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Facial discrimination: The irresistible influence of first impressions

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(1)Tilburg University. Facial discrimination Jaeger, B.. Publication date: 2020 Document Version Publisher's PDF, also known as Version of record Link to publication in Tilburg University Research Portal. Citation for published version (APA): Jaeger, B. (2020). Facial discrimination: The irresistible influence of first impressions. Proefschriftmaken.. General rights Copyright and moral rights for the publications made accessible in the public portal are retained by the authors and/or other copyright owners and it is a condition of accessing publications that users recognise and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights. • Users may download and print one copy of any publication from the public portal for the purpose of private study or research. • You may not further distribute the material or use it for any profit-making activity or commercial gain • You may freely distribute the URL identifying the publication in the public portal Take down policy If you believe that this document breaches copyright please contact us providing details, and we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate your claim.. Download date: 14. okt. 2021.

(2)

(3)    . Facial Discrimination Š‡‹””‡•‹•–‹„Ž‡‹ˆŽ—‡ ‡‘ˆˆ‹”•–‹’”‡••‹‘•    . Bastian Jaeger. . .

(4) . .                     . ‡•‹‰„›ǣ Ž‘‘”‡‹Œ•ȁȁ™™™ǤˆŽ‘‘”™‡‹Œ•ǤŽ ”‹–‡†„›ǣ”‘‡ˆ• Š”‹ˆ–ƒ‡ȁȁ™™™Ǥ’”‘‡ˆ• Š”‹ˆ–ƒ‡ǤŽ  ̹ʹͲʹͲƒ•–‹ƒ ƒ‡‰‡”. ŽŽ ”‹‰Š–• ”‡•‡”˜‡†Ǥ ‘ ’ƒ”– ‘ˆ –Š‹• ’—„Ž‹ ƒ–‹‘ ƒ› „‡ ”‡’”‘†— ‡† ‘” –”ƒ•‹––‡† ‹ ƒ› ˆ‘” ‘” „› ƒ› ‡ƒ•ǡ ‡Ž‡ –”‘‹  ‘” ‡ Šƒ‹ ƒŽǡ ‹ Ž—†‹‰’Š‘–‘ ‘’›ǡ”‡ ‘”†‹‰ǡ‘”ƒ›‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘•–‘”ƒ‰‡‘””‡–”‹‡˜ƒŽ •›•–‡ǡ™‹–Š‘—–’‡”‹••‹‘‹™”‹–‹‰ˆ”‘–Š‡ƒ—–Š‘”ǤŠ‡ ‘’›”‹‰Š–‘ˆ –Š‡ƒ”–‹ Ž‡•–Šƒ–Šƒ˜‡„‡‡ƒ ‡’–‡†ˆ‘”’—„Ž‹ ƒ–‹‘‘”–Šƒ–ƒŽ”‡ƒ†›Šƒ˜‡ „‡‡’—„Ž‹•Š‡†ǡŠƒ•„‡‡–”ƒ•ˆ‡””‡†–‘–Š‡”‡•’‡ –‹˜‡Œ‘—”ƒŽ•Ǥ. . .

(5)    . Facial Discrimination Š‡‹””‡•‹•–‹„Ž‡‹ˆŽ—‡ ‡‘ˆˆ‹”•–‹’”‡••‹‘•   .   

(6)  . –‡”˜‡””‹Œ‰‹‰˜ƒ†‡‰”ƒƒ†˜ƒ†‘ –‘”ƒƒ‹Ž„—”‰‹˜‡”•‹–› ‘’‰‡œƒ‰˜ƒ†‡”‡ –‘”ƒ‰‹ˆ‹ —•ǡ ’”‘ˆǤ†”ǤǤ‹Œ–•ƒǡ . ‹Š‡–‘’‡„ƒƒ”–‡˜‡”†‡†‹‰‡. –‡‘˜‡”•–ƒƒ˜ƒ‡‡†‘‘”Š‡– ‘ŽŽ‡‰‡. ˜‘‘”’”‘‘–‹‡•ƒƒ‰‡™‡œ‡ ‘‹••‹‡ ‹†‡—Žƒ˜ƒ†‡‹˜‡”•‹–‡‹–. ‘’˜”‹Œ†ƒ‰ʹ͹ƒƒ”–ʹͲʹͲ‘ͳͲǤͲͲ . †‘‘”ƒ•–‹ƒ ƒ‡‰‡”ǡ. ‰‡„‘”‡–‡—‹•„—”‰ǡ—‹–•Žƒ†Ǥ. . .

(7) Promotor. . Copromotores . . . . . . . . .  . Promotiecommissie  . .  .  .   .   . ”‘ˆǤ”Ǥ

(8) ŽŒƒ˜ƒ‡‡•–. . ”Ǥ–Š‘›Ǥ˜ƒ• ”Ǥƒ”‹´ŽŽ‡–‡Ž. ”‘ˆǤ”ǤŽ‡šƒ†‡”Ǥ‘†‘”‘˜ ”‘ˆǤ”Ǥ‡–Ž‡ˆ ‡– Š‡Šƒ—‡” ”‘ˆǤ”ǤŽŽ‡ ‹‡„‡Ž• ”ǤŽƒ—†‹ƒ‘ƒ.  ”Ǥƒ”‹•ƒǤ”‡–. .

(9) . Contents Šƒ’–‡”ͳ

(10) –”‘†— –‹‘ ‹”•–‹’”‡••‹‘•ˆ”‘ˆƒ ‹ƒŽˆ‡ƒ–—”‡• ‹”•–‹’”‡••‹‘•ƒ••‘ ‹ƒŽ„‹ƒ•‡• —–Ž‹‡‘ˆ–Š‡†‹••‡”–ƒ–‹‘ . PART I: The influence of first impressions. Šƒ’–‡”ʹ ƒ ‹ƒŽƒ’’‡ƒ”ƒ ‡ƒ†‡Ž‡ –‘”ƒŽ•— ‡••ǣ”‡  –”—•–™‘”–Š›ǦŽ‘‘‹‰’‘Ž‹–‹ ‹ƒ•‘”‡•— ‡••ˆ—Ž‹ ‘””—’–”‡‰‹‘•ǫ –—†›ʹǤͳǦʹǤ͵ . Šƒ’–‡”͵ Š‡‡ˆˆ‡ –•‘ˆˆƒ ‹ƒŽƒ––”ƒ –‹˜‡‡••ƒ† –”—•–™‘”–Š‹‡••‹‘Ž‹‡’‡‡”Ǧ–‘Ǧ’‡‡”ƒ”‡–• –—†›͵Ǥͳ . PART II: Why people rely on first impressions. Šƒ’–‡”Ͷ Š‘Œ—†‰‡•ƒ„‘‘„›‹–• ‘˜‡”ǫŠ‡’”‡˜ƒŽ‡ ‡ǡ  •–”— –—”‡ǡƒ† ‘””‡Žƒ–‡•‘ˆ„‡Ž‹‡ˆ•‹’Š›•‹‘‰‘›  –—†›ͶǤͳƬͶǤʹ –—†›ͶǤ͵ –—†›ͶǤͶ –—†›ͶǤͷ  . . . ͷ ͳͲ ͳͺ ͳͻ. ͲͲͲͲ ͲͲͲͲ ʹ͵ ʹͺ ͲͲͲͲ ͷͳ ͷ͸ ͲͲͲͲ ͹͹ ͺͶ ͻͲ ͻͺ ͳͲͶ. ͳ.

(11)  Šƒ’–‡”ͷ Š‡„‘—†•‘ˆ’Š›•‹‘‰‘›ǣƒ›„‡Ž‹‡ˆ•‹–Š‡ ͲͲͲͲ  ƒ‹ˆ‡•–ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ’‡”•‘ƒŽ‹–›–”ƒ‹–•‹ˆƒ ‹ƒŽˆ‡ƒ–—”‡• ͳͳ͹  –—†›ͷǤͳ ͳʹͶ  ͳ͵Ͳ –—†›ͷǤʹ –—†›ͷǤ͵ ͳ͵ͷ . Šƒ’–‡”͸ š’Žƒ‹‹‰–Š‡’‡”•‹•–‡–‹ˆŽ—‡ ‡‘ˆˆƒ ‹ƒŽ —‡•‹ •‘ ‹ƒŽ†‡ ‹•‹‘Ǧƒ‹‰  –—†›͸Ǥͳ –—†›͸Ǥʹ –—†›͸Ǥ͵–͸Ǥͷ –—†›͸Ǥ͸. ͲͲͲͲ ͳͶ͹ ͳͷͶ ͳͷ͸ ͳ͸Ͷ ͳ͹Ͳ. Šƒ’–‡”͹ ƒ™‡”‡†— ‡ˆƒ ‹ƒŽ„‹ƒ•‡•ǫ‡”•‹•–‡–‡ˆˆ‡ –•‘ˆ ˆƒ ‹ƒŽ–”—•–™‘”–Š‹‡••‘•‡–‡ ‹‰†‡ ‹•‹‘• –—†›͹Ǥͳ –—†›͹Ǥʹ –—†›͹Ǥ͵. ͲͲͲͲ ͳͺ͵ ͳͻͲ ͳͻ͸ ʹͲʹ. . Part III: Mitigating the influence of first impressions. . Šƒ’–‡”ͺ ‡‡”ƒŽ†‹• —••‹‘ —ƒ”›‘ˆƒ‹ˆ‹†‹‰• Š‡‘”‡–‹ ƒŽ‹’Ž‹ ƒ–‹‘ ”ƒ –‹ ƒŽ‹’Ž‹ ƒ–‹‘• ‹‹–ƒ–‹‘•ƒ†‘’‡“—‡•–‹‘• —–—”‡†‹”‡ –‹‘•ˆ‘”–Š‡•–—†›‘ˆˆ‹”•– ‹’”‡••‹‘• ‘ Ž—•‹‘ . ʹ. . ʹͳ͵ ʹͳͶ ʹͳͺ ʹʹ͸ ʹ͵Ͳ ͲͲͲͲ ʹ͵ͷ ʹ͵ͻ. .

(12) .  ’’‡†‹š.     . . —–‘ƒ–‡† Žƒ••‹ˆ‹ ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ†‡‘‰”ƒ’Š‹ •ˆ”‘ˆƒ ‡ ͲͲͲͲ ‹ƒ‰‡•ǣ–—–‘”‹ƒŽƒ†˜ƒŽ‹†ƒ–‹‘ ʹͶͳ –—†›Ǥͳ ʹͷͲ –—†›Ǥʹ ʹ͸ͳ . ‡ˆ‡”‡ ‡•. ʹ͹ͻ. .  ‘™Ž‡†‰‡–• . —”–‡™‹

(13) •–‹–—–‡†‹••‡”–ƒ–‹‘•‡”‹‡• . ͵ʹͳ ͵ʹͷ. . ͵.

(14) . Ͷ. . .

(15)       . . . &KDSWHU &KDSWHU

(16) –”‘†— –‹‘

(17) –”‘†— –‹‘.  . ͷ ͷ ͷ ͷ.

(18) Šƒ’–‡”ͳ .  ʹ͹ ‡ ‡„‡” ͳͺ͵ͳǡ Šƒ”Ž‡• ƒ”™‹ Ž‡ˆ– Ž›‘—–Š Šƒ”„‘” ‘. „‘ƒ”† ‘ˆ –Š‡  ‡ƒ‰Ž‡Ǥ • –Š‡ ƒ–—”ƒŽ‹•– ‘ˆ –Š‡ ‡š’‡†‹–‹‘ǡ Š‡ ƒ†‡. ‘—–Ž‡•• ‘„•‡”˜ƒ–‹‘•ǡ ™Š‹ Š ™‘—Ž† Žƒ–‡” —Ž‹ƒ–‡ ‹ Š‹• –Š‡‘”› ‘ˆ. ‡˜‘Ž—–‹‘—ƒ”‰—ƒ„Ž›ǡ‘‡‘ˆ–Š‡‘•–‹ˆŽ—‡–‹ƒŽ• ‹‡–‹ˆ‹ –Š‡‘”‹‡•‘ˆƒŽŽ –‹‡Ǥ ‘™‡˜‡”ǡƒ•ƒ”™‹”‡ ‘—–•‹Š‹•ƒ—–‘„‹‘‰”ƒ’Š›ǡŠ‡™ƒ•ƒŽ‘•– ’”‡˜‡–‡† ˆ”‘ „‘ƒ”†‹‰ –Š‡ ‡ƒ‰Ž‡ †—‡ –‘ –Š‡ •Šƒ’‡ ‘ˆ Š‹• ‘•‡ ȋƒ”™‹ǡͳͺͺ͹Ȍ. The ship’s captain was a firm believer in physiognomy, which posits that a person’s facial appearance contains information. ƒ„‘—– –Š‡‹” Šƒ”ƒ –‡” ȋƒ˜ƒ–‡”ǡ ͳ͹͹ͷȌǤ ‡ ™ƒ• ‘˜‹ ‡† –Šƒ– ‘„‘†›. ™‹–Š•— Šƒ‘•‡ ‘—Ž†Šƒ˜‡•—ˆˆ‹ ‹‡–•–ƒ‹ƒ–‘–ƒ‡’ƒ”–‹–Š‡Ž‘‰. ƒ†ƒ”†—‘—•Œ‘—”‡›Ǥ— ‹Ž›ǡƒ”™‹™ƒ•ƒŽŽ‘™‡†–‘„‘ƒ”†–Š‡‡ƒ‰Ž‡ in the end. Later, he somewhat dryly remarked that the captain “was ƒˆ–‡”™ƒ”†•™‡ŽŽ•ƒ–‹•fied that my nose had spoken falsely”.. . ‘ –Š‡ • ‹‡–‹ˆ‹ ƒŽŽ›Ǧinclined reader, the captain’s behavior may. •‡‡ ‘‹ ƒŽŽ› ‹””ƒ–‹‘ƒŽǤ ‘™ ‘—Ž† –Š‡ •Šƒ’‡ ‘ˆ ƒ ‘•‡ ”‡˜‡ƒŽ something about a person’s character? However, the captain was not. ƒŽ‘‡ ‹ Š‘Ž†‹‰ –Š‹• „‡Ž‹‡ˆǤ Š‡ ‡–”ƒŽ ‹†‡ƒ ‘ˆ ’Š›•‹‘‰‘›—–Šƒ– •–ƒ„Ž‡ǡ ‘”’Š‘Ž‘‰‹ ƒŽ ˆ‡ƒ–—”‡• ‘ˆ ƒ ˆƒ ‡• ƒ”‡ ‹†‹ ƒ–‹˜‡ ‘ˆ Šƒ”ƒ –‡”. –”ƒ‹–•—Šƒ• ƒ Ž‘‰ Š‹•–‘”› ‹ • Š‘Žƒ”Ž› –Š‘—‰Š–Ǥ Š›•‹‘‰‘‹  ™”‹–‹‰•. †ƒ–‡„ƒ –‘ƒ–Ž‡ƒ•––Š‡–‹‡‘ˆ ‹‡– ”‡‡ ‡ȋ”‹•–‘–Ž‡ǡ–”ƒ•Ǥͳͻ͵͸Ȍ ƒ† –Š‡ ‹†‡ƒ ™ƒ• ’ƒ”–‹ —Žƒ”Ž› ’”‘‹‡– ‹ –Š‡ ͳͺ –Š ƒ† ͳͻ–Š ‡–—”› ȋƒ˜ƒ–‡”ǡ ͳ͹͹ͷǢ ‘‘†•ǡ ʹͲͳ͹ȌǤ ‘™‡˜‡”ǡ ’Š›•‹‘‰‘‹  Žƒ‹• ™‡”‡. ‘ˆ–‡˜ƒ‰—‡ǡ‹ ‘•‹•–‡–ǡƒ†‘–„ƒ•‡†‘• ‹‡–‹ˆ‹ •–—†›ȋŽŽ‡›ǡͳͻͺͺǢ ‘ŽŽ‹•ǡͳͻͻͻȌǤ

(19) ˆƒ –ǡ‡’‹”‹ ƒŽ–‡•–•‘ˆ’”‘’‘•‡†”‡Žƒ–‹‘•Š‹’•„‡–™‡‡ •’‡ ‹ˆ‹ . ‘”’Š‘Ž‘‰‹ ƒŽ. ˆ‡ƒ–—”‡•. ‘ˆ. ˆƒ ‡•. ƒ†. ’•› Š‘Ž‘‰‹ ƒŽ. Šƒ”ƒ –‡”‹•–‹ •ƒ––Š‡ „‡‰‹‹‰‘ˆ–Š‡ ʹͲ–Š ‡–—”››‹‡Ž†‡† ‘•—’’‘”–. ȋŽ‡‡–‘ Ƭ ‹‰Š–ǡ ͳͻʹͶȌǤ ‘†ƒ›ǡ ’Š›•‹‘‰‘› ‹• ™‹†‡Ž› ”‡‰ƒ”†‡† ƒ• ’•‡—†‘Ǧ• ‹‡ ‡ȋ‘†‘”‘˜ǡʹͲͳ͹ȌǤ . ‡–ǡ ”‡•‡ƒ” Š ‹ –Š‡ ˆ‹‡Ž† ‘ˆ •‘ ‹ƒŽ ’‡” ‡’–‹‘ Šƒ• •Š‘™ –Šƒ–. ’Š›•‹‘‰‘‹  Œ—†‰‡–• ƒ”‡ ’‡”˜ƒ•‹˜‡ ‹ ‡˜‡”›†ƒ› Ž‹ˆ‡ǣ ‡‘’Ž‡ spontaneously judge another person’s character based on their facial ͸. .

