Time management skills improvement and support in the job search process : a smartphone application as a virtual mentor

26

Time management skills

improvement and support in the job

search process

Kirsty Donkers

11397608

Information Page

Time management skills improvement and support in the job search process A smartphone application as a virtual mentor

Supervised by Dr. Wendelien van Eerde

w.vaneerde@uva.nl

Kirsty Donkers 11397608

kirsty_sheree@hotmail.com

Universiteit van Amsterdam Faculty Economics and Business Master of Science Business Administration

Leadership and Management Track Words: 16.603

Final Version January 26, 2018

Statement of Originality

This document is written by Kirsty Donkers who declares to take full responsibility for the contents of this document.

I declare that the text and the work presented in this document is original and that no sources other than those mentioned in the text and its references have been used in creating it.

The Faculty of Economics and Business is responsible solely for the supervision of completion of the work, not for the contents.

Table of Contents

Table 1.1 – Search Strategy 32

Table 1.2 – Internal Problems 33

Table 1.3 – External Problems 34

Table 1.4 – Solutions 35

7.1 Job Search Process 36

7.1.1 Search Strategy 36

7.1.2 Internal problems 37

7.1.3 External problems 38

7.1.4 Solutions 39

7.2 Smartphone application 41

Table 2.1: Attitudes Time Management Tools in Application 42 Table 2.2: Attitudes Time Management Tools in Application 43 Table 2.3: Attitudes Time Management Tools in Application 44 Table 2.4: Attitudes Time Management Tools in Application 45

7.2.1 Awareness 46

7.2.2 Vision of future self 46

7.2.3 Goal setting 47

7.2.4 Planning 48

7.2.5 Evaluating 49

7.2.6 Peer-support 49

7.2.7 Feedback from virtual mentor 50

7.2.8 Reminders 51

8. Discussion 53

8.1 Findings on the job search process 53

8.2 Findings and recommendations for the application 55

8.4 Limitations and further research 62 References 66 Appendix 1 – Interviewee Overview 71 Appendix 2 – Interview Questions 72 Appendix 3 - Field Notes 74 Appendix 4 – Mind Map 75 Appendix 5 - Codebook 76 Appendix 6 – Dutch Quotes 78 Appendix 7 – Cross-Case Analysis Job Search Process 84 Appendix 8 – Cross-Case Analysis Attitudes, part 1 87 Appendix 9 – Cross-Case Analysis Attitudes, part 2 90

1. Preface

Before you lies my thesis “Time Management Skills Improvement and Support in the Job Search Process: a smartphone application as a virtual mentor ”. Eighteen interviewees contributed to this research by sharing their experiences and opinions, which are valuable because of the lack of in-depth knowledge of how job seekers approach and experience the job-searching process. This thesis is part of the graduation requirements for the Master of Science degree in Business Administration at the University of Amsterdam (UvA). I was engaged in this research from June 2017 through January 2018.

I was interested in conducting this research due to the scarcity of qualitative research about the job-searching process, and particularly to contribute to gathering data that could possibly lead to more understanding of this endeavor.

My research contributes to the aim of my supervisor, Dr. Wendelien van Eerde, together with Dr. Jean-Louis van Gelder, to develop a smartphone application that will focus on helping unemployed, freelance, and flexible workers to use their time searching for a job in a proactive and structured manner. During this research, Dr, van Eerde and my tutor Elisabeth Koning, answered my questions and provided me with feedback.

I would like to thank my supervisor, Dr. Wendelien van Eerde, for her guidance and support during my research. In addition, I would like to thank my respondents who set aside time to participate in this research. I found it very interesting to learn about the process of searching for a job from their different experiences and opinions on this process.

