegZhh^dcVcYVcm^Zin^cVYjai]ddY7Zg\?VX`hdc!&.-*07ddah

ZiVa#!&..%#>cViZc"nZVg[daadl"jehijYnWn7Zg\&.,%!VYjaihl]dgZ[jhZYidViiZcY

hX]dda^cX]^aY]ddYlZgZ[djcYidZmeZg^ZcXZVY_jhibZciegdWaZbh^ci]Z]dbZVcY

ldg`Zck^gdcbZcih!VhlZaaVhegdWaZbVi^XgZaVi^dch]^ehl^i]eZZgh#:migVZmeZchZh

YjZ id adhi ldg` i^bZ! Vh lZaa Vh i]Z YV^an WViiaZ ^c \Zii^c\ i]Z ndjc\ eZghdc id \d

idhX]ddaXVcVaagZhjai^ciZch^dchl^i]^ci]Z[Vb^an7Vgi]!&.-+#>ci]Zadc\iZgb!

i]Z]^\]aZkZahd[higZhhZmeZg^ZcXZYWni]ZeVgZcihd[hX]dda"gZ[jh^c\ndjc\eZdeaZ

bVnVYYidbVg^iVaY^higZhhVcYeVgZciVaVcm^ZinVcYYZegZhh^dc=ZncZ@^c\!'%%)0

@ZVgcZn  =j\Zah]d[Zg! '%%%# I]Z YZiZXi^dc VcY bVcV\ZbZci d[ hX]dda gZ[jhVa

h^b^aVganXdhihhX]ddaehnX]dad\^hih!XdjchZaadgh!VcYVYb^c^higVidghbjX]i^bZVcY

gZhdjgXZh#9^gZXian!Vndjc\eZghdcÉhgZ[jhVaid\didhX]ddaXVcgZhjai^cY^hgjei^dch

^c i]Z XaVhh [dg i]Z iZVX]Zg VcY di]Zg hX]dda hiV[[ ^ckdakZY# ;dg ZmVbeaZ! iZVX]Zgh

bjhi ^ckZhi Xdch^YZgVWaZ i^bZ ^c ]Zae^c\ V hX]dda"gZ[jh^c\ ndjc\ eZghdc XViX] je

VcY i]Zc `ZZe je l^i] XaVhh ldg`# >cY^gZXian! eZgh^hiZci VWhZciZZ^hb k^daViZh i]Z

cdgbhl]^X]hX]ddahiV[[hig^kZidje]daY/i]Z^bedgiVcXZd[WZ^c\VihX]dda[dghdX^Va

VcYVXVYZb^XaZVgc^c\7Vgi]!&.-+#

Treatment of school refusal

L]^aZ hZkZgVa hijY^Zh ]VkZ Vahd ^ckZhi^\ViZY i]Z Z[[^XVXn d[ e]VgbVXdad\^XVa

^ciZgkZci^dch [dg XVhZh d[ hX]dda gZ[jhVa Z#\#! 7ZgchiZ^c Zi Va#! '%%%0 7ZgchiZ^c!

=Z`icZg! 7dgX]VgYi!  BXB^aaVc! '%%&! i]Z bdhi Xdbbdcan ZkVajViZY ^ciZgkZci^dc

[dghX]ddagZ[jhVa^hXd\c^i^kZ"WZ]Vk^djgVai]ZgVen87I#<^kZci]ZdkZgaVe^cXa^c^XVa

egZhZciVi^dc VcY XVjhVa [VXidgh WZilZZc Vcm^Zin VcY hX]dda gZ[jhVa :\\Zg Zi Va#!

'%%(! Xd\c^i^kZ i]ZgVeZji^X iZX]c^fjZh VcY WZ]Vk^djgVa i]ZgVeZji^X iZX]c^fjZh

[dg bVcV\^c\ Vcm^Zin VgZ ^cXdgedgViZY ^c egd\gVbh id igZVi hX]dda"gZ[jh^c\ ndjc\

eZdeaZ# 6 cjbWZg d[ hijY^Zh ViiZhi id i]Z Z[[^XVXn d[ 87I ^c gZYjX^c\ ^ciZgcVa^o^c\

egdWaZbhVcYegdbdi^c\hX]ddaViiZcYVcXZ=ZncZZiVa#!'%%'0@^c\ZiVa#!&..-0AVhi

ZiVa#!&..-#;dgZmVbeaZ!^cVhijYnWn@^c\ZiVa#&..-!i]^gin"[djghX]dda"gZ[jh^c\

ndjc\eZdeaZV\ZY*id&*nZVghlZgZgVcYdbanVhh^\cZYidh^mhZhh^dchd[^cY^k^YjVa

87I eajh eVgZci$iZVX]Zg igV^c^c\ * hZhh^dch l^i] eVgZcih$& bZZi^c\ l^i] hX]dda

dg V lV^i^c\"a^hi Xdcigda XdcY^i^dc# I]Z ^cY^k^YjVa 87I ^ckdakZY Wdi] WZ]Vk^djgVa

i]ZgVeZji^XhigViZ\^ZhZ#\#!igV^c^c\^cgZaVmVi^dc!ZmedhjgZ!VcYhdX^Vah`^aahigV^c^c\

VcYXd\c^i^kZi]ZgVeZji^XhigViZ\^ZhZ#\#!bdY^[n^c\bVaVYVei^kZXd\c^i^dch#EVgZci

VcYiZVX]ZgigV^c^c\^cXajYZYegZa^b^cVgnXdch^YZgVi^dchhjX]VhhX]ddaeaVXZbZci!