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(21) –”‘†— –‹‘. ˆ‡ƒ–—”‡•ȋ ”‡‡ƒƬ ‘Š•‘ǡʹͲͳ͸Ǣ‘†‘”‘˜ǡŽ‹˜‘Žƒǡ‘–• ŠǡƬ‡†‡Ǧ. ‹‡†Ž‡ ‹ǡ ʹͲͳͷȌǤͳ –‡”‡‘–›’‡• ”‡‰ƒ”†‹‰ ™Šƒ– ƒ –”—•–™‘”–Š› ‘”. †‘‹ƒ– ’‡”•‘ Ž‘‘• Ž‹‡ ƒ”‡ ™‹†‡Ž› •Šƒ”‡† ȋ ‡Šƒǡ —–Š‡”Žƒ†ǡ Žƒ‡ǡƬŽ‡’‹ƒǡʹͲͳ͹Ǣ‘•–‡”Š‘ˆƬ‘†‘”‘˜ǡʹͲͲͺǢ—Ž‡ǡ”‡†Žǡ

(22) ˜ ‡˜‹ ǡ Ƭ „ƒ†›ǡ ʹͲͳ͵Ȍ ƒ† –Š‡› ƒ”‡ –”‹‰‰‡”‡† ™‹–Š‹ ƒ ˆ‡™ Š—†”‡†. ‹ŽŽ‹•‡ ‘†•‘ˆ’‡” ‡‹˜‹‰ƒˆƒ ‡ȋ‘†‘”‘˜ǡƒ”ƒ•Š‹ǡƬ‘•–‡”Š‘ˆǡʹͲͲͻǢ ‹ŽŽ‹•Ƭ‘†‘”‘˜ǡʹͲͲ͸ȌǤ‘”‡‘˜‡”ǡ’‡‘’Ž‡ƒ”‡”‡Žƒ–‹˜‡Ž› ‘ˆ‹†‡–‹–Š‡. ƒ —”ƒ ›‘ˆ–Š‡‹”–”ƒ‹–‹’”‡••‹‘•ȋ‡•ǡƒ”ƒ–Šǡ—’’‡•ǡƬ‘Ž‰‡”ǡ. ʹͲͳͲȌƒ†”‡Ž›‘–Š‡™Š‡ƒ‹‰ƒ™‹†‡”ƒ‰‡‘ˆ†‡ ‹•‹‘•ȋŽ‹˜‘Žƒǡ —ǡƬ‘†‘”‘˜ǡʹͲͳͶȌǤ . Š‡ ™‹†‡•’”‡ƒ† ‹ˆŽ—‡ ‡ ‘ˆ •’Ž‹–Ǧ•‡ ‘† ’‡”•‘ƒŽ‹–› Œ—†‰‡–•. based on facial features may seem surprising given people’s limited. ƒ„‹Ž‹–› –‘ ‹ˆ‡” ’‡”•‘ƒŽ‹–› ˆ”‘ ˆƒ ‹ƒŽ ƒ’’‡ƒ”ƒ ‡ ȋ‘‡ˆ‘ǡ. ‘’ˆ‡•‹–œǡƬ‡‡›•ǡʹͲͳ͹Ǣ‘†‘”‘˜ǡŽ‹˜‘Žƒǡ‡–ƒŽǤǡʹͲͳͷȌǤŠ‡“—‡•–‹‘ ‘ˆ ™Š‡–Š‡” –Š‡”‡ ‹• ƒ› ƒ —”ƒ › ‹ –”ƒ‹– ‹’”‡••‹‘• ȋƒ† ™Šƒ–. ‡ Šƒ‹••‹‰Š–ƒ ‘—–ˆ‘”–Š‹•Ȍ”‡ƒ‹•Š‡ƒ˜‹Ž›†‡„ƒ–‡†ȋ‘‡ˆ‘ǡ ‘’ˆ‡•‹–œǡƬ‡‡›•ǡʹͲͳͷǢˆˆ‡”•‘Ƭ‘‰–ǡʹͲͳ͵Ǣ‘†‘”‘˜ǡ —ǡƬ. Ž‹˜‘ŽƒǡʹͲͳͷȌǤ ‘™‡˜‡”ǡ–Š‡”‡‹•ƒ’Ž‡‡˜‹†‡ ‡–Šƒ–’‡‘’Ž‡over”‡Ž›‘ ˆƒ ‹ƒŽƒ’’‡ƒ”ƒ ‡ǤŠƒ–‹•ǡˆƒ ‹ƒŽ —‡•‡š‡”–ƒ†‹•’”‘’‘”–‹‘ƒ–‡‹ˆŽ—‡ ‡. ‘†‡ ‹•‹‘•‰‹˜‡–Š‡‹”Ž‘™†‹ƒ‰‘•–‹ ‹–›ˆ‘”‹ˆ‡””‹‰’‡”•‘ƒŽ‹–›–”ƒ‹–• ƒ† „‡Šƒ˜‹‘”ƒŽ –‡†‡ ‹‡•Ǥ ‘” ‡šƒ’Ž‡ǡ ’‡‘’Ž‡ ”‡Ž› ‘ ˆƒ ‹ƒŽ. ƒ’’‡ƒ”ƒ ‡ ‡˜‡ ™Š‡ ƒ‹‰ ‘•‡“—‡–‹ƒŽ †‡ ‹•‹‘• ȋ‡Ǥ‰Ǥǡ ”‹‹ƒŽ •‡–‡ ‹‰†‡ ‹•‹‘•Ǣ ǤǤ ‹Ž•‘Ƭ—Ž‡ǡ ʹͲͳͷȌǡ‡˜‡ ™Š‡ –Š‡›Šƒ˜‡. „‡––‡”‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘‹•ƒ˜ƒ‹Žƒ„Ž‡ȋŽ‹˜‘Žƒǡ‹‰Ž‡›ǡƬ‘†‘”‘˜ǡʹͲͳͺȌǡƒ† ‡˜‡ ™Š‡ –Š‡› ƒ”‡ ‡š’Ž‹citly told to discount a person’s appearance. ȋŽƒ‹”ǡ —††ǡƬ ƒŽŽƒǡʹͲͲͶǢ ƒ••‹Ƭ”‘’‡ǡʹͲͲͲȌǤ‘”‡‘˜‡”ǡ’‡‘’Ž‡. ƒ”‡ ‘ˆ–‡ „‹ƒ•‡† ‹ ˆƒ˜‘” ‘ˆ ‹†‹˜‹†—ƒŽ• ™‹–Š ƒ ƒ––”ƒ –‹˜‡ ˆƒ ‹ƒŽ ƒ’’‡ƒ”ƒ ‡ǣ

(23) ’”‡••‹‘• ‘ˆ ƒ––”ƒ –‹˜‡‡•• ‹ˆŽ—‡ ‡ ƒ› Œ—†‰‡–• . ͳ

(24) –Š‹•†‹••‡”–ƒ–‹‘ǡ

(25) ˆ‘ —•‘ˆƒ ‹ƒŽƒ’’‡ƒ”ƒ ‡ǡ”ƒ–Š‡”–Šƒ‘–Š‡”•–‹—Ž‹•— Š. ƒ• Ž‘–Š‹‰‘”Šƒ‹”•–›Ž‡ǡ„‡ ƒ—•‡ˆƒ ‡•ƒ”‡ƒ”‰—ƒ„Ž›–Š‡‘•–”‡Ž‡˜ƒ–•–‹—Ž—•‹ Š—ƒ•‹‰ƒŽ‹‰ƒ†‹’”‡••‹‘ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘ȋ —‰‡„‡”‰Ƭ‹Ž•‘ǡʹͲͳ͵Ǣ‡‘’‘Ž† ƬŠ‘†‡•ǡʹͲͳͲȌǤ. . ͹. 1.

(26) Šƒ’–‡”ͳ. ƒ†„‡Šƒ˜‹‘”•ǡ‡˜‡‹•‹–—ƒ–‹‘•™Š‡”‡ƒ––”ƒ –‹˜‡‡•••Š‘—Ž†‘–’Žƒ›ƒ ”‘Ž‡ȋƒ‡•–”‹’‹‡”‹ǡ ‡”›ǡƬ‹ ‡Ž•ǡʹͲͳ͹ȌǤ . Š‹Ž‡–Š‡‡ˆˆ‡ –•‘ˆˆƒ ‹ƒŽƒ’’‡ƒ”ƒ ‡ƒ”‡™‡ŽŽǦ†‘ —‡–‡†ǡŽ‹––Ž‡‹•. ‘™ ƒ„‘—– –Š‡ —†‡”Ž›‹‰ ‡ Šƒ‹••Ǥ Š› †‘ ’‡‘’Ž‡ ’‡”•‹•–‡–Ž› ”‡Ž›‘ˆ‹”•–‹’”‡••‹‘•ǫ

(27) ƒ”‰—‡–Šƒ–‹‘”†‡”–‘ƒ•™‡”–Š‹•“—‡•–‹‘ǡ. ™‡ •Š‘—Ž† –”‡ƒ– ƒ† •–—†› ˆ‹”•– ‹’”‡••‹‘• ‘”‡ Ž‹‡ ‘–Š‡” •‘ ‹ƒŽ „‹ƒ•‡•Ǥʹ ‹‹Žƒ” –‘ †‹• ”‹‹ƒ–‹‘ „ƒ•‡† ‘ ‰‡†‡”ǡ ”ƒ ‡ǡ ‘” •‡š—ƒŽ. ‘”‹‡–ƒ–‹‘ǡ†‹• ”‹‹ƒ–‹‘„ƒ•‡†‘ˆƒ ‹ƒŽƒ’’‡ƒ”ƒ ‡—ˆƒ‹”Ž›†‹•ˆƒ˜‘”• ƒ ‡”–ƒ‹ ‹†‹˜‹†—ƒŽ•Ǥ ‘” ‡šƒ’Ž‡ǡ ƒ• ƒ ‘•‡“—‡ ‡ ‘ˆ –Š‡‹” ˆƒ ‹ƒŽ. ƒ’’‡ƒ”ƒ ‡ǡ‹†‹˜‹†—ƒŽ•‹‰Š–„‡Ž‡••Ž‹‡Ž›–‘„‡’”‘‘–‡†ȋ‹‰ǡ—‘ǡƬ Š‡ǡʹͲͳͻȌǡ‰”ƒ–‡†ƒŽ‘ƒȋ—ƒ”–‡ǡ‹‡‰‡ŽǡƬ‘—‰ǡʹͲͳʹȌǡ‘”–”—•–‡†„› ‘–Š‡”•(van’t Wout & Sanfey, 2008)Ǣ–Š‡›‹‰Š–”‡ ‡‹˜‡ƒŽ‘™‡”™ƒ‰‡ƒ–. ™‘”ȋ ƒ‡”‡•ŠƬ‹††Ž‡ǡͳͻͻͶȌǡŽ‡••Š‡Ž’ˆ”‘‘–Š‡”•ȋƒ‡•–”‹’‹‡”‹ ‡–ƒŽǤǡʹͲͳ͹Ȍǡƒ†Šƒ”•Š‡”•‡–‡ ‡•‹ ‘—”–ȋ ǤǤ‹Ž•‘Ƭ—Ž‡ǡʹͲͳͷǢ ‡„”‘™‹–œ Ƭ  ‘ƒŽ†ǡ ͳͻͻͳȌǤ

(28)  •Š‘”–ǡ ˆƒ ‹ƒŽ †‹• ”‹‹ƒ–‹‘ ‹•. ’‡”˜ƒ•‹˜‡Ǥ ‘‡ ‡˜‹†‡ ‡ ‡˜‡ •—‰‰‡•–• –Šƒ– ‘””‡ –‹‰ ˆƒ ‹ƒŽ •–‡”‡‘–›’‡• ƒ› „‡ ‘”‡ †‹ˆˆ‹ —Ž– –Šƒ ‘””‡ –‹‰ ‰‡†‡” ‘” ”ƒ ‡ •–‡”‡‘–›’‡•ȋŽƒ‹”‡–ƒŽǤǡʹͲͲͶǢƒŽ‡”‡–ƒŽǤǡʹͲͳ͹ȌǤ . ”‡ƒ–‹‰ˆ‹”•–‹’”‡••‹‘•ƒ•ƒ„‹ƒ•‹‰‹ˆŽ—‡ ‡‘•‘ ‹ƒŽ„‡Šƒ˜‹‘”. ƒ††‡ ‹•‹‘Ǧƒ‹‰‹•‘–‘˜‡Žȋƒ‡•–”‹’‹‡”‹‡–ƒŽǤǡʹͲͳ͹ǢŽ‹˜‘Žƒǡ —ǡ. ‡–ƒŽǤǡʹͲͳͶǢ‡„”‘™‹–œǡ ‡ŽŽ‘—•ǡ‹‰ƒ—Ž–ǡƬ†”‡‘Ž‡––‹ǡʹͲͲ͵ȌǤ ‘™‡˜‡”ǡ ƒ •‘ ‹ƒŽ „‹ƒ• ’‡”•’‡ –‹˜‡ ˆ‘ —•‡• –Š‡ •–—†› ‘ˆ ˆ‹”•– ‹’”‡••‹‘• ‘. –Š‡‘”‡–‹ ƒŽŽ›ƒ†’”ƒ –‹ ƒŽŽ›‹’‘”–ƒ–“—‡•–‹‘•–Šƒ–Šƒ˜‡‘–”‡ ‡‹˜‡† — Š ƒ––‡–‹‘ –Š—• ˆƒ”Ǥ ‡•‡ƒ” Š ‘ •‘ ‹ƒŽ „‹ƒ•‡• ‘ˆ–‡ ˆ‘ŽŽ‘™• –Š”‡‡. ‰‡‡”ƒŽ ‰‘ƒŽ•ǣ ȋƒȌ †‡‘•–”ƒ–‹‰ –Š‡ ‡š‹•–‡ ‡ ‘ˆ –Š‡ „‹ƒ• ƒ† ‹–• ’‡”˜ƒ•‹˜‡‡••ȋ‡Ǥ‰Ǥǡ‹™Š‹ Š†‘ƒ‹•†‘‡•”ƒ ‹ƒŽ†‹• ”‹‹ƒ–‹‘‘ —”ǫȌǡ ȋ„Ȍ —†‡”•–ƒ†‹‰ ‹–• —†‡”Ž›‹‰ ‡ Šƒ‹•• ȋ‡Ǥ‰Ǥǡ ™Š› †‘ ’‡‘’Ž‡ †‹• ”‹‹ƒ–‡„ƒ•‡†‘”ƒ ‡ǫȌǡƒ†ȋ Ȍ†‡˜‡Ž‘’‹‰‹–‡”˜‡–‹‘•–‘ —”„ . ʹ. Social bias is generally defined as “intended or unintended favoritism in evaluation, judgment, or behavior for one social group over another” ȋš– Ƭ ‘•‡ǡʹͲͳͺǡ’Ǥ͵͵͹ȌǤ. ͺ. .

