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UvA-DARE is a service provided by the library of the University of Amsterdam (https://dare.uva.nl)

UvA-DARE (Digital Academic Repository)

The political economy of dominant investors

Perotti, E.C.; von Thadden, E.-L.

Publication date 2004

Link to publication

Citation for published version (APA):

Perotti, E. C., & von Thadden, E-L. (2004). The political economy of dominant investors.

(Discussion paper; No. TI 2004-091/2). Tinbergen Institute.

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TI 2004-091/2

Tinbergen Institute Discussion Paper

The Political Economy of Dominant Investors

Enrico C. Perotti

1

Ernst-Ludwig von Thadden

2

1 Faculty of Economics and Econometrics, Universiteit van Amsterdam, CEPR, and Tinbergen Institute;

2 Université de Lausanne, and CEPR.

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Tinbergen Institute

The Tinbergen Institute is the institute for economic research of the Erasmus Universiteit Rotterdam, Universiteit van Amsterdam, and Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam.

Tinbergen Institute Amsterdam Roetersstraat 31

1018 WB Amsterdam The Netherlands

Tel.: +31(0)20 551 3500 Fax: +31(0)20 551 3555 Tinbergen Institute Rotterdam Burg. Oudlaan 50

3062 PA Amsterdam The Netherlands

Tel.: +31(0)10 408 8900 Fax: +31(0)10 408 9031

Please send questions and/or remarks of non- scientific nature to driessen@tinbergen.nl.

Most TI discussion papers can be downloaded at http://www.tinbergen.nl.

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(18)

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(19)

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(20)

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(21)

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(22)

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