WZ]Vk^djg bVcV\ZbZci higViZ\^Zh Z#\#! eaVccZY ^\cdg^c\ VcY gZlVgYh! VcY i]Z

YZkZadebZcid[VcViiZcYVcXZeaVc#GZhjaih^cY^XViZYi]Vii]Zndjc\eZdeaZigZViZY

l^i]87I^begdkZYidV\gZViZgZmiZci^ciZgbhd[hX]ddaViiZcYVcXZ!hZa["gZedgiZY

[ZVg!Vcm^Zin!YZegZhh^dc!VcYhZa["Z[[^XVXngZaVi^kZidi]dhZX]^aYgZcVcYVYdaZhXZcih

^ci]ZlV^i^c\"a^hiXdcY^i^dc#

@^c\VcYXdaaZV\jZh&..-hj\\ZhiZYi]Vii]ZhjXXZhh[jagZhjaih[daadl^c\

i]ZWg^Z[!^ciZch^kZigZVibZcibVn]VkZWZZcYjZid]^\]XVgZ\^kZg^ckdakZbZci^ci]Z

^ciZgkZci^dc# =dlZkZg! i]Zn Vahd gZXdbbZcYZY [jijgZ hijY^Zh ZmVb^cZ i]Z gZaVi^kZ

Xdcig^Wji^dch d[ ^cY^k^YjVa 87I VcY eVgZci$iZVX]Zg igV^c^c\# 6XXdgY^c\an! =ZncZ Zi

Va# '%%' ZkVajViZY i]Z XdbeVgVi^kZ Z[[^XVXn d[ ^cY^k^YjVa 87I! eVgZci VcY iZVX]Zg

igV^c^c\!VcYXdbW^cZY^cY^k^YjVa87I$eVgZciVcYiZVX]ZgigV^c^c\^ci]ZigZVibZci

d[ hX]dda gZ[jhVa# H^min"dcZ ndjc\ eZdeaZ [gdb , id &) nZVgh d[ V\Z lZgZ gVcYdban

Vhh^\cZY id i]Z i]gZZ Y^[[ZgZci igZVibZci XdcY^i^dch# GZhjaih ^cY^XViZY i]Vi i]ZgZ

lZgZ h^\c^[^XVci ^begdkZbZcih dkZg i^bZ VXgdhh Vaa i]gZZ igZVibZci XdcY^i^dch# 6i

edhi"igZVibZci! Wdi] XdcY^i^dch l]^X] ^ckdakZY eVgZcih VcY iZVX]Zgh aZY id [ZlZg

^ciZgcVa^o^c\egdWaZbhVhgZedgiZYWnbdi]ZghgZaVi^kZidi]Z^cY^k^YjVa87IXdcY^i^dc

=ZncZZiVa#!'%%'#Cdh^\c^[^XVciY^[[ZgZcXZh^cdjiXdbZhlZgZ[djcYWZilZZci]Z

XdcY^i^dchVi[djg"bdci][daadl"je#

I]ZgZhjaihd[i]ZV[dgZbZci^dcZYhijY^Zh^cY^XViZi]Vii]ZgZ^hVhjWhiVci^Va

WVhZd[Zk^YZcXZ[dgi]ZZ[[^XVXnd[87I[dghX]ddagZ[jhVa@^c\!=ZncZ!DaaZcY^X`!

'%%*#=dlZkZg!i]Z^ciZgkZci^dcYdZhcdinZibZZiXg^iZg^V[dgYZh^\cVi^dcVhVÈlZaa"

ZhiVWa^h]ZY igZVibZciÉ @^c\! Idc\Z! =ZncZ!  DaaZcY^X`! '%%%0 H^akZgbVc! E^cV! 

K^hlZhkVgVc! '%%-# >c i]Z^g hijYn d[ *+ hX]dda"gZ[jh^c\ X]^aYgZc VcY VYdaZhXZcih!

AVhi VcY XdaaZV\jZh &..- gZedgiZY i]Vi Vc ViiZci^dc"Xdcigda eaVXZWd lVh ZfjVaan

Z[[ZXi^kZ Vh 87I ^c ^begdk^c\ ViiZcYVcXZ gViZh VcY gZYjX^c\ Vcm^djh hnbeidbh#

;jgi]Zg! V hZg^Zh d[ hijY^Zh ^cid i]Z Z[[ZXi^kZcZhh d[ 87I l^i] Vcm^djh"YZegZhhZY

VYdaZhXZci hX]dda gZ[jhZgh [djcY i]Vi 87I lVh cdi Z[[ZXi^kZ jcaZhh XdbW^cZY l^i]

^b^egVb^cZ7ZgchiZ^cZiVa#!'%%%!'%%&#

GZhZVgX]^cidi]ZegZY^Xidghd[igZVibZcidjiXdbZd[87I[dghX]ddagZ[jhVa

bVnVaadl[dg^begdkZbZcih^cigZVibZcigZhedchZ#@cdlaZY\Zd[i]Z[VXidghaZVY^c\

id igZVibZci gZhedchZ dg cdc"gZhedchZ XVc Vaadl [dg iV^adg^c\ d[ ^ciZgkZci^dch id

heZX^[^X ^cY^k^YjVah! l]^X] ^c ijgc bVn Zc]VcXZ igZVibZci Z[[^XVXn BVgX]  8jggn!