I wish you much pleasure in reading this research Kirsty Donkers

2. Abstract

This research attempts to gain more insight into the experiences of job seekers in the job searching process. Moreover, this study tries to combine these experiences with the concept of time management, since research on time management of job seekers is scarce. 18 employed and unemployed job seekers shared their opinions on their search strategy, the problems they encountered and possible solutions. Furthermore, a smartphone application that may help them increase time management skills and provide support to enhance motivation was discussed. Interviewees were asked on their attitudes on various time management tools that could be incorporated. This research provided a significant amount of data, but the most interesting findings discovered were: the relationship between a broad search scope and problems with motivation, the need of unemployed job seekers for more support and feedback in comparison with employed job seekers, some controversy in the perception of the importance of goal setting and goal striving, and new thoughts to increase self-efficacy and confidence of job seekers through a smartphone application.

3. List of Tables and Figures

Name Description Page

Table 1.1 Search Strategy 32

Table 1.2 Internal Problems 33

Table 1.3 External Problems 34

Table 1.4 Solutions 35

Table 2.1 Awareness & Future Self 42

Table 2.2 Goals & Planning 43

Table 2.3 Evaluating & Peer-support 44

Table 2.4 Feedback & Reminders 45

Conceptual Model Conceptual Model 61

Table Appendix 1 Interviewee Overview 71

Table Appendix 5 Codebook 76-77

Table Appendix 7 Cross-Case Analysis Job Search Process

84-86

Table Appendix 8 Cross-Case Analysis

Attitudes, part 1

87-89

Table Appendix 9 Cross-Case Analysis

Attitudes, part 2

4. Introduction

Time management is perceived as the Holy Grail of efficient work performance, especially for managers and employers. The concept of time management includes several tools to organize work and life in an effective and efficient way. Most of the literature on this subject has focused on the time management of students, who differ from employees in the types of tasks they perform and in the negative consequences related to procrastination of those tasks (Claessens, van Eerde, Rutte & Roe, 2007). Claessens et al. have already emphasized the importance of more research on the specific target group of employees.

However, even less research has been conducted on the time management practiced by job seekers, who receive less guidance regarding which tasks must be performed (Müller, Fieseler, Meckel & Suphan, 2017). Because of this, they are more dependent on self-regulation to achieve their goals, and they more easily fall into the trap of procrastination. Wanberg, Basbug, van Hooft, & Samtani (2012) address the difficulty of the job search process, noting that job seekers must use complex strategies and possess considerable self-control, and self-regulation skills, which they must maintain while facing motivational challenges due to discouragement and rejections. Kanfer, Wanberg and Kantrowitz (2001) call for more research on the use of search strategies and employment goals, and how individuals maintain their job search through self-regulation, even when faced with failure, apprehension and discouragement.

Two types of job seekers can be identified in a job search: those who are unemployed and those who are employed. These two types may approach the process of job searching differently, and they may also have different needs in this process.

Unemployment creates a lack of identity and realization of time, and non-working people miss the purposeful structuring of time when they were employed. Unemployed

individuals experience a greater psychological well-being when they keep busy, continue their routines, and maintain a sense of purpose as if they are still employed. This means that those people actually need support to structure their time in the best possible way, since this increases their psychological well-being. This favorable well-being is also positively related to their labor market opportunities, since it enhances motivational control, positive self-perception, and greater commitment to the job search process (Müller et al., 2017).

Job seekers who are currently employed do have structure in their daily life from their job, but this also leaves less space and time to invest in the job searching process. Furthermore, employed job seekers might feel less pressure to continue their search, despite their goal to find a new job, because they already have a source of income. In their research, Van Hooft, Born, Taris, van der Flier, and Blonk (2004) denote this lack of pressure in their research as job security, which - along with organizational commitment - negatively contributes to the prediction of job search behavior.

In order to use their time most effectively and efficiently, job seekers could make use of job search intervention programs that help them gain and maintain skills and increase their motivation. Such intervention programs include the assignment of a mentor to the job seeker for social and professional support and to increase motivation.

This research attempts to combine the challenges faced in the job search process and offer time management tools and support to diminish these challenges. Therefor, the goal of this research is to first investigate how job seekers experience the job-seeking process and which specific problems they encounter. Second, this research will focus on what job seekers would need and want if the support offered were to be virtual - a mentor by way of an application on their smartphones. Eventually, with the results of this study and others, an application could be realized in the form of an online job search intervention program. Therefor, the research question of this study is:

How do job seekers experience the job search process, and how might time management tools offered in a smartphone application increase their efficiency during this

process?