(29)

(30) –”‘†— –‹‘. –Š‡„‹ƒ•ȋ‡Ǥ‰ǤǡŠ‘™ ƒ™‡”‡†— ‡”ƒ ‹ƒŽ„‹ƒ•‡•ǫȌǤ”— ‹ƒŽŽ›ǡ’”‹‘””‡•‡ƒ” Š ‘ ˆ‹”•– ‹’”‡••‹‘• Šƒ• ’”‡†‘‹ƒ–Ž› ˆ‘ —•‡† ‘ –Š‡ ˆ‹”•– ‹••—‡ǡ. †‘ —‡–‹‰ –Š‡ ˜ƒ”‹‘—• ™ƒ›• ‹ ™Š‹ Š ˆƒ ‹ƒŽ ƒ’’‡ƒ”ƒ ‡ ‹ˆŽ—‡ ‡•. •‘ ‹ƒŽ ‘—– ‘‡•Ǥ ‹––Ž‡ ‹• ‘™ ƒ„‘—– ™Š› ’‡‘’Ž‡ ”‡Ž› ‘ ˆ‹”•– ‹’”‡••‹‘•‘”Š‘™–Š‹• ƒ„‡’”‡˜‡–‡†Ǥ

(31) –Š‹•†‹••‡”–ƒ–‹‘ǡ

(32) ƒ‹–‘ ƒ††”‡••–Š‡•‡‰ƒ’•‹–Š‡Ž‹–‡”ƒ–—”‡Ǥ . •‘ ‹ƒŽ„‹ƒ•’‡”•’‡ –‹˜‡ƒŽ•‘•—‰‰‡•–•–Šƒ–Š›’‘–Š‡•‡•ƒ„‘—––Š‡. —†‡”Ž›‹‰ ƒ—•‡•‘ˆˆƒ ‹ƒŽ†‹• ”‹‹ƒ–‹‘ ƒ„‡†‡”‹˜‡†ˆ”‘‡š‹•–‹‰ –Š‡‘”‹‡•‘•‘ ‹ƒŽ„‹ƒ•‡•Ǥ ‘”‡šƒ’Ž‡ǡ„‹ƒ•–ƒš‘‘‹‡•‹Œ—†‰‡–ƒ† †‡ ‹•‹‘Ǧƒ‹‰‘ˆˆ‡”‹•‹‰Š–•‹–‘ ‘‘•‘—” ‡•‘ˆ„‹ƒ•‡†„‡Šƒ˜‹‘”. ȋǤ Ǥ ‹Ž•‘ Ƭ ”‡‡ǡ ͳͻͻͶȌ ƒ† ƒ› Š‡Ž’ ‡Ž— ‹†ƒ–‡ ™Š› ’‡‘’Ž‡ ’‡”•‹•–‡–Ž›”‡Ž›‘ˆ‹”•–‹’”‡••‹‘•Ǥ

(33) ƒ•‹‹Žƒ”˜‡‹ǡ›‡ƒ”•‘ˆ•‘ ‹ƒŽǦ. ’•› Š‘Ž‘‰‹ ƒŽ”‡•‡ƒ” Š‘‡š’Ž‹ ‹–ƒ†‹’Ž‹ ‹–„‹ƒ•Šƒ•”‡•—Ž–‡†‹ƒŽ‘‰. Ž‹•–‘ˆ‹–‡”˜‡–‹‘•–Šƒ–ƒ›‘–‘Ž› Šƒ‰‡”ƒ ‹ƒŽ„‹ƒ•‡•ȋ ‘”• Š‡”‡– ƒŽǤǡʹͲͳͻǢƒ‹‡–ƒŽǤǡʹͲͳͶȌǡ„—–ƒŽ•‘”‡Ž‹ƒ ‡‘ˆƒ ‹ƒŽ•–‡”‡‘–›’‡•Ǥ

(34) •Š‘”–ǡ –Š‹• †‹••‡”–ƒ–‹‘ ƒ––‡’–• ƒ Ž‘•‡” ‹–‡‰”ƒ–‹‘ ‘ˆ –Š‡ ˆ‹”•– ‹’”‡••‹‘. Ž‹–‡”ƒ–—”‡ ™‹–Š ‘–Š‡” ”‡•‡ƒ” Š ƒ”‡ƒ• –Šƒ– ƒ”‡ ‘ ‡”‡† ™‹–Š —†‡”•–ƒ†‹‰ƒ†ƒŽŽ‡˜‹ƒ–‹‰•‘ ‹ƒŽ„‹ƒ•‡•Ǥ . Ž–‹ƒ–‡Ž›ǡ

(35)  Š‘’‡ –Šƒ– –Š‹• ƒ’’”‘ƒ Š ™‹ŽŽ ƒ†˜ƒ ‡ ‘—”. —†‡”•–ƒ†‹‰ ‘ˆ ™Š‡ ’‡‘’Ž‡ †‹• ”‹‹ƒ–‡ „ƒ•‡† ‘ ˆƒ ‹ƒŽ ˆ‡ƒ–—”‡•ǡ ™Šƒ––Š‡—†‡”Ž›‹‰ ‘‰‹–‹˜‡‡ Šƒ‹••ƒ”‡ǡƒ†Š‘™™‡ ƒ”‡†— ‡ ˆƒ ‹ƒŽ†‹• ”‹‹ƒ–‹‘Ǥ‡ˆ‘”‡†‡• ”‹„‹‰–Š‡™‘”

(36)  ‘†— –‡†–‘–ƒ Ž‡. –Š‡•‡ “—‡•–‹‘•ǡ

(37)  ™‹ŽŽ ’”‘˜‹†‡ ƒ „”‹‡ˆ ”‡˜‹‡™ ‘ˆ –Š‡ ˆ‹”•– ‹’”‡••‹‘ Ž‹–‡”ƒ–—”‡Ǥ †‡”•–ƒ†‹‰ Š‘™ ’‡‘’Ž‡ ’”‘ ‡•• ˆƒ ‡• ‹• ”— ‹ƒŽ ˆ‘”. —†‡”•–ƒ†‹‰–Š‡†‘™•–”‡ƒ ‘•‡“—‡ ‡•‘ˆˆ‹”•–‹’”‡••‹‘•Ǥ

(38) ™‹ŽŽ. ˆ‘ —•‘Š‘™’‡‘’Ž‡ˆ‘”–”ƒ‹–‹’”‡••‹‘•„ƒ•‡†‘ˆƒ ‹ƒŽˆ‡ƒ–—”‡•ǡŠ‘™ ƒ —”ƒ–‡ –Š‡‹” ‹’”‡••‹‘• ƒ”‡ǡ ƒ† Š‘™ –Š‡‹” ‹’”‡••‹‘• ‹ˆŽ—‡ ‡ †‡ ‹•‹‘Ǧƒ‹‰Ǥ

(39) ™‹ŽŽ–Š‡‘—–Ž‹‡Š‘™ƒ•‘ ‹ƒŽ„‹ƒ•’‡”•’‡ –‹˜‡”ƒ‹•‡•. ƒ —„‡” ‘ˆ ‡–”ƒŽǡ „—– Žƒ”‰‡Ž› —ƒ††”‡••‡† ”‡•‡ƒ” Š “—‡•–‹‘•. ”‡‰ƒ”†‹‰–Š‡‹ˆŽ—‡ ‡‘ˆˆ‹”•–‹’”‡••‹‘•Ǥ ‹ƒŽŽ›ǡ

(40) ™‹ŽŽ†‡• ”‹„‡Š‘™. . ͻ. 1.

(41) Šƒ’–‡”ͳ. ‡ƒ Š ‘ˆ –Š‡•‡ “—‡•–‹‘• ‹ –ƒ Ž‡† ‹ –Š‡ •‹š ‡’‹”‹ ƒŽ ’ƒ’‡”• –Šƒ– ƒ”‡ ”‡’‘”–‡†‹–Š‹•†‹••‡”–ƒ–‹‘Ǥ. First impressions from facial features. . Š‡ Š—ƒ ˆƒ ‡ ‹• ƒ ”‹ Š •‘—” ‡ ‘ˆ ‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘Ǥ ‘”’Š‘Ž‘‰‹ ƒŽ. features provide information about a person’s identity, sex, age, and race. ȋ”— ‡ Ƭ ‘—‰ǡ ʹͲͳʹȌ ƒ† †›ƒ‹  ˆ‡ƒ–—”‡•ǡ •— Š ƒ• ‡‘–‹‘. ‡š’”‡••‹‘•ǡ ƒ •‹‰ƒŽ —””‡– ‹–‡–‹‘• ‘” ˆ‡‡Ž‹‰• ȋ”‹˜‡ŽŽ‹ Ƭ ”‹†Ž—†ǡ ʹͲͳͺǢ ƒ Ž‡‡ˆǡ ʹͲͳͲȌǤ Š‡ ”‡Ž‡˜ƒ ‡ ‘ˆ ˆƒ ‹ƒŽŽ› ‘—‹ ƒ–‡†‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘ˆ‘”•‘ ‹ƒŽ‹–‡”ƒ –‹‘‹•—†‡”• ‘”‡†„›–Š‡. ‡š‹•–‡ ‡‘ˆ•’‡ ‹ƒŽ‹œ‡†’‡” ‡’–—ƒŽƒ† ‘‰‹–‹˜‡•›•–‡•ˆ‘”’”‘ ‡••‹‰. ˆƒ ‡•ȋ ƒ”ƒŠǡ‹Ž•‘ǡ”ƒ‹ǡƬƒƒƒǡͳͻͻͺǢ —‰‡„‡”‰Ƭ‹Ž•‘ǡʹͲͳ͵Ǣ. ƒŽ‡”‘ƬŠ‘†‡•ǡʹͲͲ͹ȌǤ ƒ ‡•ƒ––”ƒ –ƒ––‡–‹‘ȋ‘ǡ—••‡ŽŽǡƬƒ˜‹‡ǡ ʹͲͲͳǢŠ‡‡—™‡•Ƭƒ†‡”–‹‰ Š‡ŽǡʹͲͲ͸Ȍƒ†–Š‹•‹•’ƒ”–‹ —Žƒ”Ž›–”—‡. ˆ‘”ˆƒ ‡• ‘˜‡›‹‰•‘ ‹ƒŽŽ›”‡Ž‡˜ƒ–‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘ȋ‡Ǥ‰Ǥǡ‡š’”‡••‹˜‡ˆƒ ‡•Ǣ. ‹Šƒǡ ”‹ˆˆ‹ǡ ƒ”‘ǡ ƒ••‘ǡ Ƭ —”ǡ ʹͲͳͲȌǤ ˜‡ ‡™„‘”• ’”‡ˆ‡”‡–‹ƒŽŽ› ‘”‹‡– –Š‡•‡Ž˜‡• –‘™ƒ”†• ˆƒ ‡•ǡ •—‰‰‡•–‹‰ –Šƒ– –Š‡ ‘‰‹–‹˜‡ ƒ” Š‹–‡ –—”‡ ˆ‘” †‡–‡ –‹‰ ƒ† ’”‘ ‡••‹‰ ˆƒ ‡• ‹• ƒŽ”‡ƒ†›. ’”‡•‡–ƒ–„‹”–Šȋ ƒ””‘‹‡–ƒŽǤǡʹͲͲͷȌǤ‘”‡‘˜‡”ǡŠ—ƒ• ƒ†‡–‡ –‡˜‡. •Ž‹‰Š– Šƒ‰‡•‹ˆƒ ‹ƒŽ•‹ ‘Ž‘”ƒ–‹‘ ȋŠ‘”•–‡•‘ƬŽŽ‹‘–ǡʹͲͳ͹Ȍ‘”. ˆƒ ‹ƒŽ‡š’”‡••‹‘ȋ‡Ž‡—‡–ƒŽǤǡʹͲͳͺȌǤ

(42) •—ǡ‹–‡”’”‡–‹‰ˆƒ ‡•‹• ”— ‹ƒŽ ˆ‘” ƒ˜‹‰ƒ–‹‰ –Š‡ •‘ ‹ƒŽ ™‘”Ž†Ǥ ‘” –Š‹• ”‡ƒ•‘ǡ ‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘. ‘—‹ ƒ–‡†„›ˆƒ ‡•‹•’”‘ ‡••‡†‹ƒ˜‡”›“—‹ ƒ†‡ˆˆ‹ ‹‡–ƒ‡”Ǥ Forming trait impressions from faces . ‡‘’Ž‡‘–‘Ž›‹ˆ‡”†‡‘‰”ƒ’Š‹ ˆ‡ƒ–—”‡•‘”ƒˆˆ‡ –‹˜‡•–ƒ–‡•ˆ”‘. ˆƒ ‡•ǡ„—–ƒŽ•‘ƒ˜ƒ”‹‡–›‘ˆ–”ƒ‹–•ƒ††‹•’‘•‹–‹‘•ȋ‘†‘”‘˜ǡŽ‹˜‘Žƒǡ‡–ƒŽǤǡ ʹͲͳͷȌǤŠƒ–‹•ǡ†‡’‡†‹‰‘–Š‡‘”’Š‘Ž‘‰‹ ƒŽ•–”— –—”‡‘ˆ–Š‡‹”ˆƒ ‡ǡƒ. ’‡”•‘ ƒ› „‡ ’‡” ‡‹˜‡† ƒ• –”—•–™‘”–Š›ǡ ‘—–‰‘‹‰ǡ ‘” ‹–‡ŽŽ‹‰‡–Ǥ ‡•‡ƒ” Š‘–Š‡ ‘–‡–ƒ†•–”— –—”‡‘ˆ–”ƒ‹–‹’”‡••‹‘•Šƒ•”‡˜‡ƒŽ‡†. –Šƒ–ˆƒ ‡•ƒ”‡’”‹ƒ”‹Ž›Œ—†‰‡†ƒŽ‘‰–Š”‡‡ ‘”‡†‹‡•‹‘•ȋ‘•–‡”Š‘ˆ ͳͲ. .

(43)

(44) –”‘†— –‹‘. Ƭ‘†‘”‘˜ǡʹͲͲͺǢ—–Š‡”Žƒ†‡–ƒŽǤǡʹͲͳ͵Ǣ—–Š‡”Žƒ†ǡŠ‘†‡•ǡ—”–‘ǡƬ. ‘—‰ǡ ʹͲͳͻǢ •‡‡ ƒŽ•‘ Ǥ Ǥ ‘‡• ‡– ƒŽǤǡ ʹͲͳͻȌǣ ‹–‡–‹‘• ȋ‡Ǥ‰Ǥǡ –”—•–™‘”–Š‹‡••ǡƒ’’”‘ƒ Šƒ„‹Ž‹–›ǡ•‘ ‹ƒ„‹Ž‹–›Ȍǡƒ„‹Ž‹–‹‡•ȋ‡Ǥ‰Ǥǡ†‘‹ƒ ‡ǡ. ‘’‡–‡ ‡ǡ ‹–‡ŽŽ‹‰‡ ‡Ȍǡ ƒ† ›‘—–Šˆ—Ž‡••Ǧƒ––”ƒ –‹˜‡‡•• ȋ‡Ǥ‰Ǥǡ ƒ––”ƒ –‹˜‡‡••ǡ ƒ‰‡ǡ Š‡ƒŽ–ŠȌǤ —†‰‡–• ‘ˆ ‹–‡–‹‘• ƒ† ƒ„‹Ž‹–‹‡• ƒ”‡. thought to reflect evaluations of a target’s threat potential ȋ‘•–‡”Š‘ˆƬ ‘†‘”‘˜ǡʹͲͲͺȌǤ

(45) ƒ•‹‹Žƒ”˜‡‹ǡƒ––”ƒ –‹˜‡‡••Œ—†‰‡–•ƒ”‡–Š‘—‰Š–. to reflect the evaluation of a person’s mate value ȋŠ‘†‡•ǡʹͲͲ͸ǢŠ‘†‡•ǡ. ‹‘•ǡ Ƭ ‡–‡”•ǡ ʹͲͲͷȌǤ Š—•ǡ ˆƒ ‡• ƒ”‡ Œ—†‰‡† ƒŽ‘‰ –Š”‡‡ǡ Žƒ”‰‡Ž› ‹†‡’‡†‡– †‹‡•‹‘•Ǥ Š‡•‡ †‹‡•‹‘• ƒ”‡ „‡•– ƒ’’”‘š‹ƒ–‡† „›. ‹’”‡••‹‘• ‘ˆ –”—•–™‘”–Š‹‡••ǡ †‘‹ƒ ‡ǡ ƒ† ƒ––”ƒ –‹˜‡‡•• ƒ†. reflect evaluations of a person’s perceived value ƒ• ƒ •‘ ‹ƒŽ ‘” •‡š—ƒŽ ’ƒ”–‡”Ǥ . ”ƒ‹– ‹’”‡••‹‘• ƒ”‡ ˆ‘”‡† ‘ –Š‡ „ƒ•‹• ‘ˆ ˜ƒ”‹‘—• ˆƒ ‹ƒŽ. Šƒ”ƒ –‡”‹•–‹ •Ǥ ‡‘’Ž‡ ”‡Ž› ‘ ‘”’Š‘Ž‘‰‹ ƒŽ ˆ‡ƒ–—”‡•ǡ •— Š ƒ• ˆƒ ‹ƒŽ ™‹†–ŠǦ–‘ǦŠ‡‹‰Š– ”ƒ–‹‘ ȋ ‡Šƒǡ ‡‹–‡”ǡ Ƭ ƒ‡”–‡”ǡ ʹͲͳ͵Ǣ –‹””ƒ– Ƭ. ‡””‡––ǡ ʹͲͳͲȌǡ •›‡–”›ǡ •‡š—ƒŽ †‹‘”’Š‹•ǡ ƒ† ƒ˜‡”ƒ‰‡‡•• ȋǤ Ǥ. ‘‡•Ƭ ƒ‡‰‡”ǡʹͲͳͻǢ‘•–‡”Š‘ˆƬ‘†‘”‘˜ǡʹͲͲͺǢŠ‘†‡•‡–ƒŽǤǡʹͲͲ͹Ȍǡ „—–ƒŽ•‘‘•‹–‡š–—”‡ȋ ƒ‡‰‡”ǡƒ‰‡ƒ•ǡ˜ƒ•ǡƬ˜ƒ‡‡•–ǡʹͲͳͺȌǡ ‘Ž‘”ȋŠ‘”•–‡•‘ǡƒœ†ƒǡŽŽ‹‘–ǡƬ‡””‡––ǡʹͲͳ͹Ȍǡƒ† ‘–”ƒ•–ȋ—••‡ŽŽ ‡– ƒŽǤǡ ʹͲͳ͸ȌǤ  ™‡ƒŽ–Š ‘ˆ •–—†‹‡• Šƒ• ‹†‡–‹ˆ‹‡† Š‡”‡ ƒ”‡ ƒ› •›•–‡ƒ–‹ ”‡Žƒ–‹‘•Š‹’•„‡–™‡‡•’‡ ‹ˆ‹ ˆƒ ‹ƒŽ Šƒ”ƒ –‡”‹•–‹ •ƒ†–”ƒ‹–. ‹’”‡••‹‘• ȋ‡Ǥ‰Ǥǡ ˆ‡‹‹‡ ˆ‡ƒ–—”‡• ƒ”‡ •‡‡ ƒ• –”—•–™‘”–Š›Ȍǡ •‹ ‡ ’‡‘’Ž‡”‡Ž›‘•‹‹Žƒ” Šƒ”ƒ –‡”‹•–‹ •™Š‡Œ—†‰‹‰•’‡ ‹ˆ‹ –”ƒ‹–•Ǥ˜‡. –Š‘—‰Š ‹†‹˜‹†—ƒŽ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡ ‡• —†‘—„–‡†Ž› ‡š‹•– ȋ ‡Šƒ ‡– ƒŽǤǡ ʹͲͳ͹Ǣ ڐ‡‘’’ǡ ʹͲͲ͸Ȍǡ •‹‰‹ˆ‹ ƒ– ‘•‡•—• ‹ –”ƒ‹– ‹’”‡••‹‘• ‹• ˆ‘—†. ƒ ”‘••†‹ˆˆ‡”‡– —Ž–—”‡•ȋ—Ž‡‡–ƒŽǤǡʹͲͳͲȌƒ†ƒ‰‡‰”‘—’•ȋ‘‰•†‹ŽŽƬ ƒƒŒ‹ǡʹͲͳͷǢ‡„”‘™‹–œƬ‘–‡’ƒ”‡ǡͳͻͻʹȌǤ . ‘˜‡”‰‹‰‡˜‹†‡ ‡•—‰‰‡•–•–Šƒ––Š‡‡˜ƒŽ—ƒ–‹‘‘ˆˆƒ ‡•‘•‘ ‹ƒŽ. †‹‡•‹‘•‹•ƒŽƒ”‰‡Ž›ƒ—–‘ƒ–‹ ’”‘ ‡••Ǥ ”ƒ‹–Œ—†‰‡–•ƒ”‡ˆ‘”‡† ™‹–Š‹ƒˆ‡™Š—†”‡†‹ŽŽ‹•‡ ‘†•‘ˆ‡š’‘•—”‡–‘ƒˆƒ ‡ȋ‘†‘”‘˜‡–ƒŽǤǡ . ͳͳ. 1.