&..-#6ai]dj\][ZlhijY^Zh]VkZ^ckZhi^\ViZYegZY^Xidghd[djiXdbZd[87I[dghX]dda

gZ[jhVa!AVncZ!7ZgchiZ^c!:\Vc!VcY@jh]cZg'%%(gZedgiZYi]Vii]ZhZkZg^ind[hX]dda

ViiZcYVcXZegdWaZbh!i]ZY^V\cdhi^Xegd[^aZ!VcYi]ZineZd[igZVibZciVYb^c^hiZgZY

XVcVaa^beVXijedci]ZZ[[^XVXnd[87I[dghX]ddagZ[jhVal^i]VYdaZhXZcih#

' % ' &

School refusal in adolescence: Prevalence, presentation, and treatment

9ZkZadebZciVa [VXidgh bVn Vahd ^c[ajZcXZ i]Z igZVibZci djiXdbZh d[ hX]dda"

gZ[jh^c\VYdaZhXZcih#6YdaZhXZcXZ^hVjc^fjZYZkZadebZciVae]VhZ^ciZgbhd[i]Z

dchZi VcY egZhZciVi^dc d[ hX]dda gZ[jhVa =ZncZ! '%%+# I]ZgZ VgZ bV_dg eZV`h ^c

i]Z ^cX^YZcXZ d[ hX]dda gZ[jhVa Yjg^c\ VYdaZhXZcXZ! XdggZhedcY^c\ l^i] igVch^i^dch

WZilZZceg^bVgnhX]ddaVcY_jc^dg]^\]hX]dda!VcYWZilZZc_jc^dg]^\]hX]ddaVcY

]^\]hX]ddaBXH]VcZZiVa#!'%%&0DaaZcY^X`BVnZg!&.-)#>cYZZY!hX]ddagZ[jhVa

VeeZVghidWZbdgZXdbbdcVbdc\VYdaZhXZcihgZaVi^kZidX]^aYgZcZ#\#!7Zg\!&..'0

@ZVgcZn Zi Va#! &..*0 AVhi! &..'# HijY^Zh ^cid hX]dda gZ[jhVa ]VkZ d[iZc ^cXajYZY V

aVg\ZeZgXZciV\Zd[ndjc\eZdeaZV\ZY&'nZVghdgdaYZgZ#\#!),#&^c@^c\ZiVa#!

&..-0+*#+^c=ZncZZiVa#!'%%'#

>ciZgbhd[i]ZegZhZciVi^dcd[hX]ddagZ[jhVa!7V`ZgL^aah&.,-gZedgiZY

i]Vi VXjiZ hX]dda e]dW^V ^#Z#! i]Z dchZi d[ hX]dda e]dW^V [daadl^c\ i]gZZ nZVgh d[

igdjWaZ"[gZZViiZcYVcXZVihX]dda0hX]ddae]dW^VWZ^c\Zfj^kVaZciidhX]ddagZ[jhVa

lVhbdhiXdbbdc^cVYdaZhXZcihgZaVi^kZidX]^aYgZc#=Zghdk&.-*hj\\ZhiZYi]Vi

daYZghX]ddagZ[jhZghVgZbdgZa^`ZanidY^heaVnVc^ch^Y^djhdchZii]Vcndjc\ZghX]dda

gZ[jhZgh# 6YdaZhXZcih l^i] Vcm^Zin Y^hdgYZgh VgZ d[iZc Y^V\cdhZY l^i] VYY^i^dcVa

Vcm^ZinY^hdgYZghVcYl^i]bddYY^hdgYZghDaaZcY^X`ZiVa#!'%%-0i]ZgZ[dgZ!hX]dda"

gZ[jh^c\VYdaZhXZcihbVnY^heaVn\gZViZgY^V\cdhi^XXdbdgW^Y^ini]Vcndjc\ZghX]dda

gZ[jhZgh#>cdaYZgX]^aYgZcVcYVYdaZhXZcihl^i]hX]ddagZ[jhVa!XdbbdcY^hdgYZghVgZ

hdX^Vae]dW^V!eVc^XY^hdgYZg!VcYYZegZhh^kZY^hdgYZgh#HZeVgVi^dcVcm^ZinY^hdgYZg

^hbdgZXdbbdc^cndjc\ZghX]ddagZ[jhZghgZaVi^kZidhX]dda"gZ[jh^c\VYdaZhXZcih

7V`Zg  L^aah! &.,-0 AVhi  HigVjhh! &..%# 7Zg\  8daa^ch &.,) Vahd hj\\ZhiZY

i]Vii]ZZbdi^dcVajehZiY^heaVnZYWnhX]ddae]dW^XVYdaZhXZcih[VXZYl^i]ViiZcY^c\

hX]ddabVnd[iZcegZhZciVhVc\ZgVcYYZ[^VcXZ!gVi]Zgi]Vc[ZVgVcYhVYcZhh#

6YdaZhXZcihVahdVeeZVgidWZaZhhgZhedch^kZidXjggZcianVkV^aVWaZkZgh^dch

d[ 87I [dg hX]dda gZ[jhVa! gZaVi^kZ id ndjc\Zg X]^aYgZc# AVhi VcY XdaaZV\jZh &..-

[djcYi]ViVYdaZhXZcihlZgZaZhha^`Zani]Vcndjc\ZgX]^aYgZcidVX]^ZkZ.*eZgXZci

ViiZcYVcXZWnedhi"igZVibZci[daadl^c\^cY^k^YjVa87I#=ZncZ&...Vahd[djcYi]Vi

VYdaZhXZcihX]ddagZ[jhZghV\ZY&'"&)nZVgh]VYViiV^cZYh^\c^[^XVcianadlZgaZkZah

d[ hX]dda ViiZcYVcXZ Vi [daadl"je i]Vc X]^aYgZc V\ZY ,"&& nZVgh# HZkZgVa [VXidgh

bVnVXXdjci[dgi]^heddgZgigZVibZcigZhedchZ#HX]ddagZ[jhVaYjg^c\i]ZVYdaZhXZci

nZVghVeeZVghidWZbdgZhZkZgZi]Vc^cX]^aY]ddY!l^i]\gZViZgaZkZahd[VWhZciZZ^hb

WZ^c\ gZedgiZY Vbdc\ hX]dda"gZ[jh^c\ VYdaZhXZcih =VchZc Zi Va#! &..-# >cYZZY!