This study contributes theoretically to the literature since there is a lack of research on the use of time management by job seekers, particularly in comparison with studies of time management practiced by students or those in the workplace.

This study also contributes practically to the issue of job searching, in which it is more difficult for people to manage and structure their time properly and efficiently. If this study shows that job seekers would perceive a virtual time management mentor as supportive, an application that integrates this aspect could be developed. Such an app may actually help job seekers.

In the next sections, the concepts of time management, self-regulation, procrastination, the job search process and job search intervention programs, which are all part of the literature review, will be explained. Next, the choice of qualitative research design and the conduct of research using NVivo10 are described. Then, the research results of the gathered data from 18 semi-structured interviews with job seekers, which also will be shown in Table 1 and Table 2, are presented. Subsequently, in the discussion the findings, recommendations, the Conceptual Model, strengths, contributions, limitations, and further research are discussed. Finally, the conclusion will summarize the most important findings and answer the research question.

5. Literature Review

5.1 Time Management

Time management includes three phases that are characterized by the dynamic adaption of behavior: planning, implementation and evaluation. In each phase, adaption and different strategies may be considered (van Eerde, 2015). This study uses the definition of time management provided by Claessens et al. (2007), which states that time management is “the behaviors that aim at achieving an effective use of time while performing certain goal-directed activities” (pp. 262). This means that time management is more than just planning; it also includes awareness of time use, goal setting, prioritizing, planning, monitoring, and organizing. These aspects are discussed in the following paragraphs.

In order to use time effectively, individuals first must be aware of their time use. Once this occurs, they can then start to undertake action to manage their time most effectively. According to action regulation theory, an individual should go through a preparation stage before a goal-directed action takes place. In such a stage, goals are set and an action plan is formed. The action plan is the intention to perform the action and it can mentally help an individual carry out the action (Claessens, van Eerde, Rutte & Roe, 2010). This demonstrates that before planning, it is important to first set goals. Locke and Latham developed goal-setting theory in 1990, stating that specific, high (difficult) goals lead to increased task performance, as compared to easy or vague goals (Locke & Latham, 2006). For each goal, an action plan can be formed in which the execution of the action is stated. Once the goals and action plans have been established and are clear, prioritization is important since it helps to accomplish the goals; it indicates when action plans must be initiated (Claessens et al., 2010).

After this planning phase, the set goals should be attempted to be realized and regularly evaluated, so that the individual is able to frequently adapt his behavior. If needed,

the initial plans may be changed. Furthermore, goal progress can also have positive motivating effects (Liu et al., 2014).

In order to plan and manage time most effectively, people may undergo training in time management. The techniques used in time management training are focused on making smart decisions regarding time allocation, the increased awareness of wasted time, and the combination of activities within the same time frame. Various tools are used in time management, including to-do lists, a quiet hour, reminders, and archiving and e-mail management (Van Eerde, 2015).

The effects of time management have been studied elaborately and display a positive relationship between time management and wellbeing, organization, and experiencing feelings of control. However, it has proven to be more difficult to demonstrate a relationship between time management and work performance: here, the few studies that researched this relationship included objective performance or self-rated performance. It became apparent that, due to time management training, perceived control improved and long-term performance might be enhanced due to increased wellbeing. However, studies did not show a direct effect of time management on work performance (van Eerde, 2015).

In conclusion, the three phases of time management are planning, implementing and evaluating. In these phases, various aspects are involved, such as awareness of time use, goal setting, prioritizing, planning, monitoring, organizing, and evaluating. The positive effects of time management have been shown to be an increased feeling of wellbeing and an increased feeling of control, while there was no direct effect of time management on performance.

The different aspects of time management are not only important in the workplace. These aspects could also be used to help job seekers structure their job search process and envision their future plans and goals. This is important because job seekers mainly rely on

intrinsic motivation and pressure to participate in the job searching process. They depend on self-regulation to keep their search process structured and efficient.