(46) Šƒ’–‡”ͳ. ʹͲͲͻǢ ‹ŽŽ‹• Ƭ ‘†‘”‘˜ǡ ʹͲͲ͸ȌǤ Š‡•‡ Œ—†‰‡–• ƒ”‡ ˆ‘”‡† •’‘–ƒ‡‘—•Ž›ǡ–Šƒ–‹•ǡ‡˜‡™Š‡‡‰ƒ‰‹‰‹ƒ–ƒ•–Šƒ––Šƒ–†‘‡•‘–. ”‡“—‹”‡ Šƒ”ƒ –‡”‡˜ƒŽ—ƒ–‹‘•ȋ‰‡ŽŽǡ ƒš„›ǡƬ‘†‘”‘˜ǡʹͲͲ͹ǢŽƒ’’‡”ǡ. ‘–• Šǡ ˜ƒ ‘‘‹Œǡ Ƭ ‹‰„‘Ž†—•ǡ ʹͲͳ͸ȌǤ ‘‡ ‡˜‹†‡ ‡ ‡˜‡ •—‰‰‡•–•. –Šƒ––”ƒ‹–‹’”‡••‹‘•ƒ”‡ˆ‘”‡†„‡ˆ‘”‡Š—ƒ•ƒ”‡ ‘• ‹‘—•Ž›ƒ™ƒ”‡. ‘ˆ ’‡” ‡‹˜‹‰ ƒ ˆƒ ‡ ȋ —‰ǡ ‹‡Šǡ Ƭ •‹‡Šǡ ʹͲͳ͸Ǣ –‡™ƒ”– ‡– ƒŽǤǡ ʹͲͳʹǢ. Winston, Strange, O’Doherty, & Dolan, 2002)Ǥ • ƒ ‘•‡“—‡ ‡•ǡ. ˆ‘”‹‰ ˆ‹”•– ‹’”‡••‹‘• ‹• ‘ˆ–‡ †‡• ”‹„‡† ƒ• ƒ ƒ†ƒ–‘”› ȋ‹– Š‹‡ǡ. ƒŽ‡”‘ǡ Ƭ Š‘†‡•ǡ ʹͲͳ͹Ȍǡ ”‡ˆŽ‡š‹˜‡ ȋƒ„ƒ Ƭ ƒ›ƒ•ǡ ʹͲͳʹȌǡ ƒ† ‹•–ƒ–ƒ‡‘—•’”‘ ‡••ȋ ”‡‡ƒƬ ‘Š•‘ǡʹͲͳ͸ȌǤ Accuracy of trait impressions . ‘™ƒ —”ƒ–‡ƒ”‡•’Ž‹–Ǧ•‡ ‘†Œ—†‰‡–•„ƒ•‡†‘ˆƒ ‹ƒŽˆ‡ƒ–—”‡•ǫ. ‘‡ Šƒ˜‡ ƒ”‰—‡† –Šƒ– ’‡”•‘ƒŽ‹–› Œ—†‰‡–• ‘ –Š‡ „ƒ•‹• ‘ˆ ˆƒ ‹ƒŽ. ƒ’’‡ƒ”ƒ ‡ȋ‹Ǥ‡Ǥǡ„ƒ•‡†‘•–ƒ–‹ ‹ƒ‰‡•‘ˆ”‡•–‹‰ǡ‘Ǧ‡š’”‡••‹˜‡ˆƒ ‡•Ȍ. contain a “kernel of truth” ȋ‡””›ǡ ͳͻͻͲǢ ‘‡ˆ‘ǡ ‘’ˆ‡•‹–œǡ Ƭ ‡. ‡›•ǡʹͲͳ͵Ǣ‡–‘Ǧ‘ƒǡ‘—†ǡ‹––Ž‡ǡƬ‡””‡––ǡʹͲͲ͸ȌǤŠ‹•˜‹‡™Š‘Ž†•. –Šƒ– •‘‡ ˆƒ ‹ƒŽ —‡• ‘Ǧ‘ —” ™‹–Š ’‡”•‘ƒŽ‹–› –”ƒ‹–• ƒ† –Šƒ– ’‡‘’Ž‡. ”‡Ž› ‘ –Š‡ –‘ ˆ‘” ƒ —”ƒ–‡ ‹’”‡••‹‘•Ǥ ‘™‡˜‡”ǡ ƒ ”‹–‹ ƒŽ ‡šƒ‹ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡Ž‹–‡”ƒ–—”‡”‡˜‡ƒŽ•–Šƒ–‡˜‹†‡ ‡ˆ‘”–Š‹•˜‹‡™‹•‘– ’ƒ”–‹ —Žƒ”Ž›•–”‘‰Ǥ . ‹”•–ǡ ‡’‹”‹ ƒŽ ‡˜‹†‡ ‡ ‹ •—’’‘”– ‘ˆ –Š‡ ‡”‡Ž ‘ˆ –”—–Š. Š›’‘–Š‡•‹• ‹• ‹ ‘•‹•–‡–Ǥ ‡ •–”‡ƒ ‘ˆ ”‡•‡ƒ” Š Šƒ• ˆ‘ —•‡† ‘ ™Š‡–Š‡”’‡‘’Ž‡ ƒ’”‡†‹ –„‡Šƒ˜‹‘”ƒŽ–‡†‡ ‹‡•ȋ‡Ǥ‰Ǥǡ–”—•–™‘”–Š‹‡••ǡ ‘””—’–‹„‹Ž‹–›Ȍ „ƒ•‡† ‘ ˆƒ ‹ƒŽ ƒ’’‡ƒ”ƒ ‡Ǥ ‘” ‡šƒ’Ž‡ǡ ‹ ‘‡. ‘‘Ž›ƒ†‘’–‡††‡•‹‰ǡ’ƒ”–‹ ‹’ƒ–•’Žƒ›ƒ‡ ‘‘‹ ‰ƒ‡‹™Š‹ Š –Š‡› †‡ ‹†‡ ™Š‡–Š‡” –‘ –”—•– ƒ ‹–‡”ƒ –‹‘ ’ƒ”–‡” „ƒ•‡† ‘ ƒ ˆƒ ‹ƒŽ. ’Š‘–‘‰”ƒ’Šȋ‘‡ˆ‘‡–ƒŽǤǡʹͲͳ͵ȌǤ ”‘••—Ž–‹’Ž‡•–—†‹‡•ǡ‘‡ˆ‘ ƒ† ‘ŽŽ‡ƒ‰—‡• ȋ‘‡ˆ‘ ‡– ƒŽǤǡ ʹͲͳ͵ǡ ʹͲͳ͹Ǣ ‡ ‡›•ǡ ‘’ˆ‡•‹–œǡ Ƭ. ‘‡ˆ‘ǡʹͲͳ͹Ȍˆ‘—†–Šƒ–’ƒ”–‹ ‹’ƒ–•™‡”‡‘”‡Ž‹‡Ž›–‘‡‰ƒ‰‡™‹–Š ’ƒ”–‡”• ™Š‘ –‡†‡† –‘ ”‡ ‹’”‘ ƒ–‡ǡ ”ƒ–Š‡” –Šƒ „‡–”ƒ› –Š‡‹” –”—•– ƒ– ͳʹ. .

(47)

(48) –”‘†— –‹‘. ”ƒ–‡• •Ž‹‰Š–Ž› ƒ„‘˜‡ Šƒ ‡ ȋ ƒǤ ͷͷΨȌǤ Š‡•‡ ”‡•—Ž–• •—‰‰‡•– –Šƒ– ’ƒ”–‹ ‹’ƒ–• ™‡”‡ ƒ„Ž‡ –‘ ‹†‡–‹ˆ› –”—•–™‘”–Š› ‹–‡”ƒ –‹‘ ’ƒ”–‡”•. „ƒ•‡†‘–Š‡‹”ˆƒ ‹ƒŽˆ‡ƒ–—”‡•Ǥ ‘™‡˜‡”ǡƒ”‡˜‹‡™‘ˆ–Š‡Ž‹–‡”ƒ–—”‡•Š‘™• –Šƒ–‡˜‹†‡ ‡‹ˆƒ˜‘”‘ˆ–Š‹• ‘ Ž—•‹‘•‹•‹š‡†ƒ†ƒ›•–—†‹‡•†‘. ‘– ˆ‹† ƒ› ƒ —”ƒ › ‹ –”—•–™‘”–Š‹‡•• †‡–‡ –‹‘ ȋˆˆ‡”•‘ Ƭ ‘‰–ǡ ʹͲͳ͵ǢǤ‹ǡ†‘Ž’Š•ǡƬŽ˜ƒ”‡œǡʹͲͳͺǢ—Ž‡‡–ƒŽǤǡʹͲͳ͵ǢŽ‡’‹ƒƬ‡•ǡ ʹͲͳͷǢ ›Ž™‡•–‡”ǡ ›‘•ǡ — Šƒƒǡ ‡––Ž‡ǡ Ƭ ‘„‡”–•ǡ ʹͲͳʹǢ ‘‰‡––‹ǡ. ‡”–‹ ƒ–ǡ ƒ›‘†ǡ Ƭ ƒ—”‹‡ǡ ʹͲͳ͵Ǣ ‘‰–ǡ ˆˆ‡”•‘ǡ Ƭ ‡Š”ǡ ʹͲͳ͵ȌǤ ‘”‡‘˜‡”ǡ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡– ‹˜‡•–‹‰ƒ–‹‘• •—‰‰‡•– –Šƒ– ƒ —”ƒ › †‡’‡†• ‘ ƒ. variety of different factors, such as the target’s sex ȋ‘‰‡––‹‡–ƒŽǤǡʹͲͳ͵Ȍǡ ƒ– ™Šƒ– ‘‡– –Š‡ ’Š‘–‘ ™ƒ• –ƒ‡ ȋ‡”’Žƒ‡–•‡ǡ ƒ‡•–‡ǡ Ƭ ”ƒ‡ ƒǡ ʹͲͲ͹Ȍǡ ‘” Š‘™ ’‡”•‘ƒŽ‹–› ‡˜ƒŽ—ƒ–‹‘• ƒ”‡ ‡ƒ•—”‡†. ȋ„‡Šƒ˜‹‘”ƒŽ –”—•– ˜•Ǥ –”—•–™‘”–Š‹‡•• ”ƒ–‹‰•Ǣ ‘‡ˆ‘ ‡– ƒŽǤǡ ʹͲͳ͵ȌǤ ‘‰‡–Š‡”ǡ –Š‡•‡ ”‡•—Ž–• ƒ•– †‘—„– ‘ –Š‡ ‘ Ž—•‹‘ –Šƒ– ’‡‘’Ž‡ ƒ ”‡Ž‹ƒ„Ž›†‡–‡ ––”—•–™‘”–Š‹‡••ˆ”‘ˆƒ ‹ƒŽˆ‡ƒ–—”‡•Ǥ . ™‘”‡Žƒ–‡†ƒ’’”‘ƒ Š‡•Šƒ˜‡›‹‡Ž†‡†•‹‹Žƒ”Ž›‹ ‘•‹•–‡–”‡•—Ž–•Ǥ. ‘” ‡šƒ’Ž‡ǡ ”‡•‡ƒ” Š‡”• Šƒ˜‡ ‡šƒ‹‡† ‘””‡Žƒ–‹‘• „‡–™‡‡ •‡ŽˆǦ. ”‡’‘”–‡† ‹‰ ‹˜‡ ’‡”•‘ƒŽ‹–› –”ƒ‹–• ƒ† ’‡” ‡‹˜‡† ’‡”•‘ƒŽ‹–› –”ƒ‹–•. „ƒ•‡† ‘ ˆƒ ‹ƒŽ ’Š‘–‘‰”ƒ’Š• ȋ‘”‡ƒ—ǡ ”‡ ‡ǡ ږ–‹‰ǡ Ƭ ƒ‡Ž‡ ‡ǡ. ʹͲͲͻȌǤ ‘–Š‡” ‘‘ ƒ’’”‘ƒ Š ‹• –‘ •‡Ž‡ – ‹†‹˜‹†—ƒŽ• –Šƒ– • ‘”‡ ’ƒ”–‹ —Žƒ”Ž›Š‹‰Š‘”Ž‘™‘ƒ ‡”–ƒ‹†‹‡•‹‘ȋ‡Ǥ‰Ǥ‡š–”ƒ˜‡”•‹‘Ȍƒ† ‘”’Š –Š‡‹” ˆƒ ‡• ‹ ‘”†‡” –‘ ”‡ƒ–‡ ‡š–”ƒ˜‡”–‡† ƒ† ‹–”‘˜‡”–‡† ˆƒ ‡. ’”‘–‘–›’‡•ȋ‡–‘Ǧ‘ƒ‡–ƒŽǤǡʹͲͲ͸ȌǤƒ”–‹ ‹’ƒ–•–Š‡ Š‘‘•‡™Š‹ Š‘ˆ. –Š‡–™‘ˆƒ ‡ ‘’‘•‹–‡•• ‘”‡•Š‹‰Š‡”‘–Š‡†‹‡•‹‘‘ˆ‹–‡”‡•–Ǥ . ‘” Œ—†‰‡–• ‘ˆ ‡š–”ƒ˜‡”•‹‘ǡ ™Š‹ Š —•—ƒŽŽ› •Š‘™ –Š‡ Š‹‰Š‡•–. Ž‡˜‡Ž• ‘ˆ ƒ —”ƒ › ‹ •–”ƒ‰‡” ”ƒ–‹‰ –ƒ•• ȋ‡› Ƭ ‡•–ǡ ʹͲͲͺȌǡ ‡˜‹†‡ ‡ˆ‘”–Š‡‡”‡Ž‘ˆ–”—–ŠŠ›’‘–Š‡•‹•‹•‹š‡†ǤŠ‹Ž‡•‘‡•–—†‹‡•. ˆ‹†•‹‰‹ˆ‹ ƒ–Ž‡˜‡Ž•‘ˆƒ —”ƒ ›ȋ‘”‡ƒ—‡–ƒŽǤǡʹͲͲͻǢ”ƒ‡”Ƭƒ”†ǡ. ʹͲͳͲǢƒ—ƒǡƒœ‹”‡ǡ‡–ˆ”‘™ǡƬ ‘•Ž‹‰ǡʹͲͲͻǢ‡–‘Ǧ‘ƒ‡–ƒŽǤǡ. ʹͲͲ͸Ȍǡ ‘–Š‡”• †‘ ‘– ȋ‡• ‡– ƒŽǤǡ ʹͲͳͲǢ Ǥ Ǥ ‘‡•ǡ ”ƒ‡”ǡ Ƭ ƒ”†ǡ. ʹͲͳʹǢ Š‡˜Ž‹ǡ ƒŽ‡”ǡ ƒ˜‹‡•ǡ ƒ›ƒ”†ǡ Ƭ ‡™‹•ǡ ʹͲͲ͵ȌǤ ‹‹Žƒ”Ž› . ͳ͵. 1.