i]Z VYdaZhXZci hX]dda gZ[jhZgh ^c i]Z hijYn Wn =ZncZ Zi Va# '%%' ]VY adlZg aZkZah

d[ hX]dda ViiZcYVcXZ B ViiZcYVcXZ Vi egZ"igZVibZci 2 &' ^c XdbeVg^hdc id i]Z

hX]dda"gZ[jh^c\X]^aYgZcBViiZcYVcXZViegZ"igZVibZci2(&0=ZncZ!&...#

;jgi]Zg! i]Z Xa^c^XVa egZhZciVi^dc d[ VYdaZhXZci hX]dda gZ[jhVa bVn WZ

bdgZ XdbeaZm! VcY i]jh i]^h V\Z \gdje XVc WZ ]VgYZg id igZVi# 6cm^djh"YZegZhhZY

VYdaZhXZci hX]dda gZ[jhZgh bVn WZ ZheZX^Vaan X]VaaZc\^c\ Xa^Zcih! ^c i]Vi ndjc\

eZdeaZ l^i] XdbdgW^Y Vcm^Zin VcY YZegZhh^dc d[iZc egZhZci l^i] \gZViZg hnbeidb

hZkZg^in VcY gZhedcY aZhh id igZVibZci 7ZgbVc! LZZbh! H^akZgbVc!  @jgi^cZh!

'%%%# I]Z Y^V\cdhZh Xdbbdcan [djcY ^c VYdaZhXZcih l^i] hX]dda gZ[jhVa bVn Vahd

WZ i]Z Y^hdgYZgh l]^X] VgZ X]VaaZc\^c\ id igZVi! hjX] Vh hdX^Va e]dW^V 7ZgchiZ^c

Zi Va#! '%%&# ;dg ZmVbeaZ! hX]dda gZ[jhZgh l^i] hdX^Va e]dW^V bVn ]VkZ YZ[^X^ih ^c

hdX^Va h`^aah dg XdbeZiZcX^Zh# 8dci^cjZY hdX^Va h`^aah YZ[^X^ih bVn YZXgZVhZ i]Z

X]VcXZd[ZmeZg^ZcX^c\ÈhjXXZhh[jaÉZmedhjgZhidhX]dda"gZaViZYh^ijVi^dch!Vhdi]Zg

XaVhhbViZhbVngZVXicZ\Vi^kZanidi]Zndjc\eZghdcÉh^cVeegdeg^ViZWZ]Vk^djgh#I]Z

ZmedhjgZhbVni]ZgZ[dgZWZaZhhZ[[ZXi^kZ^cgZYjX^c\Vcm^Zin[dgi]ZhZndjc\eZdeaZ

HeZcXZ! 9dcdkVc!  7gZX]bVc"IdjhhV^ci! '%%% VcY i]Z ediZcXn d[ i]Z igZVibZci

ViiZcjViZY#

9ZkZadebZciVa [VXidgh VhhdX^ViZY l^i] VYdaZhXZcXZ XVc Vahd ^c[ajZcXZ

i]Z i]ZgVeZji^X egdXZhh VcY ^c ijgc! i]Z igZVibZci djiXdbZh d[ VYdaZhXZci hX]dda

gZ[jhZgh HVjiZg! =ZncZ!  LZhiZcWZg\! '%%.# I]Z VYdaZhXZci e]VhZ ^h YZ[^cZY Wn

igVch^i^dch ^c^cY^k^YjVa! [Vb^an! hdX^Va! VcY hX]dda [VXidgh! VcY i]ZhZ X]Vc\Zh! ƽ PXVc VaiZgR dcZÉh YZkZadebZciVa igV_ZXidgn ½^c edh^i^kZ VcY cZ\Vi^kZ Y^gZXi^dchÇ

=dabWZX`ZiVa#!'%%+!e#)''#9ZkZadebZciVaX]Vc\ZhXVcVahd[VX^a^iViZdg^beZYZ

VcY VYdaZhXZciÉh gZhedch^kZcZhh id igZVibZci VcY ]ZcXZ ^c[ajZcXZ i]Z^g igZVibZci

djiXdbZhLZ^ho=VlaZn!'%%'#

6c^cY^k^YjVaYZkZadebZciVa[VXidgl]^X]^hd[eVgi^XjaVgh^\c^[^XVcXZid87I

^h i]Z ^c[ajZcXZ d[ 87I"gZaZkVci Xd\c^i^kZ XVeVX^i^Zh dc Zc\V\ZbZci ^c igZVibZci!

VcY^ceVgi^XjaVg^cXd\c^i^kZi]ZgVeZji^XiZX]c^fjZh^c87I#BZiVXd\c^i^kZXVeVX^i^Zh

hjX] Vh hZa["gZ[aZXi^dc VcY ^ch^\]i Vaadl ndjc\ eZdeaZ id Zc\V\Z ^c 87I"gZaZkVci

VXi^k^i^Zh!hjX]Vhi]Z^YZci^[^XVi^dcd[i]ZgZaVi^dch]^ehWZilZZci]dj\]ih![ZZa^c\h!

VcY WZ]Vk^djgh HjkZ\! 8dbZg! ;jgg!  @ZcYVaa! '%%+# L]^aZ bVcn d[ i]Z Xd\c^i^kZ

XVeVX^i^Zh gZaZkVci id 87I VgZ VXfj^gZY Yjg^c\ VYdaZhXZcXZ! cdiVaa VYdaZhXZcih

YZkZade Xd\c^i^kZ XVeVX^i^Zh id i]Z hVbZ ZmiZci# HdbZ VYdaZhXZcih bVn i]ZgZ[dgZ

WZaZhhVWaZidhjXXZhh[jaanZc\V\Z^cVaaXd\c^i^kZi]ZgVeZji^XiZX]c^fjZhDZioZa

HX]ZgZg!'%%(#

6YdaZhXZciVjidcdbnYZkZadebZci^ci]Z[Vb^anXdciZmiXVcVahd^beVXii]Z

egdXZhh VcY djiXdbZh d[ igZVibZci HiVaaVgY! '%%'W# I]Z hZeVgVi^dc"^cY^k^YjVi^dc

egdXZhh^ci]ZeVgZci"X]^aYgZaVi^dch]^e^hhZZcidWZgZaViZYidhZeVgVi^dcVcm^Zin"