5.2 Self-regulation

Mann, de Ridder and Fujita (2013) describe self-regulation as an umbrella term that encompasses various processes for the continuation and attainment of goals; goal setting and goal striving are two important components of such processes. Self-regulation theory can contribute theoretically to the practical concept of time management (van Eerde, 2015). An important aspect of self-regulation theory is adaption: people need to practice self-regulation when they are challenged to adapt to changing circumstances.

Especially when individuals are looking for a new job they need to adapt to the changing circumstances and engage in the job search process. This is a time-consuming and emotionally charged process, fraught with ambiguity for the individuals (Turban, Lee, Da Motta Veiga, Haggard & Wu, 2013). Self-regulation and time management are important for keeping an individual motivated despite the continued rejections and the monotony of the job search process (Müller et al., 2017).

Müller et al. describe this motivation in their research as the self-regulation of effort. They also discuss the self-regulation of emotion, in which the individual feels discouraged or frustrated about the job search process or unemployment in general. This feeling of frustration could ultimately discourage people from participating in the labor force at all, which would lead to long-term unemployment and a loss of skills.

The manner in which individuals deal with their self-regulation of effort and emotion also depends on their approach toward goal striving. Turban et al. describe this approach as the ‘approach-avoidance self-regulatory framework’. Here, individuals with an ‘approach’

Individuals with an ‘avoidance’ orientation are more likely to become discouraged when faced with negative outcomes and are likely to focus more on alternative activities, thereby delaying the pursuit of the goal (Turban et al., 2013). These individuals display their avoidance behavior through procrastination.

To avoid procrastination and maintain motivation to continue the job search process, job seekers must adopt self-initiated processes such as goal setting, planning, and goal striving (Müller et al., 2017). Setting short-term goals will help the job seeker to structure the process in a day-to-day manner. Furthermore, setting long-term goals – in which one envisions their future self - could help in viewing the greater picture and striving for progress over a longer period of time.

In their research, Turban et al. discovered that individuals with an approach orientation had more positive affectivity through which they viewed the job search process as a learning process and were more motivated to continue despite negative experiences such as rejections. These individuals were also less likely to procrastinate and had greater job search success. These findings suggest that another strategy to help job seekers avoid procrastination and remain motivated in the process is to help them focus on their positive attributes. Although it is difficult to change a job seeker’s positive affectivity, he or she can be trained to increase adaptive emotions during the job search process. For example, a job seeker can be trained to keep their emotions positive and regulated when receiving feedback from potential employers (Turban et al., 2013).

In summary, self-regulation theory describes the processes for setting and pursuing goals, which can be valuable for job seekers. To stay motivated in the job search process, the self-regulation of effort and emotion are important, as well as the individuals orientation towards goal striving. This orientation can be characterized as either approach or avoidance. Through the self-initiated processes of goal setting, striving for goals and positive affectivity,

job seekers can gain more motivational control over lengthy processes that are low on intrinsic (activity-related) motivation, but high on extrinsic (outcome-related) motivation (Müller et al., 2017).

5.3 Procrastination

As discussed above, if an individual sets no particular goal, the temptation to procrastinate could increase. Procrastination is defined by Van Eerde as “the delay due to the avoidance of the implementation of an intention” (Van Eerde, 2015). This delay is irrational since most important tasks are postponed because they are less attractive than other tasks.

Determinants of procrastination can be divided into tasks characteristics or personality characteristics. Examples of task characteristics are aversion or delay because the task is not attractive enough, while examples of personality characteristics are low self-efficacy, conscientiousness, and self-control (Beutel, Klein, Aufenanger, Brähler, Dreier, Müller, Quiring, Reinecke, Schmutzer, Stark & Wölfling, 2016). In their study, Beutel et al. found that procrastination was higher among the unemployed, singles, and students. They argue this shows that work schedules, which provide a structure of time and demand, counteract procrastination. When an individual becomes unemployed and no longer has such a work schedule anymore, he or she has more opportunities for procrastination. Furthermore, prolonged unemployment could lead to reduced mental health and self-efficacy, which may also result in procrastination (Beutel et al., 2016).