(49) Šƒ’–‡”ͳ. ’ƒ––‡”• ™‡”‡ ˆ‘—† ˆ‘” Œ—†‰‡–• ‘ˆ ‘’‡‡••ǡ ‘• ‹‡–‹‘—•‡••ǡ. ƒ‰”‡‡ƒ„Ž‡‡••ǡƒ†‡—”‘–‹ ‹•Ǥ˜‡”ƒŽŽǡ‡˜‹†‡ ‡ˆ‘”ƒ —”ƒ–‡†‡–‡ –‹‘. ‘ˆ‹‰ ‹˜‡’‡”•‘ƒŽ‹–›–”ƒ‹–•ˆ”‘ˆƒ ‹ƒŽˆ‡ƒ–—”‡•‹•‹ ‘•‹•–‡–—‡˜‡ ™Š‡†‹ˆˆ‡”‡ ‡•‹ˆƒ ‹ƒŽˆ‡ƒ–—”‡•ƒ”‡‡šƒ‰‰‡”ƒ–‡†„›‘”’Š‹‰‹ƒ‰‡•. ‘ˆ ’‡‘’Ž‡ ™Š‘ • ‘”‡ Š‹‰Š‡•– ƒ† Ž‘™‡•– ‘ ƒ ‡”–ƒ‹ †‘ƒ‹ ȋ‹––Ž‡ Ƭ ‡””‡––ǡʹͲͲ͹Ǣ‡–‘Ǧ‘ƒ‡–ƒŽǤǡʹͲͲ͸ȌǤ . Š‡”‡ ƒ”‡ ƒ —„‡” ‘ˆ ƒ††‹–‹‘ƒŽ ”‡ƒ•‘• –Šƒ– •’‡ƒ ƒ‰ƒ‹•–. ƒ —”ƒ › ‹ –”ƒ‹– ‹’”‡••‹‘•Ǥ

(50) ˆ Œ—†‰‡–• ”‡ˆŽ‡ – –Š‡ †‡–‡ –‡† ’‡”•‘ƒŽ‹–› ‘ˆ ƒ •’‡ ‹ˆ‹  ‹†‹˜‹†—ƒŽ –Šƒ– ‹• •Š‘™ ‹ ƒ ’Š‘–‘ǡ –Š‡ Œ—†‰‡–• ‘ˆ –Š‡ •ƒ‡ ‹†‹˜‹†—ƒŽ •Š‘—Ž† „‡ ”‡Žƒ–‹˜‡Ž› ‘•‹•–‡–Ǥ. ‘™‡˜‡”ǡ–”ƒ‹–Œ—†‰‡–•˜ƒ”›•—„•–ƒ–‹ƒŽŽ›ƒ ”‘••†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–’Š‘–‘•‘ˆ. –Š‡ •ƒ‡ ‹†‹˜‹†—ƒŽ ȋ‘†‘”‘˜ Ƭ ‘”–‡”ǡ ʹͲͳͶƒȌǡ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡– ’‡” ‡‹˜‡”• ȋ ‡Šƒ ‡– ƒŽǤǡ ʹͲͳ͹Ȍǡ ƒ† †‹ˆˆ‡”‡– ‘–‡š–• ȋ”ƒ„‹ŽŽƒǡ ‹‡ŽŽƒǡ Ƭ. ”‡‡ƒǡʹͲͳͺȌǡ•—‰‰‡•–‹‰–Šƒ––Š‡›†‘‘–”‡ˆŽ‡ –”‡Ž‹ƒ„Ž‡‡˜ƒŽ—ƒ–‹‘• of an individual’s personality. .

(51) ƒ††‹–‹‘–‘™‡ƒ•—’’‘”–ˆ‘”ƒ —”ƒ ›‹’‡”•‘ƒŽ‹–›Œ—†‰‡–•ǡ. ‹–‹•— Ž‡ƒ”™Š‹ Š‡ Šƒ‹•• ‘—Ž†ƒ ‘—–ˆ‘”ƒ”‡Žƒ–‹‘•Š‹’„‡–™‡‡. ˆƒ ‹ƒŽ ƒ’’‡ƒ”ƒ ‡ ƒ† ’‡”•‘ƒŽ‹–› –”ƒ‹–•Ǥ ‘‡ Šƒ˜‡ ’”‘’‘•‡† –Šƒ–. †‹• ”‹‹ƒ–‹‘ „ƒ•‡† ‘ ˆƒ ‹ƒŽ ˆ‡ƒ–—”‡• ‹‰Š– ”‡•—Ž– ‹ ƒ •‡ŽˆǦˆ—Žˆ‹ŽŽ‹‰ ’”‘’Š‡ ›ȋŽ‡’‹ƒƬ‡•ǡʹͲͳͷȌǤ ‘”‡šƒ’Ž‡ǡ’‡‘’Ž‡™Š‘ƒ”‡ȋƒ–ˆ‹”•– ‹ ‘””‡ –Ž›Ȍ ’‡” ‡‹˜‡† ƒ• –”—•–™‘”–Š› †—‡ –‘ –Š‡‹” ˆƒ ‹ƒŽ ƒ’’‡ƒ”ƒ ‡ ‹‰Š– „‡ –”‡ƒ–‡† ‹ •— Š ƒ ™ƒ› –Šƒ– –Š‡› ƒ –—ƒŽŽ› –—” ‘—– –‘ „‡. —–”—•–™‘”–Š›ǤŠ‹•˜‹‡™’”‡†‹ –•–Šƒ–’‡‘’Ž‡™‹–Š•‹‹Žƒ”ˆƒ ‡••Š‘—Ž†. †‡˜‡Ž‘’ •‹‹Žƒ” ’‡”•‘ƒŽ‹–› –”ƒ‹–• „‡ ƒ—•‡ –Š‡› ƒ”‡ –”‡ƒ–‡† ‹ •‹‹Žƒ” ™ƒ›•Ǥ‡–ǡ•–—†‹‡•™‹–Š‰‡‡–‹ ƒŽŽ›—”‡Žƒ–‡†‹†‹˜‹†—ƒŽ•™‹–ŠŠ‹‰ŠŽ‡˜‡Ž•. ‘ˆ ˆƒ ‹ƒŽ •‹‹Žƒ”‹–› Šƒ˜‡ ›‹‡Ž†‡† ‘ •—’’‘”– ˆ‘” –Š‹• ’”‡†‹ –‹‘ ȋ‡‰ƒŽǡ ʹͲͳ͵Ǣ ‡‰ƒŽǡ ”ƒŠƒǡ Ƭ ––‹‰‡”ǡ ʹͲͳ͵Ǣ ‡‰ƒŽǡ ‡”ƒ†‡œǡ ”ƒŠƒǡ Ƭ ––‹‰‡”ǡʹͲͳͺȌǤ .  †‹ˆˆ‡”‡– –Š‡‘”› Š‘Ž†• –Šƒ– ˆƒ ‹ƒŽ ™‹†–ŠǦ–‘ǦŠ‡‹‰Š– ”ƒ–‹‘ ƒ†. ’‡”•‘ƒŽ‹–›ƒ”‡‹ˆŽ—‡ ‡†„› ‘‘„‹‘Ž‘‰‹ ƒŽˆƒ –‘”•ȋ‡ƒ‡”ǡ ‘‡–œǡ Šƒ––— ǡƬ Š‘–ƒŽƒǡʹͲͳʹǢ–‹””ƒ–Ƭ‡””‡––ǡʹͲͳͲȌǤ ‘™‡˜‡”ǡƒ”‡ ‡– ͳͶ. .

(52)

(53) –”‘†— –‹‘. •–—†› ˆ‘—† Ž‹––Ž‡ •—’’‘”– ˆ‘” ”‡Žƒ–‹‘•Š‹’• „‡–™‡‡ ˆƒ ‹ƒŽ ™‹†–ŠǦ–‘Ǧ. Š‡‹‰Š– ”ƒ–‹‘ ƒ† ƒ ™‹†‡ ”ƒ‰‡ ‘ˆ ’•› Š‘Ž‘‰‹ ƒŽ ƒ––”‹„—–‡• ȋ‘•‹•‹ǡ ʹͲͳ͹ȌǤ

(54)  •—ǡ –Š‡‘”‡–‹ ƒŽ ƒ† ‡’‹”‹ ƒŽ •—’’‘”– ˆ‘” –Š‡ ‹†‡ƒ –Šƒ–. ’‡”•‘ƒŽ‹–›–”ƒ‹–• ƒ„‡”‡Ž‹ƒ„Ž›‹ˆ‡””‡†ˆ”‘ˆƒ ‹ƒŽƒ’’‡ƒ”ƒ ‡‹•™‡ƒ. ƒ†‹ ‘•‹•–‡–ǤŠ‹Ž‡‘”‡”‹‰‘”‘—•ǡŠ‹‰ŠǦ’‘™‡”‡†•–—†‹‡•ƒ”‡‡‡†‡†. –‘ƒ††”‡••™Š‹ Š–”ƒ‹–•ƒ›„‡”‡ˆŽ‡ –‡†‹ˆƒ ‹ƒŽˆ‡ƒ–—”‡•ȋƒ†™Šƒ– ƒ account for this), the available evidence suggests that people’s ability to ‹ˆ‡”’‡”•‘ƒŽ‹–›–”ƒ‹–•ˆ”‘ˆƒ ‡•‹•™‡ƒƒ–„‡•–Ǥ Functional significance of trait impressions . Šƒ–ƒ”‡–Š‡—Ž–‹ƒ–‡‡š’lanations for people’s tendency to ˆ‘”. –”ƒ‹– ‹’”‡••‹‘• ˆ”‘ ˆƒ ‹ƒŽ ˆ‡ƒ–—”‡•ǫ Š‡ —””‡– ‡˜‹†‡ ‡ •—‰‰‡•–•. –Šƒ––”ƒ‹–‹’”‡••‹‘•ƒ”‡‰‡‡”ƒŽŽ›‹ƒ —”ƒ–‡ǡ•‘™Š›†‘’‡‘’Ž‡ˆ‘” –Š‡‹–Š‡ˆ‹”•–’Žƒ ‡ǫ ”‘ƒ‡˜‘Ž—–‹‘ƒ”›’‘‹–‘ˆ˜‹‡™ǡƒ—–‘ƒ–‹  „—–‹ƒ —”ƒ–‡‹ˆ‡”‡ ‡ƒ›•‡‡’ƒ”ƒ†‘š‹ ƒŽǤ . Š‡‘•– ‘˜‹ ‹‰‡š’Žƒƒ–‹‘‹•’”‘˜‹†‡†„›‘˜‡”‰‡‡”ƒŽ‹œƒ–‹‘. –Š‡‘”› ȋ‡„”‘™‹–œǡ ʹͲͳ͹Ǣ ‡„”‘™‹–œ ‡– ƒŽǤǡ ʹͲͲ͵ȌǤ ˜‡ •Ž‹‰Š– ”‡•‡„Žƒ ‡• „‡–™‡‡ˆƒ ‹ƒŽˆ‡ƒ–—”‡•ƒ†•‘ ‹ƒŽŽ›”‡Ž‡˜ƒ–•–‹—Ž‹ƒ”‡. •—ˆˆ‹ ‹‡––‘–”‹‰‰‡”ƒ••‘ ‹ƒ–‡†•–‡”‡‘–›’‡•ƒ†”‡•’‘•‡•Ǥ ‘”‡šƒ’Ž‡ǡ ˆƒ ‹ƒŽˆ‡ƒ–—”‡•–Šƒ–•Ž‹‰Š–Ž›”‡•‡„Ž‡‡‘–‹‘‡š’”‡••‹‘•ȋ‡Ǥ‰ǤǡŽ‘™‡”‡†. ‡›‡„”‘™•”‡•‡„Ž‹‰ƒƒ‰”›• ‘™Ž‘”—’–—”‡† ‘”‡”•‘ˆ–Š‡‘—–Š. ”‡•‡„Ž‹‰ƒ•‹Ž‡Ȍ ƒ‡Ž‹ ‹–‹ˆ‡”‡ ‡•–Šƒ–ƒ”‡ ‘‰”—‡–™‹–Š–Š‡•‡. ‡‘–‹‘ƒŽ •–ƒ–‡• ȋ‡Ǥ‰Ǥǡ ƒ •‹Ž‹‰ ’‡”•‘ ‹• –”—•–™‘”–Š› ƒ† ˆ”‹‡†Ž›Ǣ. †ƒ•ǡ‡Ž•‘ǡ‘–‘ǡ ‡••ǡƬŽ‡ ǡʹͲͳʹǢƒ‹†ǡ‡„‡ǡƬ‘†‘”‘˜ǡʹͲͲͻȌǤ

(55)  ƒ •‹‹Žƒ” ˜‡‹ǡ ˆ‡‹‹‡ ˆƒ ‹ƒŽ ˆ‡ƒ–—”‡• –”‹‰‰‡” –”ƒ‹– ‹’”‡••‹‘•. ‘‰”—‡–™‹–Š‰‡†‡”•–‡”‡‘–›’‡•ȋŠǡ— ǡƬ‘†‘”‘˜ǡʹͲͳͻǢƒŽ‡” ‡– ƒŽǤǡ ʹͲͳ͹Ȍ ƒ† „ƒ„›Ǧ‹•Š ˆ‡ƒ–—”‡• ȋ‹Ǥ‡Ǥǡ Žƒ”‰‡ ‡›‡• ƒ† ”‘—† ˆƒ ‡•Ȍ. –”‹‰‰‡” –”ƒ‹– ‹’”‡••‹‘• ƒ••‘ ‹ƒ–‡† ™‹–Š ‹ˆƒ–• ȋ‡„”‘™‹–œ Ƭ ‘–‡’ƒ”‡ǡͳͻͻʹȌǤŠ—•ǡˆ‹”•–‹’”‡••‹‘•ƒ”‡„›Ǧ’”‘†— –•‘ˆ‘–Š‡”™‹•‡ ƒ†ƒ’–‹˜‡ ‡ Šƒ‹•• –Šƒ– ‡š–”ƒ – •‘ ‹ƒŽŽ› ”‡Ž‡˜ƒ– ‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘ ˆ”‘ ˆƒ ‹ƒŽ ƒ’’‡ƒ”ƒ ‡Ǥ Š‹• ‡š’Žƒ‹• ™Š› ’‡‘’Ž‡ ƒ—–‘ƒ–‹ ƒŽŽ› ƒ† . ͳͷ. 1.

(56) Šƒ’–‡”ͳ. ‘•‡•—ƒŽŽ› ‹ˆ‡” ƒ ˜ƒ”‹‡–› ‘ˆ Šƒ”ƒ –‡”‹•–‹ • ˆ”‘ ˆƒ ‹ƒŽ ƒ’’‡ƒ”ƒ ‡ ‡˜‡–Š‘—‰Š–Š‡•‡Œ—†‰‡–•Šƒ˜‡˜‡”›Ž‘™‘”‘’”‡†‹ –‹˜‡˜ƒŽ‹†‹–›Ǥ . ˆ— –‹‘ƒŽ˜‹‡™‘ˆˆ‹”•–‹’”‡••‹‘•‹•ƒŽ•‘•—’’‘”–‡†„›•–—†‹‡•. ‘‘ǦŠ—ƒ’”‹ƒ–‡•ƒ†‘–Š‡”ƒ‹ƒŽ•Ǥ

(57) ˆ–Š‡ ‘‰‹–‹˜‡‡ Šƒ‹••. –Šƒ–‰‹˜‡”‹•‡–‘ˆ‹”•–‹’”‡••‹‘•Šƒ˜‡‡˜‘Ž˜‡††—‡–‘•‡Ž‡ –‹‘’”‡••—”‡• ‹ Š—ƒ•’ evolutionary pastǡ –Š‡ ‘–Š‡” •’‡ ‹‡• –Šƒ– ˆƒ ‡† •‹‹Žƒ” ’”‡••—”‡•ȋ‘”–Šƒ–Šƒ˜‡‡˜‘Ž˜‡†ˆ”‘ƒ ‘‘ƒ ‡•–‘”Ȍ•Š‘—Ž†•Š‘™. •‹‹Žƒ””‡ƒ –‹‘•–‘ˆƒ ‹ƒŽ —‡•Ǥ‘–‡•––Š‹•Š›’‘–Š‡•‹•ǡ”‡•‡ƒ” Š‡”•Šƒ˜‡ ‡šƒ‹‡† Š‘™ primates’ ‰ƒœ‡ „‡Šƒ˜‹‘” ‹• ‹ˆŽ—‡ ‡† „› ˜ƒ”‹ƒ–‹‘• ‹. ˆƒ ‹ƒŽ ˆ‡ƒ–—”‡• ȋ”ƒ–Š‡” –Šƒ ƒ•‹‰ –Š‡ –‘ ”ƒ–‡ ˆƒ ‡• ‘ ƒ ‹ ‡Ǧ’‘‹–. • ƒŽ‡Ǣ ‡‘’‘Ž† Ƭ Š‘†‡•ǡ ʹͲͳͲȌǤ Š‡•—• ƒ ƒ“—‡• •’‡– ‘”‡ –‹‡. Ž‘‘‹‰ƒ––Š‡ˆƒ ‡•‘ˆ ‘•’‡ ‹ˆ‹ •™Š‡–Š‡‹”ˆƒ ‹ƒŽ•›‡–”›ȋƒ‹––Ƭ. ‹––Ž‡ǡʹͲͲ͸Ȍ‘””‡†‡••ȋƒ‹––‡–ƒŽǤǡʹͲͲ͵Ȍ™‡”‡‹ ”‡ƒ•‡†ǤŠ‡•‡”‡•—Ž–• ‹””‘” ˆ‹†‹‰• ˆ”‘ ‡š’‡”‹‡–• ‹ ™Š‹ Š ˆƒ ‡• ™‹–Š ‹ ”‡ƒ•‡†. •›‡–”›ȋ‡””‡––‡–ƒŽǤǡͳͻͻͻǢŠ‘†‡•‡–ƒŽǤǡʹͲͲ͹Ȍƒ†”‡†‡••ȋ ƒ‡–. ƒŽǤǡ ʹͲͳ͹Ǣ Š‘”•–‡•‘ Ƭ ŽŽ‹‘–ǡ ʹͲͳ͹Ǣ Š‘”•–‡•‘ ‡– ƒŽǤǡ ʹͲͳ͹Ȍ ™‡”‡. ”ƒ–‡†ƒ•‘”‡ƒ––”ƒ –‹˜‡„›Š—ƒ•—„Œ‡ –•ǤŠ‡•‡ˆ‹†‹‰•ƒ›‹†‹ ƒ–‡. –Šƒ–„‘–Š•’‡ ‹‡•ƒ”‡ƒ––—‡†–‘’‹ —’‘–Š‡•ƒ‡ˆƒ ‹ƒŽˆ‡ƒ–—”‡•†—‡. –‘–Š‡‹”‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘ƒŽ˜ƒŽ—‡Ǥ—–†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–Ž›ǡ –Š‡ ‘‰‹–‹˜‡‡ Šƒ‹•• –Šƒ–’”‘ ‡••–Š‡•‡ˆƒ ‹ƒŽˆ‡ƒ–—”‡•ƒ”‡•Šƒ”‡†„›„‘–Š•’‡ ‹‡•Ǥ Consequences of trait impressions .