WVhZY hX]dda gZ[jhVa ^c ndjc\Zg X]^aYgZc :aa^di! &...# I]Z hVbZ egdXZhh ^h Vahd

^bea^XViZY ^c hX]dda gZ[jhVa ^c VYdaZhXZcXZ! Wji ^c V bdgZ XdbeaZm [dgb# >c i]Z

VYdaZhXZci eZg^dY! i]Z VX]^ZkZbZci d[ V hZXjgZ VcY aVhi^c\ hZeVgVi^dc [gdb i]Z

eVgZcih VcY i]Z YZkZadebZci V hZchZ d[ hZa[ ^h d[ jibdhi ^bedgiVcXZ# 6YdaZhXZcih

l]d]VkZY^[[^Xjai^Zh^ccZ\di^Vi^c\i]ZhZYZkZadebZciVaiVh`hbVnWZhjhXZei^WaZid

YZkZade^c\ hX]dda gZ[jhVa <daYWZg\! &.,,0 ?VX`hdc! &.+)0 GjWZchiZ^c  =Vhi^c\h!

&.-%# >cYZZY! 7Zg\  8daa^ch &.,) a^c`ZY VYdaZhXZci l^a[jacZhh! hijWWdgccZhh!

VcY VhhZgi^kZcZhh ^c i]Z [Vb^an h^ijVi^dc id i]Z dXXjggZcXZ d[ hX]dda gZ[jhVa ^c i]Z

VYdaZhXZci eZg^dY# H^b^aVgan! ?VX`hdc &.+) YZhXg^WZY i]Z hX]dda gZ[jhVa d[ [djg

' ' 8]VeiZg&

' (

<ZcZgVa>cigdYjXi^dc

VYdaZhXZci Xa^Zcih Vh ƽVc deZc ViiZbei id VhhZgi i]ZbhZakZh Vh eZghdch ^c i]Z^g

dlcg^\]i!idhiVcYjeidi]Z^geVgZcihVcYeVgZci"[^\jgZhhjX]VhiZVX]Zgh½Çe#,'#

9jZ id Vc ^ciZgVXi^dc WZilZZc Vcm^Zin"bdi^kViZY Vkd^YVcXZ VcY YZ[^VcXZ [jZaaZY Wn

hig^k^c\h[dgVjidcdbn!VYdaZhXZcihl^i]hX]ddagZ[jhVabVnWZbdgZa^`Zan!VcYbdgZ

e]nh^XVaan VWaZ! id gZh^hi eVgZcihÉ VcY iZVX]ZghÉ Z[[dgih id gZijgc i]Zb id gZ\jaVg

hX]ddaViiZcYVcXZ=VchZcZiVa#!&..-#6YdaZhXZcihX]ddagZ[jhZghbVnYZbVcYid

YZX^YZi]ZbhZakZhÈl]ZcVcY]dlÉi]ZngZijgcidhX]dda#EaVcc^c\[dghX]ddagZijgc

XVci]jhWZXdbZVhdjgXZd[Xdc[a^XiVcYiZch^dcWZilZZcVYdaZhXZcihVcYeVgZcih!

VcY V hdjgXZ d[ VbW^kVaZcXZ idlVgYh V Xa^c^X^Vc l]d eaVXZh i]Z ^hhjZ d[ hX]dda

ViiZcYVcXZdci]Zi]ZgVeZji^XV\ZcYV#

8]Vc\Zh^ci]ZhdX^VaXdciZmid[VYdaZhXZcihbVnVahd^beVXii]ZigZVibZcid[

hX]ddagZ[jhVa#>begdkZbZcih^chdX^VaeZgheZXi^kZ"iV`^c\VW^a^inbVnegdbeihX]dda"

gZ[jh^c\ VYdaZhXZcih id ^cXgZVh^c\an ZkVajViZ l]Vi di]Zgh Èi]^c` d[ i]ZbÉ 6aWVcd!

&..*# 6i hX]dda! bVcn Vcm^djh VYdaZhXZcih [ZZa i]Vi i]Z^g WZ]Vk^djg! VeeZVgVcXZ!

VcY hdX^Va h`^aah VgZ jcYZg XdchiVci hXgji^cn Wn i]Z^g eZZgh 6aWVcd! &..*# 6i i]Z

hVbZ i^bZ! hdX^Va VXXZeiVcXZ Wn eZZgh ^h ZheZX^Vaan ^bedgiVci Yjg^c\ VYdaZhXZcXZ

<ZaYVgY<ZaYVgY!'%%)#HX]dda"gZ[jh^c\ndjc\eZdeaZbVn]VkZegdWaZbhÈ[^ii^c\

^cÉ l^i] i]Z^g XaVhhbViZh! YjZ id i]Z^g adc\ VWhZcXZh! VcY YZ[^X^ih ^c hdX^Va h`^aah

gZhjai^c\ [gdb ^c[gZfjZci ^ciZgVXi^dch l^i] eZZgh IVnadg  6YZabVc! &..%# EaVXZ!

=jahbZ^Zg! 9Vk^h! VcY IVnadg '%%% hiViZY i]Vi bVcn d[ i]Z VYdaZhXZci hX]dda

gZ[jhZgh^ci]Z^ghijYngZedgiZYcZ\Vi^kZhdX^VaZmeZg^ZcXZhVihX]ddahjX]VhWjaan^c\

dg iZVh^c\! VcY [ZZa^c\h d[ adcZa^cZhh VcY kjacZgVW^a^in# IV`Zc id\Zi]Zg! hX]dda"

gZ[jh^c\VYdaZhXZcihÉ\gZViZghZa["VlVgZcZhhVcYi]Z^cXgZVhZY^bedgiVcXZd[eZZgh

bVn]Z^\]iZci]Z^gVcm^ZingZaViZYidhX]ddaViiZcYVcXZ#;jgi]Zg!hdX^Va[VXidghbVn

^beVXidci]ZegdXZhhd[igZVibZcil^i]hX]dda"gZ[jh^c\VYdaZhXZcih#;dgZmVbeaZ!

^c"hZhh^dcZmedhjgZegVXi^XZbVncdiVYZfjViZanegZeVgZi]ZVYdaZhXZciidYZVal^i]

jcVci^X^eViZYdXXjggZcXZhl^i]^c^c"k^kdZmedhjgZhVihX]dda^#Z#!eZZghgZVXi^c\id

i]Z VYdaZhXZci ^c Vc jcZmeZXiZY lVn# I]Z VYdaZhXZci bVn i]Zc WZ aZhh bdi^kViZY

idgZ"ViiZbeiVÈ[V^aZYÉZmedhjgZ!YZaVn^c\dgY^hgjei^c\eaVch[dg^cXgZVh^c\hX]dda

ViiZcYVcXZ#

>c iZgbh d[ YZkZadebZciVa [VXidgh VhhdX^ViZY l^i] i]ZhX]dda XdciZmi! i]Z

igVch^i^dcid]^\]hX]dda^beVXihdci]ZegdXZhhd[igZVibZcid[hX]ddagZ[jhVaVcY

]ZcXZigZVibZcidjiXdbZh#>cXgZVh^c\VXVYZb^XVcYhX]dda"gZaViZYhdX^VaYZbVcYh

XVcXdcig^WjiZid]^\]aZkZahd[higZhh[dghX]dda"gZ[jh^c\VYdaZhXZcih=ZncZ!'%%+#

>cVYY^i^dc!YjZidi]Z^bedgiVcXZd[hX]ddagZhjaih[dgZcigVcXZidiZgi^VgnhijY^Zh!

]^\]hX]ddahbVnWZaZhhl^aa^c\idbV`ZheZX^VaVXXdbbdYVi^dch[dgXViX]^c\jedc

b^hhZYXaVhhZhdgYZkZade^c\VcVY_jhiZYXaVhhhX]ZYjaZ#I]^hbVn^cijgcYZaVndg

Y^hgjeihX]ddaViiZcYVcXZeaVchbVYZ^cigZVibZci#6gZXZei^kZVibdhe]ZgZVihX]dda

^h ZhhZci^Va [dg V hjXXZhh[ja gZ"Zcign id hX]dda IVnadg  6YZabVc! &..%# =dlZkZg!

]^\]hX]ddahiV[[bZbWZghl]d[jcXi^dcVhVXdciVXieZghdc[dgi]ZhX]dda"gZ[jh^c\

VYdaZhXZcibVn]VkZV]^\]ÈXVhZadVYÉdgbVnh]VgZi]ZiVh`l^i]hZkZgVadi]ZghiV[[

bZbWZgh!bV`^c\i]ZbaZhhVkV^aVWaZVhVhdjgXZd[hjeedgi[dgi]Zndjc\eZghdc#

>cVYY^i^dc!Xdbbjc^XVi^dcVbdc\hihiV[[bZbWZghVWdjiheZX^VaZcigneaVchbVnWZ

eddg!^cXgZVh^c\i]Zg^h`i]VilZaa"egZeVgZYViiZcYVcXZeaVchVgZi]lVgiZY#

Summary and hypotheses of this dissertation

>cdgYZgidVXXjgViZan^YZci^[nhX]ddaViiZcYVcXZegdWaZbh!^i^h^bedgiVciidY^hi^c\j^h]

WZilZZcineZhd[hX]ddaViiZcYVcXZegdWaZbh#6XdbbdcY^[[ZgZci^Vi^dc^hi]VibVYZ

WZilZZc igjVcXn! hX]dda l^i]YgVlVa! VcY hX]dda gZ[jhVa# HX]dda"gZ[jh^c\ ndjc\

eZdeaZ VgZ VWhZci [gdb hX]dda l^i] eVgZciVa `cdlaZY\Z Wji l^i]dji i]Z^g VeegdkVa!

VcY \d^c\ id hX]dda ^h d[iZc VXXdbeVc^ZY Wn hdbVi^X XdbeaV^cih VcY Vcm^Zin# 9jZ

id i]Z hZg^djh h]dgi"iZgb VcY adc\"iZgb XdchZfjZcXZh d[ egdadc\ZY VWhZcXZ [gdb

hX]dda [dg ndjc\ eZdeaZ! i]Z^g [Vb^a^Zh VcY hX]ddah! Z[[ZXi^kZ higViZ\^Zh id igZVi

hX]dda gZ[jhVa VgZ d[ `Zn ^bedgiVcXZ# CjbZgdjh igZVibZci djiXdbZ hijY^Zh ed^ci

idi]ZZ[[^XVXnd[87I[dghX]ddagZ[jhVa#=dlZkZg!VYdaZhXZcihX]ddagZ[jhZghVgZV

jc^fjZedejaVi^dcYjZidi]Z^c[ajZcXZd[YZkZadebZciVaiVh`hVcYigVch^i^dchdci]Z

egZkVaZcXZ! egZhZciVi^dc! VcY igZVibZci d[ hX]dda gZ[jhVa# >i ^h i]ZgZ[dgZ ^bedgiVci

i]ViVYdaZhXZciYZkZadebZciVa[VXidghWZXdch^YZgZYl]ZcYZh^\c^c\VcYYZa^kZg^c\

87I# Id Zc]VcXZ i]Z Z[[^XVXn d[ 87I [dg hX]dda"gZ[jh^c\ VYdaZhXZcih! Vc Zm^hi^c\

egVXi^i^dcZg \j^YZ [dg hX]dda"gZ[jh^c\ X]^aYgZc VcY VYdaZhXZcih =ZncZ  Gdaa^c\h!