(58)  •’‹–‡ ‘ˆ –Š‡‹” ‰‡‡”ƒŽŽ› Ž‘™ ƒ —”ƒ ›ǡ ’‡”•‘ƒŽ‹–› –”ƒ‹–. ‹’”‡••‹‘• ˆ”‘ ˆƒ ‡• ‹ˆŽ—‡ ‡ ƒ› ‹’‘”–ƒ– †‡ ‹•‹‘• ȋŽ‹˜‘Žƒǡ —ǡ ‡– ƒŽǤǡ ʹͲͳͶȌǤ ‘” ‡šƒ’Ž‡ǡ –”—•–™‘”–Š‹‡•• ‹’”‡••‹‘• ƒˆˆ‡ –. ‹–‡”’‡”•‘ƒŽ –”—•– (van’t ‘—– Ƭ ƒˆ‡›ǡ ʹͲͲͺȌǡ Ž‡†‹‰ †‡ ‹•‹‘•. ȋ—ƒ”–‡‡–ƒŽǤǡʹͲͳʹȌǡƒ†Ž‡‰ƒŽ•‡–‡ ‹‰ȋ‘”–‡”ǡ–‡”‹‡ǡƬ —•–ƒ™ǡ. ʹͲͳͲȌǤ  •–—†› „› ‹Ž•‘ ƒ† —Ž‡ ȋʹͲͳͷȌ ‡˜‡ ˆ‘—† –Šƒ– —–”—•–™‘”–Š›ǦŽ‘‘‹‰ ”‹‹ƒŽ•™‡”‡‘”‡Ž‹‡Ž›–‘”‡ ‡‹˜‡–Š‡†‡ƒ–Š. ’‡ƒŽ–› ȋƒ• ‘’’‘•‡† –‘ Ž‹ˆ‡ ‹ ’”‹•‘ȌǤ ‘”‡‘˜‡”ǡ ‘’‡–‡ ‡. ‹’”‡••‹‘• ‹ˆŽ—‡ ‡ ˜‘–‹‰ „‡Šƒ˜‹‘” ȋŽ‹˜‘Žƒ Ƭ ‘†‘”‘˜ǡ ʹͲͳͲƒǢ ͳ͸. .

(59)

(60) –”‘†— –‹‘. ‘†‘”‘˜ǡ ƒ†‹•‘†œƒǡ ‘”‡ǡ Ƭ ƒŽŽǡ ʹͲͲͷȌ ƒ† ’‡”•‘‡Ž •‡Ž‡ –‹‘ ȋ ”ƒŠƒǡ ƒ”˜‡›ǡ Ƭ —”‹ǡ ʹͲͳ͹Ǣ ‹‰ ‡– ƒŽǤǡ ʹͲͳͻǢ –‘‡”ǡ ƒ””‡–•‡ǡ Ƭ ’”‡‡—™‡”•ǡʹͲͳ͸ȌǤ .

(61)  ƒ††‹–‹‘ǡ ƒ ‡š–‡•‹˜‡ Ž‹–‡”ƒ–—”‡ ‘ –Š‡ •‘Ǧ ƒŽŽ‡† „‡ƒ—–›. ’”‡‹—•Š‘™•–Šƒ–ˆƒ ‹ƒŽƒ––”ƒ –‹˜‡‡••Œ—†‰‡–•ƒŽ•‘‹ˆŽ—‡ ‡ƒ› †‡ ‹•‹‘•Ǥ˜‡–Š‘—‰Š‹’”‡••‹‘•‘ˆƒ––”ƒ –‹˜‡‡••ƒ”‡‘–‹ƒ —”ƒ–‡. ’‡”•‡ȋ„—–•‡‡‡„”‘™‹–œƬŠ‘†‡•ǡʹͲͲͶȌǡ–Š‡›‘ˆ–‡ƒˆˆ‡ –‘—– ‘‡•. ˆ‘”™Š‹ Šƒ––”ƒ –‹˜‡‡•••Š‘—Ž†„‡‹””‡Ž‡˜ƒ–ȋƒ‡•–”‹’‹‡”‹‡–ƒŽǤǡʹͲͳ͹ȌǤ

(62) ‘–Š‡”™‘”†•ǡ’‡‘’Ž‡’‡”•‹•–‡–Ž›”‡Ž›‘ˆƒ ‹ƒŽƒ––”ƒ –‹˜‡‡••–‘ƒ‡. †‡ ‹•‹‘•ǡ ™Š‹ Š Ž‡ƒ†• –‘ ™‹†‡•’”‡ƒ† †‹• ”‹‹ƒ–‹‘ ƒ‰ƒ‹•– —ƒ––”ƒ –‹˜‡’‡‘’Ž‡Ǥ ‘”‡šƒ’Ž‡ǡ‹†‹˜‹†—ƒŽ•™‹–Š—ƒ––”ƒ –‹˜‡ˆƒ ‡•ƒ”‡. Ž‡•• Ž‹‡Ž› –‘ „‡ ‹˜‹–‡† ˆ‘” Œ‘„ ‹–‡”˜‹‡™• ȋבǡ ‘••‹ǡ Ƭ ”œïƒǡ ʹͲͳ͵Ǣ. —ˆˆŽ‡ Ƭ Š–—†‹‡”ǡ ʹͲͳͷȌ ƒ† ”‡ ‡‹˜‡ Ž‘™‡” ™ƒ‰‡• ȋ ƒ‡”‡•Š Ƭ ‹††Ž‡ǡ ͳͻͻͶȌǤ

(63)  ‰‡‡”ƒŽǡ —ƒ––”ƒ –‹˜‡ ’‡‘’Ž‡ •‡‡ –‘ „‡ –”‡ƒ–‡† Ž‡••. ˆƒ˜‘”ƒ„Ž› ‹ •‘ ‹ƒŽ ‹–‡”ƒ –‹‘•ǡ ”‡ ‡‹˜‹‰ Ž‡•• Š‡Ž’ǡ ƒ––‡–‹‘ǡ ‘” ‘–Š‡”. ’‘•‹–‹˜‡‘—– ‘‡•ȋƒ‰Ž‘‹•‡–ƒŽǤǡʹͲͲͲǢƒ‡•–”‹’‹‡”‹‡–ƒŽǤǡʹͲͳ͹ȌǤŠ—•ǡ Š‘™ –”—•–™‘”–Š›ǡ ‘’‡–‡–ǡ ‘” ƒ––”ƒ –‹˜‡ ƒ ’‡”•‘ ‹• ’‡” ‡‹˜‡† –‘ „‡ ‹ˆŽ—‡ ‡•ƒ™‹†‡”ƒ‰‡‘ˆ‹’‘”–ƒ–•‘ ‹ƒŽ‘—– ‘‡•Ǥ . ‡Ž‹ƒ ‡‘•’Ž‹–Ǧ•‡ ‘†Œ—†‰‡–•‘ˆˆƒ ‡•‹•‘–‘Ž›™‹†‡•’”‡ƒ†ǡ. „—–ƒŽ•‘•—”’”‹•‹‰Ž›’‡”•‹•–‡–Ǥ‡‘’Ž‡”‡Ž›‘ ˆƒ ‹ƒŽƒ’’‡ƒ”ƒ ‡ ‡˜‡. ™Š‡–Š‡›Šƒ˜‡ƒ ‡••–‘‘„Œ‡ –‹˜‡Ž›„‡––‡”‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘ ȋŽ‹˜‘Žƒ‡–ƒŽǤǡ ʹͲͳͺǢ‡œŽ‡• —ǡ— Šƒ‹‡ǡŽ‹˜‘ŽƒǡƬŠƒ–‡”ǡʹͲͳʹȌƒ†‡˜‡™Š‡–Š‡›. ƒ”‡†‹”‡ –Ž›–‘Ž†‘––‘ȋŽƒ‹”‡–ƒŽǤǡʹͲͲͶǢ ƒ••‹Ƭ”‘’‡ǡʹͲͲͲȌǤ‡Ž‹ƒ ‡ ‘–”ƒ‹–‹’”‡••‹‘•‹•’”‡˜ƒŽ‡–ƒ‘‰›‘—‰ Š‹Ž†”‡ƒ†‘Ž†ƒ†—Ž–•. ȋŠƒ”Ž‡•™‘”–Šǡ —†•‘ǡ‘‰•†‹ŽŽǡ’‡Ž‡ǡƬƒƒŒ‹ǡʹͲͳͻǢ—œ—‹ǡʹͲͳ͸Ȍ ƒ† ‡š–‡†• –‘ •‹–—ƒ–‹‘• ™‹–Š •–”‘‰ ‹ ‡–‹˜‡• –‘ ƒ‡ —„‹ƒ•‡†. †‡ ‹•‹‘•Ǥ ‘” ‡šƒ’Ž‡ǡ ˆƒ ‹ƒŽ ƒ’’‡ƒ”ƒ ‡ ‹ˆŽ—‡ ‡• –Š‡ •‡Ž‡ –‹‘ ƒ† ‘’‡•ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ„—•‹‡••Ž‡ƒ†‡”•‡˜‡–Š‘—‰Šˆƒ ‹ƒŽƒ’’‡ƒ”ƒ ‡‹•‘–. ”‡Žƒ–‡†–‘’‡”ˆ‘”ƒ ‡ȋ ”ƒŠƒ‡–ƒŽǤǡʹͲͳ͹Ǣ‹‰‡–ƒŽǤǡʹͲͳͻȌǤŠ‡”‡‹•. ƒŽ•‘†‹”‡ –‡˜‹†‡ ‡–Šƒ–”‡Ž‹ƒ ‡‘ˆƒ ‹ƒŽƒ’’‡ƒ”ƒ ‡ ƒŽ‡ƒ†–‘™‘”•‡. †‡ ‹•‹‘‘—– ‘‡•ǣŠ‡Œ—†‰‹‰ƒ˜ƒ”‹‡–›‘ˆ Šƒ”ƒ –‡”‹•–‹ •ǡ’‡‘’Ž‡ƒ”‡ . ͳ͹. 1.

(64) Šƒ’–‡”ͳ. Ž‡••ƒ —”ƒ–‡‹ˆ–Š‡›‘™™Šƒ–ƒ’‡”•‘Ž‘‘•Ž‹‡ǡ•—’’‘•‡†Ž›„‡ ƒ—•‡. –Š‡› ”‡Ž› ‹ ‹ƒ —”ƒ–‡ ˆƒ ‹ƒŽ •–‡”‡‘–›’‡• ȋŽ‹˜‘Žƒ Ƭ ‘†‘”‘˜ǡ ʹͲͳͲ„ȌǤ Š‡•‡•–—†‹‡••Š‘™–Šƒ–ǡ‡˜‡‹ˆ–Š‡”‡‹‰Š–„‡ƒ•ƒŽŽ‡”‡Ž‘ˆ–”—–Š‹ –”ƒ‹–‹’”‡••‹‘•ǡ’‡‘’Ž‡”‡‰—Žƒ”Ž›over”‡Ž›‘ˆƒ ‹ƒŽƒ’’‡ƒ”ƒ ‡Ǥ. First impressions as social biases. . ˜‡”ƒŽŽǡƒ‡š–‡•‹˜‡Ž‹–‡”ƒ–—”‡•—‰‰‡•–•–Šƒ–ˆƒ ‹ƒŽˆ‡ƒ–—”‡• ‡š‡”–. ƒ—†—‡‹ˆŽ—‡ ‡‘ƒ› ‘•‡“—‡–‹ƒŽ†‡ ‹•‹‘•ǤŠ‹•„‹ƒ•‘–‘Ž›. Ž‡ƒ†• –‘ •—„Ǧ‘’–‹ƒŽ ‘—– ‘‡• ˆ‘” †‡ ‹•‹‘Ǧƒ‡”•ǡ „—– ƒŽ•‘ –‘. •›•–‡ƒ–‹  †‹• ”‹‹ƒ–‹‘ ƒ‰ƒ‹•– ’‡‘’Ž‡ ™‹–Š ƒ ‡”–ƒ‹ ˆƒ ‹ƒŽ ƒ’’‡ƒ”ƒ ‡Ǥ

(65)  ‘–Š‡” ™‘”†•ǡ ’‡‘’Ž‡ ƒ› ‘– ‘Ž› ‡š’‡”‹‡ ‡ —ˆƒ‹” –”‡ƒ–‡–„‡ ƒ—•‡‘ˆ–Š‡‹”‰‡†‡”ǡ”ƒ ‡ǡ‘”•‡š—ƒŽ‘”‹‡–ƒ–‹‘ǡ„—–ƒŽ•‘. „‡ ƒ—•‡‘ˆ–Š‡‹”ˆƒ ‹ƒŽƒ’’‡ƒ”ƒ ‡Ǥ ‘™‡˜‡”ǡ ‘’ƒ”‡†–‘‘–Š‡”–›’‡•‘ˆ. †‹• ”‹‹ƒ–‹‘ǡ ˆƒ ‹ƒŽ †‹• ”‹‹ƒ–‹‘ ‹• ’‘‘”Ž› —†‡”•–‘‘†Ǥ

(66)  –Š‡”‡ˆ‘”‡ ƒ”‰—‡ –Šƒ– ™‡ •Š‘—Ž† –”‡ƒ– ˆ‹”•– ‹’”‡••‹‘• ‘”‡ Ž‹‡ ‘–Š‡” •‘ ‹ƒŽ „‹ƒ•‡•Ǥ ‹‡™‹‰ ˆ‹”•– ‹’”‡••‹‘• ƒ• „‹ƒ•‹‰ ‹ˆŽ—‡ ‡• ‹• ‘– ‡™. ȋƒ‡•–”‹’‹‡”‹ ‡– ƒŽǤǡ ʹͲͳ͹Ǣ Ž‹˜‘Žƒǡ —ǡ ‡– ƒŽǤǡ ʹͲͳͶǢ ‡„”‘™‹–œ ‡– ƒŽǤǡ ʹͲͲ͵ȌǤ‡–ǡ†‡•’‹–‡‘™Ž‡†‰‡ƒ„‘—––Š‡’‡”˜ƒ•‹˜‡‡••‘ˆ–Š‡„‹ƒ•ǡƒ› ‡› “—‡•–‹‘• ”‡ƒ‹ —ƒ•™‡”‡†Ǥ ’’”‘ƒ Š‹‰ ˆ‹”•– ‹’”‡••‹‘• ‹ ƒ. •‹‹Žƒ”™ƒ›ƒ•™‡ƒ’’”‘ƒ Š‰‡†‡”‘””ƒ ‡„‹ƒ•‡••Š‹ˆ–•–Š‡ˆ‘ —•–‘‡›. “—‡•–‹‘•–Šƒ–‡‡†–‘„‡ƒ††”‡••‡†‹ˆ™‡™ƒ––‘”‡†— ‡†‹• ”‹‹ƒ–‹‘ „ƒ•‡†‘ˆƒ ‹ƒŽƒ’’‡ƒ”ƒ ‡Ǥ . ’‡ ‹ˆ‹ ƒŽŽ›ǡ”‡•‡ƒ” Š‘•‘ ‹ƒŽ„‹ƒ•‡•‹•‘ˆ–‡ ‘–‹˜ƒ–‡†„›–Š”‡‡. ‰‡‡”ƒŽ ”‡•‡ƒ” Š “—‡•–‹‘•Ǥ ‘™ ’”‡˜ƒŽ‡– ‹• –Š‡ „‹ƒ•ǫ Šƒ– ƒ”‡ –Š‡. —†‡”Ž›‹‰‡ Šƒ‹••ǫ ‘™ ƒ™‡‹–‹‰ƒ–‡–Š‡„‹ƒ•ǫ‡‘™ƒŽ‘– ƒ„‘—– –Š‡ ’”‡˜ƒŽ‡ ‡ ‘ˆ ˆƒ ‹ƒŽ †‹• ”‹‹ƒ–‹‘ǡ „—– Ž‹––Ž‡ ƒ„‘—– –Š‡ —†‡”Ž›‹‰‡ Šƒ‹••‘”’‘–‡–‹ƒŽ™ƒ›•–‘‹–‹‰ƒ–‡‹–ǤŠ›†‘’‡‘’Ž‡ ’‡”•‹•–‡–Ž›”‡Ž›‘–”ƒ‹–‹’”‡••‹‘ǡ†‡•’‹–‡–Š‡‹”Ž‘™†‹ƒ‰‘•–‹ ˜ƒŽ—‡. ƒ††‡•’‹–‡–Š‡ˆƒ ––Šƒ––Š‹• ƒŽ‡ƒ†–‘™‘”•‡†‡ ‹•‹‘‘—– ‘‡•ǫ ‘™ ƒ ™‡ ”‡†— ‡ ˆƒ ‹ƒŽ †‹• ”‹‹ƒ–‹‘ǫ Š‹• †‹••‡”–ƒ–‹‘ –”‹‡• –‘ ƒ•™‡” •‘‡‘ˆ–Š‡•‡“—‡•–‹‘•Ǥ ͳͺ. .