'%%' lVh ZmiZcYZY VcY bdY^[^ZY id iV`Z ^cid VXXdjci VYdaZhXZci YZkZadebZciVa

[VXidgh#I]ZegZeVgVi^dc!^beaZbZciVi^dc!VcYhnhiZbVi^XZkVajVi^dcd[i]ZgZhjai^c\

igZVibZci"i]ZÈ@hX]ddaegd_ZXiÉ=ZncZ!HVjiZg!KVc=dji!'%%-"lVhi]ZdW_ZXi^kZ

d[i]ZXjggZcigZhZVgX]VcYi]Zide^Xd[i]^hY^hhZgiVi^dc#

Cd]nedi]ZhZhlZgZegdedhZY^cgZaVi^dcidi]Z[^ghiV^bd[i]ZXjggZcigZhZVgX]!

cVbZan i]Z egZeVgVi^dc d[ Vc deZc ig^Va d[ V YZkZadebZciVaan"Veegdeg^ViZ 87I [dg

VYdaZhXZcihX]ddagZ[jhVa#I]ZgZhjaihd[i]ZegZeVgVidgnegdXZhhl^aaWZegZhZciZY^c

i]^hY^hhZgiVi^dcYZhXg^ei^kZan^c8]VeiZgh'VcY(#I]Z]nedi]ZhZhVhhdX^ViZYl^i]i]Z

hZXdcYV^b!i]Z^beaZbZciVi^dcVcYhnhiZbVi^XZkVajVi^dcd[i]ZigZVibZci!lZgZ/^

i]ZigZVibZcildjaYWZVhhdX^ViZYl^i]Vc^cXgZVhZ^chX]ddaViiZcYVcXZ!VYZXgZVhZ

^cVcm^djhVcYYZegZhh^kZhnbeidbhVhgZedgiZYWni]ZVYdaZhXZciVcYeVgZcih!VcY

Vc^cXgZVhZ^chZa["Z[[^XVXn^cWdi]i]ZVYdaZhXZcihVcYeVgZcih0VcY^^i]ZigZVibZci

ldjaY WZ eZgXZ^kZY Vh WZ^c\ VXXZeiVWaZ Wn VYdaZhXZcih! eVgZcih! hX]dda hiV[[! VcY

Xa^c^X^Vch#>[^cYZZY^begdkZbZcih^c[jcXi^dc^c\l^i]gZheZXiidhX]ddaViiZcYVcXZ!

Zbdi^dcVahnbeidbh!VcYhZa["Z[[^XVXnVgZZk^YZciViedhi"igZVibZciVcYVi[daadlje!

VcYi]ZYZkZadebZciVaan"Veegdeg^ViZ87I^ciZgkZci^dc^h[djcYidWZVXXZeiVWaZ!i]^h

l^aaegdk^YZegZa^b^cVgnhjeedgi[dgi]ZZ[[^XVXnd[i]^hYZkZadebZciVaan"Veegdeg^ViZ

igZVibZci [dg i]Z bVcV\ZbZci d[ hX]dda gZ[jhVa ^c VYdaZhXZcih# I]Z VhhdX^Vi^dc

WZilZZc YZkZadebZciVa [VXidgh VcY i]Z igZVibZci djiXdbZh d[ VYdaZhXZci hX]dda

gZ[jhZgh ]Vh cdi WZZc ZmVb^cZY ^c egZk^djh hijY^Zh# I]ZgZ[dgZ! i]Z i]^gY V^b! i]Z

ZmVb^cVi^dcd[i]ZgZaVi^kZ^bedgiVcXZd[YZkZadebZciVa[VXidgh^ci]ZegZY^Xi^dcd[

igZVibZci djiXdbZ! lVh VcVanhZY ZmeadgVi^kZan# I]Z ^YZci^[^XVi^dc d[ YZkZadebZciVa

' ) ' *

[VXidgh l]^X] VgZ VhhdX^ViZY l^i] edh^i^kZ igZVibZci djiXdbZh XVc [VX^a^iViZ i]Z

iZhi^c\d[i]ZhZegZY^Xi^dcgZaVi^dch]^eh^chjWhZfjZcigVcYdb^oZYXdcigdaaZYig^Vah#

I]^h ^c[dgbVi^dc XVc [jgi]Zg ^c[dgb i]Z iV^adg^c\ d[ igZVibZci [dg hX]dda"gZ[jh^c\

VYdaZhXZcih^ciZgbhd[i]Z^gYZkZadebZciVacZZYhVcYXVeVX^i^Zh#

Outline of this dissertation

I]ZXjggZciY^hhZgiVi^dcZcXdbeVhhZhVhZg^Zhd[[djghijY^Zh#;daadl^c\i]^h<ZcZgVa

>cigdYjXi^dc!8]VeiZgh'VcY(YZhXg^WZegZeVgVidgnhijY^ZhjcYZgiV`Zceg^dgidi]Z

^beaZbZciVi^dc d[ i]Z deZc ig^Va# >c eVgi^XjaVg! 8]VeiZg ' egdk^YZh V i]ZdgZi^XVa

gVi^dcVaZ[dgi]ZYZkZadebZcid[i]ZÈ@hX]ddaegd_ZXiÉ[dghX]dda"gZ[jh^c\VYdaZhXZcih!

Wn YgVl^c\ dc i]Z YZkZadebZciVa ehnX]dad\n! YZkZadebZciVa ehnX]deVi]dad\n! VcY

Xa^c^XVa X]^aY VcY VYdaZhXZci ehnX]dad\n a^iZgVijgZ# >c[dgbVi^dc gZaZkVci id 87I!