(67) Outline of the dissertation .

(68) –”‘†— –‹‘.

(69)  •–ƒ”–‡† –Š‹• †‹••‡”–ƒ–‹‘ †—”‹‰ ƒ ‡š ‹–‹‰ –‹‡Ǥ ƒ”‰‡Ǧ• ƒŽ‡. ”‡’Ž‹ ƒ–‹‘• ’”‘Œ‡ –• ”‡˜‡ƒŽ‡† –Šƒ– ƒ› •—’’‘•‡†Ž› ”‘„—•– ‡ˆˆ‡ –• ‹ •‘ ‹ƒŽ ’•› Š‘Ž‘‰› ȋƒ† –Š‡ „‡Šƒ˜‹‘”ƒŽ • ‹‡ ‡• ‹ ‰‡‡”ƒŽȌ †‘ ‘–. ™‹–Š•–ƒ† Ž‘•‡” • ”—–‹› ȋƒ‡”‡” ‡– ƒŽǤǡ ʹͲͳͺǢ ’‡  ‹‡ ‡ ‘ŽŽƒ„‘”ƒ–‹‘ǡ ʹͲͳͷȌǤ —‡•–‹‘ƒ„Ž‡ ”‡•‡ƒ” Š ’”ƒ –‹ ‡•—•— Š ƒ• pǦ. Šƒ ‹‰ǡ Š›’‘–Š‡•‹œ‹‰ ƒˆ–‡” –Š‡ ”‡•—Ž–• ƒ”‡ ‘™ǡ ƒ† ’—„Ž‹ ƒ–‹‘ „‹ƒ•—ƒ’’‡ƒ” –‘ „‡ ‘‘ ƒ† †”ƒ•–‹ ƒŽŽ› ‹ ”‡ƒ•‡ –Š‡ ”ƒ–‡ ‘ˆ ˆƒŽ•‡. ’‘•‹–‹˜‡• ‹ Ž‹–‡”ƒ–—”‡ ȋ

(70) ‘ƒ‹†‹•ǡ ʹͲͲͷǢ ‘Šǡ ‘‡™‡•–‡‹ǡ Ƭ ”‡Ž‡ ǡ. ʹͲͳʹǢ ‹‘•ǡ ‡Ž•‘ǡ Ƭ ‹‘•‘Šǡ ʹͲͳͳȌǤ

(71)  Ž‹‰Š– ‘ˆ –Š‹• ”‹•‹• ‘ˆ ‘ˆ‹†‡ ‡ǡ •–ƒ†ƒ”†• ‹ ‡–Š‘†‘Ž‘‰‹ ƒŽ ƒ† •–ƒ–‹•–‹ ƒŽ ’”ƒ –‹ ‡• ƒ”‡. Šƒ‰‹‰Ǥ ‘ŽŽ‘™‹‰–Š‡•‡”‡ ‡–†‡˜‡Ž‘’‡–•ǡ

(72) –‘‘•‡˜‡”ƒŽ•–‡’•–‘ ‹’”‘˜‡–Š‡–”ƒ•’ƒ”‡ ›ǡ”‡’”‘†— ‹„‹Ž‹–›ǡƒ†”‡’Ž‹ ƒ„‹Ž‹–›‘ˆ›™‘”Ǥ. Š‡ƒŒ‘”‹–›‘ˆ•–—†‹‡•”‡’‘”–‡†‹–Š‹•†‹••‡”–ƒ–‹‘™‡”‡’”‡”‡‰‹•–‡”‡†Ǥ Š‡ ’‘••‹„Ž‡ǡ

(73)  ‘†— –‡† ƒ ’”‹‘”‹ ’‘™‡” ƒƒŽ›•‡• ‘” •‡•‹–‹˜‹–›. ƒƒŽ›•‡• –‘ ‡•—”‡ •—ˆˆ‹ ‹‡– •–ƒ–‹•–‹ ƒŽ ’‘™‡”Ǥ

(74)  ƒŽ•‘ ‘†— –‡† replication studies of my own and others’ work. For each chapter, all. †ƒ–ƒǡ ƒƒŽ›•‹• • ”‹’–•ǡ ’”‡”‡‰‹•–”ƒ–‹‘ †‘ —‡–•ǡ ƒ† •–—†› ƒ–‡”‹ƒŽ•. ƒ”‡ ’—„Ž‹ ƒŽŽ› ƒ˜ƒ‹Žƒ„Ž‡Ǥ ‘”‡‘˜‡”ǡ ƒŽŽ ’ƒ’‡”• ȋ‹ Ž—†‹‰ ƒ ‡Ž‡ –”‘‹  ˜‡”•‹‘‘ˆ–Š‹•†‹••‡”–ƒ–‹‘Ȍ ƒ„‡ˆ‘—†‘Ž‹‡Ǥ . Š‡ ”‡•‡ƒ” Š ’”‡•‡–‡† ‹ –Š‹• †‹••‡”–ƒ–‹‘ ™‘—Ž† ‘– Šƒ˜‡ „‡‡. ’‘••‹„Ž‡™‹–Š‘—––Š‡Š‡Ž’‘ˆ› ‘Ǧƒ—–Š‘”•ǤŠ‡‡’‹”‹ ƒŽ Šƒ’–‡”•ƒ”‡. –Š‡”‡ˆ‘”‡™”‹––‡—•‹‰’Ž—”ƒŽ’‡”•‘ƒŽ’”‘‘—•Ǥ ‘™‡˜‡”ǡ„‡ ƒ—•‡–Š‡

(75) –”‘†— –‹‘ƒ† ‡‡”ƒŽ‹• —••‹‘ƒŽ•‘”‡ˆŽ‡ –›‘™–Š‘—‰Š–•ǡ–Š‡› ƒ”‡™”‹––‡—•‹‰•‹‰—Žƒ”’‡”•‘ƒŽ’”‘‘—•Ǥ . ƒ Š‡’‹”‹ ƒŽ Šƒ’–‡”‹–Š‹•†‹••‡”–ƒ–‹‘‹•„ƒ•‡†‘ƒ‹†‹˜‹†—ƒŽ. ’ƒ’‡” –Šƒ– ‹• ‡‹–Š‡” ’—„Ž‹•Š‡† ‘” —†‡”‰‘‹‰ ’‡‡” ”‡˜‹‡™Ǥ Š‡ •‹š Šƒ’–‡”• ƒ„‡‰”‘—’‡†‹–‘–Š”‡‡•‡ –‹‘•ǡ ‘””‡•’‘†‹‰–‘–Š‡–Š”‡‡ ‡–”ƒŽ “—‡•–‹‘• –Šƒ– ƒ”‡ ”ƒ‹•‡† „› ƒ •‘ ‹ƒŽ „‹ƒ• ’‡”•’‡ –‹˜‡ ‘ ˆ‹”•–. ‹’”‡••‹‘•ǤŠƒ’–‡”•ʹƒ†͵”‡’Ž‹ ƒ–‡ƒ†‡š–‡†’”‡˜‹‘—•ˆ‹†‹‰•‘. –Š‡ ‘•‡“—‡ ‡•‘ˆˆƒ ‹ƒŽƒ’’‡ƒ”ƒ ‡Ǥ

(76) Chapter 2ȋ–Š”‡‡•–—†‹‡•ǡNα . ͳͻ. 1.

(77) Šƒ’–‡”ͳ. Ͷ͹ͲȌǡ™‡‡šƒ‹‡–Š‡‡ˆˆ‡ –‘ˆˆƒ ‹ƒŽƒ’’‡ƒ”ƒ ‡‘˜‘–‹‰„‡Šƒ˜‹‘”Ǥ

(78) ƒ •ƒ’Ž‡‘ˆͳͷͲƒ›‘”ƒŽ ƒ†‹†ƒ–‡•ˆ”‘͹ͷ ‘•–‹–—‡ ‹‡•ƒ ”‘••

(79) –ƒŽ›ǡ. ™‡ ˆ‹† –Šƒ– ƒ––”ƒ –‹˜‡ǦŽ‘‘‹‰ ȋ„—– ‘– ‘’‡–‡–ǦŽ‘‘‹‰ ‘”. –”—•–™‘”–Š›ǦŽ‘‘‹‰Ȍ’‘Ž‹–‹ ‹ƒ•”‡ ‡‹˜‡‘”‡˜‘–‡•ƒ†ƒ”‡‘”‡Ž‹‡Ž›. –‘™‹Ǥ‡ƒŽ•‘–‡•– ™Š‡–Š‡”–”—•–™‘”–Š›ǦŽ‘‘‹‰’‘Ž‹–‹ ‹ƒ•ƒ”‡‘”‡ •— ‡••ˆ—Ž‹”‡‰‹‘•™‹–Š‘”‡’‘Ž‹–‹ ƒŽ ‘””—’–‹‘ǡ„—–ˆ‹†‘•—’’‘”– ˆ‘”–Š‹•Š›’‘–Š‡•‹•Ǥ .

(80) Chapter 3ȋ‘‡•–—†›ǡNαͳǡ͵͵͸Ȍǡ™‡‡šƒ‹‡–Š‡‡ˆˆ‡ –‘ˆˆƒ ‹ƒŽ. ƒ’’‡ƒ”ƒ ‡ ‘ ‘•—‡” „‡Šƒ˜‹‘” ‹ ƒ ’‘’—Žƒ” ’‡‡”Ǧ–‘Ǧ’‡‡” ƒ”‡–Ǥ ƒ–ƒˆ”‘ͳǡͲʹͲ‹”„„Ž‹•–‹‰•‹‡™‘”‹–›•Š‘™•–Šƒ–ƒ––”ƒ –‹˜‡Ǧ. Ž‘‘‹‰ ȋ„—– ‘– –”—•–™‘”–Š›ǦŽ‘‘‹‰Ȍ Š‘•–• Šƒ”‰‡ Š‹‰Š‡” ’”‹ ‡• ˆ‘”. •‹‹Žƒ”ƒ’ƒ”–‡–•ǡ•—‰‰‡•–‹‰–Šƒ–’‡‘’Ž‡ƒ”‡™‹ŽŽ‹‰–‘’ƒ›ƒ’”‡‹— ‹‘”†‡”–‘•–ƒ›‹–Š‡ƒ’ƒ”–‡–‘ˆƒƒ––”ƒ –‹˜‡Š‘•–Ǥ

(81) –‡”‡•–‹‰Ž›ǡ™‡. ˆ‹† ƒ ƒ––”ƒ –‹˜‡‡•• „‹ƒ• ‡˜‡ ™Š‡ ’‡‘’Ž‡ ƒ”‡ ”‡–‹‰ ƒ ‡–‹”‡. ƒ’ƒ”–‡–ƒ†Šƒ˜‡Ž‹––Ž‡‘”‘†‹”‡ – ‘–ƒ –™‹–Š–Š‡Š‘•–Ǥ‘‰‡–Š‡”ǡ ˆ‹†‹‰• ˆ”‘ „‘–Š Šƒ’–‡”• •—’’‘”– –Š‡ ‘ Ž—•‹‘ –Šƒ– ˆƒ ‹ƒŽ ƒ’’‡ƒ”ƒ ‡‹ˆŽ—‡ ‡•†‡ ‹•‹‘Ǧƒ‹‰‹”‡ƒŽŽ‹ˆ‡Ǥ . Šƒ’–‡”• ͶǦ͸ ’”‘˜‹†‡ ‘˜‡Ž ‹•‹‰Š–• ‹–‘ –Š‡ ‡ Šƒ‹••. —†‡”Ž›‹‰”‡Ž‹ƒ ‡‘ˆ‹”•–‹’”‡••‹‘•ǤŠ‡•‡’ƒ’‡”•™‡”‡‘–‹˜ƒ–‡†. „› –Š‡ ‘„•‡”˜ƒ–‹‘ –Šƒ– „‹ƒ•‡• ƒ”‡ ‘ˆ–‡ ƒ—•‡† „› ‘‡ ‘ˆ –™‘. ‡ Šƒ‹••ȋǤǤ‹Ž•‘Ƭ”‡‡ǡͳͻͻͶȌǤ‡ ‘‘•‘—” ‡‘ˆ„‹ƒ• ‹•–Š‡‡š‹•–‡ ‡‘ˆˆƒŽ•‡„‡Ž‹‡ˆ•ȋ‹Ǥ‡Ǥǡ‹• ‘ ‡’–‹‘•ȌǤŠƒ’–‡”•Ͷƒ†ͷ ‡š’Ž‘”‡ ™Š‡–Š‡” ’‡‘’Ž‡ Š‘Ž† „‡Ž‹‡ˆ• ƒ„‘—– –Š‡ †‹ƒ‰‘•–‹ ‹–› ‘ˆ ˆƒ ‹ƒŽ. ˆ‡ƒ–—”‡•ˆ‘”Œ—†‰‹‰’‡”•‘ƒŽ‹–›ȋ‹Ǥ‡Ǥǡ’Š›•‹‘‰‘‹ „‡Ž‹‡ˆ•ȌǤ Chapter 4. ȋˆ‹˜‡•–—†‹‡•ǡNα͵ǡͺ͸ͳȌ‹–”‘†— ‡•ƒ• ƒŽ‡–‘‡ƒ•—”‡–Š‡’”‡˜ƒŽ‡ ‡ǡ. •–”— –—”‡ǡ ƒ† ‘””‡Žƒ–‡• ‘ˆ „‡Ž‹‡ˆ ‹ ’Š›•‹‘‰‘›Ǥ ‡ ˆ‹† –Šƒ–. ’Š›•‹‘‰‘‹  „‡Ž‹‡ˆ• ƒ”‡ ™‹†‡•’”‡ƒ† ‹ –Š‡ ‰‡‡”ƒŽ ’‘’—Žƒ–‹‘Ǥ ‘”‡‘˜‡”ǡ‹†‹˜‹†—ƒŽ†‹ˆˆ‡”‡ ‡•‹’Š›•‹‘‰‘‹ „‡Ž‹‡ˆ•ƒ”‡ƒ••‘ ‹ƒ–‡†. ™‹–Š‘˜‡” ‘ˆ‹†‡ ‡‹ˆ‹”•–‹’”‡••‹‘•ƒ†”‡Ž‹ƒ ‡‘ˆ‹”•–‹’”‡••‹‘ ‹•‘ ‹ƒŽ†‡ ‹•‹‘Ǧƒ‹‰Ǥ ʹͲ. .

(82) .