Vcm^Zin!VcYVYdaZhXZciYZkZadebZciYgVlc[gdbVl^YZgVc\Zd[hdjgXZhlVhgZk^ZlZY

VcY hnci]Zh^oZY ^c dgYZg id ^c[dgb i]Z YZkZadebZci d[ V 87I [dg hX]dda gZ[jhVa ^c

VYdaZhXZcXZ#IdZc]VcXZi]Z\ZcZgVa^oVW^a^inVcYVeea^XVW^a^ind[i]ZgZk^Zl!VcY\^kZc

i]ZdkZgaVe^cXa^c^XVaegZhZciVi^dcVcYVZi^dad\nWZilZZcVcm^ZinVcYhX]ddagZ[jhVa!

i]Z hXdeZ lVh WgdVYZcZY id VYdaZhXZci Vcm^Zin Y^hdgYZgh# I]Z X]VeiZg Y^hXjhhZh

Èl]nÉ ^i ^h ^bedgiVci id Xdch^YZg YZkZadebZciVa [VXidgh ^c YZh^\c^c\ VcY YZa^kZg^c\

87I [dg Vcm^djh VYdaZhXZcih VcY È]dlÉ Xa^c^X^Vch XVc YZkZadebZciVaan iV^adg 87I

[dg Vcm^djh VYdaZhXZcih# I]Z gZk^Zl ^YZci^[^ZY h^m `Zn YdbV^ch d[ YZkZadebZciVaan"

Veegdeg^ViZ igZVibZci YZh^\c VcY YZa^kZgn l]^X] Xa^c^X^Vch VcY gZhZVgX]Zgh XVc

WZ b^cY[ja d[ l]Zc ldg`^c\ l^i] Vcm^djh VYdaZhXZcih# HjWhZfjZcian! 8]VeiZg (

^aajhigViZhi]ZYZkZadebZcid[VbZVhjgZidVhhZhhYZkZadebZciVa[VXidghl]^X]]VkZ

i]Z ediZci^Va id Zc]VcXZ i]Z 87I djiXdbZh ^c ndjc\ eZdeaZ! cVbZan 87I"gZaZkVci

Xd\c^i^kZXVeVX^i^Zh#>ci]^hX]VeiZg!i]ZigVchaVi^dc!bdY^[^XVi^dc!VcYehnX]dbZig^X

ZkVajVi^dc d[ i]Z HZa["GZ[aZXi^dc VcY >ch^\]i HXVaZ [dg Ndji] HG>H"N l^i] V 9jiX]

Xdbbjc^in hVbeaZ ^h YZhXg^WZY# Ild hbVaaZg ^ckZhi^\Vi^dch VgZ egZhZciZY ^c i]^h

X]VeiZg/Ve^adihijYn!^ckdak^c\i]ZigVchaVi^dcVcYVYVeiVi^dcegdXZhhVcYi]ZgZhjaih

d[^iZbVcVanhZh!VcYVhZXdcYhijYnl]^X]ZmeadgZYi]ZehnX]dbZig^XegdeZgi^Zhd[

i]ZgZhjai^c\bZVhjgZ#

8]VeiZgh ) VcY * YZhXg^WZ i]Z ^beaZbZciVi^dc VcY hnhiZbVi^X ZkVajVi^dc

d[ i]Z YZkZadebZciVaan"Veegdeg^ViZ igZVibZci# >c 8]VeiZg )! i]^h ^h ^c i]Z [dgb d[ V

fjVa^iVi^kZXVhZhijYnl]^X]Vaadlh[dgVbdgZYZiV^aZYYZhXg^ei^dcd[i]Z[ZVijgZhd[i]Z

igZVibZcil^i]i]Zndjc\eZghdc!eVgZcih!VcYhX]ddahiV[[#I]ZXVhZhijYn^aajhigViZh

i]ZVeea^XVi^dcd[i]ZÈ@hX]ddaegd_ZXiÉl^i]V&+"nZVg"daY[ZbVaZ!]Zgbdi]Zg!VcY

]Zg]dbZgddbiZVX]Zg#9ZkZadebZciVaan"Veegdeg^ViZigZVibZciZaZbZcihgZaZkVciid

ldg`^c\l^i]i]^hX]VaaZc\^c\\gdjed[ndjc\eZdeaZVgZ]^\]a^\]iZY#>c8]VeiZg*!i]Z

igZVibZci^hZkVajViZY^ci]Z[dgbd[VcdeZcig^Val]ZgZWni]ZhiVi^hi^XVaVcYXa^c^XVa

h^\c^[^XVcXZ d[ i]Z djiXdbZh VgZ iZhiZY# I]^h X]VeiZg gZedgih dc Wdi] i]Z Z[[^XVXn

VcY VXXZeiVW^a^in d[ i]Z È@hX]dda egd_ZXiÉ [dg Vcm^djh hX]dda"gZ[jh^c\ VYdaZhXZcih#

I]Z igZVibZci djiXdbZh d[ i]Z eVgi^X^eVcih Vi edhi"igZVibZci VcY [daadl"je VgZ

YZhXg^WZY#>cVYY^i^dc!i]ZVhhdX^Vi^dchWZilZZchZkZgVaYZkZadebZciVa[VXidghZ#\#!

Xd\c^i^kZ XVeVX^i^Zh! Vjidcdbn! Xa^c^X^Vc YZkZadebZciVa hZch^i^k^in! VcY igZVibZci

djiXdbZ VgZ VcVanhZY ZmeadgVi^kZan# I]Z Y^hhZgiVi^dc XdcXajYZh l^i] V \ZcZgVa

Y^hXjhh^dc8]VeiZg+^cl]^X]i]ZbV^c[^cY^c\hd[i]ZhijY^Zh^ci]^hY^hhZgiVi^dc

VgZgZ"hiViZYVcY^ciZgegZiZY!i]ZhigZc\i]hVcYa^b^iVi^dchd[i]ZhijY^ZhZmeadgZY!

VcYhj\\Zhi^dch[dgXa^c^XVaegVXi^XZVcY[jgi]ZggZhZVgX]Y^hXjhhZY#