(83) –”‘†— –‹‘. Chapter 5 ȋ–Š”‡‡ •–—†‹‡•ǡ N α ͳǡͶ͵ͺȌ ”‡’Ž‹ ƒ–‡• ƒ† ‡š–‡†• –Š‡. ˆ‹†‹‰–Šƒ–’‡‘’Ž‡™Š‘„‡Ž‹‡˜‡‹’Š›•‹‘‰‘›ƒ”‡‘”‡ ‘ˆ‹†‡–‹. –Š‡‹”–”ƒ‹–‹’”‡••‹‘•ƒ†‡šƒ‹‡•–Š‡”‘Ž‡‘ˆ’Š›•‹‘‰‘‹ „‡Ž‹‡ˆ•‹. ƒ‘”‡ƒ’’Ž‹‡†•‡––‹‰Ǥ’‡ ‹ˆ‹ ƒŽŽ›ǡ™‡ˆ‹†–Šƒ–‹ƒ’‡”•‘‡Ž•‡Ž‡ –‹‘ ‘–‡š–ǡ ’‡‘’Ž‡ ™Š‘ „‡Ž‹‡˜‡ ‹ ’Š›•‹‘‰‘› ˜‹‡™ ’‡”•‘ƒŽ ’Š‘–‘• ƒ•. ‘”‡‹’‘”–ƒ–ǤŠ‡›ƒŽ•‘ˆ‹†‹–‘”‡ƒ’’”‘’”‹ƒ–‡ƒ†‡ˆˆ‡ ––‘”‡Ž›‘. ’‡”•‘ƒŽ’Š‘–‘•–‘ƒ‡Š‹”‹‰†‡ ‹•‹‘•Ǥ‡•—Ž–•ˆ”‘–Š‹• Šƒ’–‡”ƒŽ•‘ •Š‘™–Šƒ–’‡‘’Ž‡Š‘Ž†Š‡–‡”‘‰‡‡‘—•„‡Ž‹‡ˆ•ƒ„‘—––Š‡ƒ‹ˆ‡•–ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ ’‡”•‘ƒŽ‹–› –”ƒ‹–• ‹ ˆƒ ‹ƒŽ ˆ‡ƒ–—”‡•ǣ ‘ ‹ƒ„‹Ž‹–› ‹• „‡Ž‹‡˜‡† –‘ „‡ ‘”‡. ”‡ˆŽ‡ –‡†‹”‡•–‹‰ˆƒ ‡•–Šƒ‘”ƒŽ‹–›‘” ‘’‡–‡ ‡ǤŠ‹••–”— –—”‡‹• ‘– ‘Ž› ”‡ˆŽ‡ –‡† ‹ Žƒ› „‡Ž‹‡ˆ•Ǥ ‘” ‡šƒ’Ž‡ǡ ™‡ ˆ‹† –Šƒ– ’‡‘’Ž‡ ƒ”‡. ‘”‡ ‘ˆ‹†‡–‹–Š‡ƒ —”ƒ ›‘ˆ–Š‡‹”•‘ ‹ƒ„‹Ž‹–›Œ—†‰‡–•Ǥ‘‰‡–Š‡”ǡ ”‡•—Ž–•ˆ”‘Šƒ’–‡”•Ͷƒ†ͷ•—‰‰‡•––Šƒ–’”‡˜ƒŽ‡–„‡Ž‹‡ˆ•ƒ„‘—––Š‡. †‹ƒ‰‘•–‹ ‹–›‘ˆˆƒ ‹ƒŽˆ‡ƒ–—”‡•ˆ‘”‹ˆ‡””‹‰’‡”•‘ƒŽ‹–›ƒ›‡š’Žƒ‹™Š› ’‡‘’Ž‡’‡”•‹•–‡–Ž›”‡Ž›‘ˆ‹”•–‹’”‡••‹‘•Ǥ . •‡ ‘† ‘‘•‘—” ‡ ‘ˆ„‹ƒ•‹•ƒ—–‘ƒ–‹ ‹–› ȋ‡Ǥ‰Ǥǡ ‹•Ž‡ƒ†‹‰. ‹–—‹–‹‘•ǡ ˆŽ—‡ ›Ǣ Ǥ Ǥ ‹Ž•‘ Ƭ ”‡‡ǡ ͳͻͻͶȌǤ ƒ –Š‡ “—‹  ƒ† ‡ˆˆ‹ ‹‡–’”‘ ‡••‹‰‘ˆˆƒ ‡•‡š’Žƒ‹’‡”˜ƒ•‹˜‡‡ˆˆ‡ –•‘ˆˆƒ ‹ƒŽˆ‡ƒ–—”‡•‘. •‘ ‹ƒŽ†‡ ‹•‹‘Ǧƒ‹‰ǫŠ‹•‹†‡ƒ‹•‡š’Ž‘”‡†‹Chapter 6ȋ•‹š•–—†‹‡•Ǣ Nαʹǡ͹͵ʹȌǤ‡•—Ž–••Š‘™–Šƒ–”‡Ž‹ƒ ‡‘ˆ‹”•–‹’”‡••‹‘•‹•”‡Žƒ–‹˜‡Ž›. ‡ˆˆ‘”–Ž‡•• ƒ† ’‡‘’Ž‡ ‡˜‡ ’”‡ˆ‡” –‘ ”‡Ž› ‘ ˆ‹”•– ‹’”‡••‹‘• ‘˜‡” ƒ‘–Š‡” —‡–Šƒ–‹•’‡” ‡‹˜‡†ƒ•‘”‡˜ƒŽ‹†ǡ„—––Šƒ–‹•ƒŽ•‘‘”‡‡ˆˆ‘”–ˆ—Ž –‘ ’”‘ ‡••Ǥ Š—•ǡ ˆ‹†‹‰• ˆ”‘ –Š‹• Šƒ’–‡” •—‰‰‡•– –Šƒ– ’‡‘’Ž‡ ’‡”•‹•–‡–Ž› ”‡Ž› ‘ ˆ‹”•– ‹’”‡••‹‘• „‡ ƒ—•‡ –Š‡› ƒ”‡ ‹–—‹–‹˜‡Ž› ƒ ‡••‹„Ž‡ǡ™Š‹ Šƒ‡•”‡Ž›‹‰‘–Š‡”‡Žƒ–‹˜‡Ž›‡ƒ•›Ǥ .

(84) Chapter 7ȋ–Š”‡‡•–—†‹‡•ǡNαʹǡʹ͹ͶȌ™‡ƒ––‡’––‘—•‡–Š‡•‡‡™. ‹•‹‰Š–•–‘†‡•‹‰‹–‡”˜‡–‹‘•–Šƒ– ƒ‹–‹‰ƒ–‡ˆƒ ‹ƒŽ†‹• ”‹‹ƒ–‹‘Ǥ. ‹”•–ǡ™‡ ”‡ƒ–‡ƒŽ‡‰ƒŽ•‡–‡ ‹‰’ƒ”ƒ†‹‰–Šƒ–ƒŽŽ‘™•—• –‘‡ƒ•—”‡ ”‡Ž‹ƒ ‡ ‘ ˆ‹”•– ‹’”‡••‹‘• ƒ– –Š‡ ’ƒ”–‹ ‹’ƒ–ǦŽ‡˜‡ŽǤ ‡ •Š‘™ –Šƒ– —–”—•–™‘”–Š›ǦŽ‘‘‹‰ †‡ˆ‡†ƒ–• ƒ”‡ ‘”‡ Ž‹‡Ž› –‘ „‡ ˆ‘—† ‰—‹Ž–› –Šƒ–”—•–™‘”–Š›ǦŽ‘‘‹‰†‡ˆ‡†ƒ–•Ǥ™‘•—„•‡“—‡–•–—†‹‡•–‡•––Š‡ . ʹͳ. 1.

(85) Šƒ’–‡”ͳ. ‡ˆˆ‡ –‹˜‡‡•• ‘ˆ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡– ‹–‡”˜‡–‹‘• ‹ ”‡†— ‹‰ ”‡Ž‹ƒ ‡ ‘ ˆƒ ‹ƒŽ –”—•–™‘”–Š‹‡••ȋƒȌ„›ƒ––‡’–‹‰–‘”‡†— ‡’Š›•‹‘‰‘‹ „‡Ž‹‡ˆ•ǡ‘”ȋ„Ȍ „›ƒ––‡’–‹‰–‘†‹•”—’––Š‡‹–—‹–‹˜‡ƒ ‡••‹„‹Ž‹–›‘ˆˆ‹”•–‹’”‡••‹‘•Ǥ. ‡‹–Š‡” ƒ’’”‘ƒ Š •— ‡••ˆ—ŽŽ› ”‡†— ‡† ˆƒ ‹ƒŽ †‹• ”‹‹ƒ–‹‘Ǥ Š‡•‡. ”‡•—Ž–•—†‡”• ‘”‡–Š‡’‡”•‹•–‡ ‡‘ˆ–Š‡„‹ƒ•ƒ†Š‹‰ŠŽ‹‰Š––Š‡‡‡†ˆ‘” ˆ—–—”‡•–—†‹‡•‘–Š‡‹–‹‰ƒ–‹‘‘ˆˆƒ ‹ƒŽ†‹• ”‹‹ƒ–‹‘Ǥ .

(86)  Chapter 8ǡ –Š‡ ƒ‹ ˆ‹†‹‰• ƒ”‡ •—ƒ”‹œ‡† ƒ† Ž‹‹–ƒ–‹‘•. ƒ† †‹”‡ –‹‘• ˆ‘” ˆ—–—”‡ ”‡•‡ƒ” Š ƒ”‡ ‘—–Ž‹‡†Ǥ ‹ƒŽŽ›ǡ ƒ ƒ††‹–‹‘ƒŽ ‘–”‹„—–‹‘‹•’”‡•‡–‡†‹–Š‡AppendixǤ‡’”‘˜‹†‡ƒ–—–‘”‹ƒŽ‘Š‘™ to use face classification algorithms for detecting a person’s gender, age,. ƒ†”ƒ ‡ˆ”‘ˆƒ ‡‹ƒ‰‡•Ǥ‡ƒŽ•‘–‡•––Š‡‹”ƒ —”ƒ ›ƒ†ˆ‹†–Šƒ–ǡ‹. ƒ›•‹–—ƒ–‹‘•ǡƒ —”ƒ ›Ž‡˜‡Ž•ƒ”‡Š‹‰Šƒ†•‹‹Žƒ”–‘–Š‘•‡‘ˆŠ—ƒ ”ƒ–‡”•ǤŠ‡•‡”‡•—Ž–••—‰‰‡•––Šƒ–ƒŽ‰‘”‹–Š•ƒ”‡ƒ˜‹ƒ„Ž‡ƒŽ–‡”ƒ–‹˜‡–‘. Š—ƒ”ƒ–‡”•™Š‡†‡–‡”‹‹‰†‡‘‰”ƒ’Š‹  Šƒ”ƒ –‡”‹•–‹ •„ƒ•‡†ˆƒ ‡ ‹ƒ‰‡•Ǥ ”— ‹ƒŽŽ›ǡ ”‡Ž›‹‰ ‘ ƒ—–‘ƒ–‡† Žƒ••‹ˆ‹ ƒ–‹‘ ’”‘ ‡†—”‡• ƒ. ”‡†— ‡–Š‡–‹‡•’‡–‘†ƒ–ƒ ‘ŽŽ‡ –‹‘Ǥ

(87) –ƒŽ•‘ƒŽŽ‘™•”‡•‡ƒ” Š‡”•–‘–‡•– –Š‡‹”Š›’‘–Š‡•‡•—•‹‰Žƒ”‰‡ǡƒ–—”ƒŽ‹•–‹ †ƒ–ƒ•‡–•ȋ‡Ǥ‰Ǥǡ†ƒ–ƒˆ”‘•‘ ‹ƒŽ. ‡–™‘”‹‰ •‹–‡•ǡ ‘” ’‡‡”Ǧ–‘Ǧ’‡‡” ƒ”‡–•Ȍǡ ƒ• •ƒ’Ž‡ •‹œ‡ ‹• ‘– ‘•–”ƒ‹‡†„›–Š‡•‹œ‡‘ˆ–Š‡’ƒ”–‹ ‹’ƒ–’‘‘ŽǤ . ʹʹ. . .

(88)       . .  . &KDSWHU &KDSWHU. . . . ƒ ‹ƒŽƒ’’‡ƒ”ƒ ‡ƒ†‡Ž‡ –‘”ƒŽ•— ‡••ǣ ƒ ‹ƒŽƒ’’‡ƒ”ƒ ‡ƒ†‡Ž‡ –‘”ƒŽ•— ‡••ǣ ”‡–”—•–™‘”–Š›ǦŽ‘‘‹‰’‘Ž‹–‹ ‹ƒ•‘”‡ ”‡–”—•–™‘”–Š›ǦŽ‘‘‹‰’‘Ž‹–‹ ‹ƒ•‘”‡ •— ‡••ˆ—Ž‹ ‘””—’–”‡‰‹‘•ǫ •— ‡••ˆ—Ž‹ ‘””—’–”‡‰‹‘•ǫ.               ƒ•‡†‘ǣ ƒ•‡†‘ǣ ƒ‡‰‡”ǡǤǡ˜ƒ•ǡǤǤǡ–‡ŽǡǤǡƬ˜ƒ‡‡•–ǡ

(89) ǤȋʹͲͳͻȌǤFacial appearance ƒ‡‰‡”ǡǤǡ˜ƒ•ǡǤǤǡ–‡ŽǡǤǡƬ˜ƒ‡‡•–ǡ

(90) ǤȋʹͲͳͻȌǤFacial appearance and electoral success: Are trustworthy-looking politicians more successful and electoral success: Are trustworthy-looking politicians more successful in corrupt regions?ƒ—• ”‹’–•—„‹––‡†ˆ‘”’—„Ž‹ ƒ–‹‘Ǥ in corrupt regions?ƒ—• ”‹’–•—„‹––‡†ˆ‘”’—„Ž‹ ƒ–‹‘Ǥ   ŽŽ†ƒ–ƒǡ’”‡”‡‰‹•–”ƒ–‹‘†‘ —‡–•ǡƒ†ƒƒŽ›•‹•• ”‹’–•ƒ”‡ƒ˜ƒ‹Žƒ„Ž‡ ŽŽ†ƒ–ƒǡ’”‡”‡‰‹•–”ƒ–‹‘†‘ —‡–•ǡƒ†ƒƒŽ›•‹•• ”‹’–•ƒ”‡ƒ˜ƒ‹Žƒ„Ž‡ ƒ––Š‡’‡ ‹‡ ‡ ”ƒ‡™‘”ȋŠ––’•ǣȀȀ‘•ˆǤ‹‘ȀŒ†“ʹȀȌǤ ƒ––Š‡’‡ ‹‡ ‡ ”ƒ‡™‘”ȋŠ––’•ǣȀȀ‘•ˆǤ‹‘ȀŒ†“ʹȀȌǤ  . ʹ͵ ʹ͵ ʹ͵ ʹ͵.

(91) Šƒ’–‡”ʹ. Abstract. ‡‘’Ž‡”‡Ž›‘–Š‡ˆƒ ‹ƒŽƒ’’‡ƒ”ƒ ‡‘ˆ’‘Ž‹–‹ ƒŽ ƒ†‹†ƒ–‡•™Š‡˜‘–‹‰Ǥ. ‡”‡ǡ™‡‡šƒ‹‡™Š‡–Š‡”’‡” ‡’–‹‘•‘ˆ ‘’‡–‡ ‡ǡ–”—•–™‘”–Š‹‡••ǡ ‘”ƒ––”ƒ –‹˜‡‡••ƒ”‡ƒ••‘ ‹ƒ–‡†™‹–Š‡Ž‡ –‘”ƒŽ•— ‡••‹–Š‡ʹͲͳ͸

(92) –ƒŽ‹ƒ Ž‘ ƒŽ ‡Ž‡ –‹‘•Ǥ

(93)  Ž‹‡ ™‹–Š •‹–—ƒ–‹‘ƒŽ Ž‡ƒ†‡”•Š‹’ –Š‡‘”›ǡ ™‡ ƒŽ•‘ –‡•–. ™Š‡–Š‡” –”ƒ‹– ’”‡ˆ‡”‡ ‡• ˆ‘” ’‘Ž‹–‹ ‹ƒ• ˜ƒ”› ƒ• ƒ ˆ— –‹‘ ‘ˆ ‡Ž‡ –‹‘ ‘–‡š–Ǥ ’‡ ‹ˆ‹ ƒŽŽ›ǡ™‡‡šƒ‹‡‹ˆ–”—•–™‘”–Š›ǦŽ‘‘‹‰’‘Ž‹–‹ ‹ƒ•ƒ”‡. ‘”‡•— ‡••ˆ—Ž‹”‡‰‹‘•™Š‡”‡’‘Ž‹–‹ ƒŽ ‘””—’–‹‘‹•ƒ•ƒŽ‹‡–‹••—‡Ǥ ‡ ƒƒŽ›œ‡ ‡Ž‡ –‘”ƒŽ †ƒ–ƒ ‘ˆ ͳͷͲ ƒ›‘”ƒŽ ƒ†‹†ƒ–‡• ˆ”‘ ͹ͷ. ‘•–‹–—‡ ‹‡• –‘ –‡•– ‹ˆ –Š‡ ƒ••‘ ‹ƒ–‹‘ „‡–™‡‡ ’‡” ‡‹˜‡† –”—•–™‘”–Š‹‡•• ƒ† ‡Ž‡ –‘”ƒŽ •— ‡•• ‹• •–”‘‰‡” ‹ ‘—–Š‡”

(94) –ƒŽ›ǡ. ™Š‡”‡ ‘””—’–‹‘‹•‘”‡’”‡˜ƒŽ‡–Ǥ ”‘••–Š”‡‡’”‡”‡‰‹•–‡”‡†•–—†‹‡• ȋNαͶ͹ͲȌǡ’‡” ‡‹˜‡† ‘’‡–‡ ‡ƒ† ’‡” ‡‹˜‡†–”—•–™‘”–Š‹‡•• ™‡”‡. ‘– ƒ••‘ ‹ƒ–‡† ™‹–Š ‡Ž‡ –‘”ƒŽ •— ‡••Ǥ ‘”‡‘˜‡”ǡ –Š‡ ‹ˆŽ—‡ ‡ ‘ˆ –”—•–™‘”–Š‹‡••’‡” ‡’–‹‘•‘‡Ž‡ –‘”ƒŽ•— ‡••†‹†‘–†‹ˆˆ‡”„‡–™‡‡ ‘—–Š‡”

(95) –ƒŽ› ƒ† –Š‡ ”‡•– ‘ˆ –Š‡ ‘—–”›Ǥ

(96) •–‡ƒ†ǡ ™‡ ˆ‘—† –Šƒ–. ƒ––”ƒ –‹˜‡ǦŽ‘‘‹‰ ’‘Ž‹–‹ ‹ƒ• ™‡”‡ ‘”‡ •— ‡••ˆ—ŽǤ  ‘‡ •–ƒ†ƒ”† †‡˜‹ƒ–‹‘ ‹ ”‡ƒ•‡ ‹ ’‡” ‡‹˜‡† ƒ––”ƒ –‹˜‡‡•• ‘””‡•’‘†‡† –‘ ƒ ʹǤͻͺ ’‡” ‡–ƒ‰‡’‘‹–‹ ”‡ƒ•‡‹˜‘–‡•Šƒ”‡ƒ†ƒͳǤͻͳ–‹‡•‹ ”‡ƒ•‡‹–Š‡. ‘††•‘ˆ˜‹ –‘”›Ǥ

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