Van Eerde explains the short-term psychological benefits of procrastination as feelings of distraction and relief, and enhanced well-being. In the long term, however, psychological disadvantages such as feelings of guilt, shame and stress can occur.

increasing time pressure, thinking about the positive and negative outcomes, removing distractions, and focusing on the responsibility of the activity (van Eerde, 2015). However, it appears to be difficult to change one’s procrastination habit for several reasons: it is part of a generalized behavior pattern, avoidance is addictive and distractions are tempting, and emotional barriers are present (van Eerde, 2015).

Schouwenburg (2004) describes three components that can be used to help students overcome procrastination. These are training self-regulatory skills, building emotional strength, and using social support to sustain desirable behavior. These practices could also be used by job seekers to increase the efficiency of their job searching process.

These three components each serve a general purpose in the intervention methods used in Schouwenburg’s study. The first component involves the promotion of habit through working regularly, which is accomplished by self-regulation training. Such training promotes time management by setting goals and deadlines and monitoring progress, so the gap between vague intentions and concrete behavior is reduced. By creating concrete long-term goals and specific short-term goals, activities that are easily procrastinated can become of increased subjective value to a person (Schouwenburg, 2004). This can create a feeling of urgency, which motivates people to make an effort to change the current situation (Mann et al., 2013).

The second component involves enhancing the feelings of self-efficacy, and identifying and reframing negative thinking patterns, in order to build emotional strength. Short-term goals may help job searchers structure their job searching process on a regular basis, and long-term goals can help them enhance their future orientation. If a person is aware of the small, everyday successes that are achieved by working with clear, short-term goals, his or her success expectancy is also increased. Furthermore, if the progress of the long-term tasks is monitored through clear and evaluated plans, individuals may acquire a sense of

self-efficacy (Schouwenburg, 2004). This may result in increased success expectancies that could also be beneficial to individuals in the long run.

Assigning a mentor could help people set and achieve those goals. This approach is also part of the third practice of Schouwenburg to overcome procrastination: social support. In addition to the influence of the mentor, an individual’s social environment is also important. Group support and approval can enhance one’s feeling of self-confidence and challenge group members to successfully execute their work plans (Schouwenburg, 2004).

In conclusion, procrastination is the delay of tasks an individual intended to do because the task is, for example, not attractive. This is tempting in the job search process. To overcome procrastination, Schouwenburg argues that focus should be on training self-regulatory skills, building emotional strength and using social support.

5.4 Job Search Process

Schouwenburg’s intervention methods to counter procrastination were focused on students. To link the concepts of procrastination, self-regulation and time management to jobseekers, the job search process is discussed in this section. Kanfer et al. (2001) have conceptualized job search behavior as the product of a self-regulation process. Here, individuals are involved in this process if they are committed to pursuing an employment goal, which is the first step of this process. This goal activates search behavior that will help the individual to accomplish the goal. This search behavior includes undertaking activities and using personal resources that will bring the individual closer to completing the goal, thereby obtaining a job (Kanfer et al., 2001).

One critique of Kanfer et al. is that most research thus far has focused on measuring job search behaviors in terms of intensity or effort. Examples of these behaviors include

lack of job search behavior research on content-direction, which indicates the type and quality of activities conducted in the job search process, and temporal-persistence, which indicates the persistence and the dynamic processes of the job search (Kanfer et al. 2001).

Search intensity can be divided into two segments: preparatory and active search intensity. Preparatory search includes gathering information and, for example, revising one’s resume. Active search involves actually applying for a job and announcing oneself as looking for a (new) job. Here, the behaviors of intensity are used differently in different groups of job seekers. Employed job seekers may become involved in the preparatory search behavior prior to engaging in active search behavior, while unemployed individuals might use both behaviors simultaneously (Wanberg, 2012).

Furthermore, the job search methods used in the process are also of importance. Wanberg et al. (2012) refer in their research to the study of Granovetter (1995), who demonstrated that informal methods such as networking resulted in faster employment than formal methods such as applying in response to vacancies and using employment agencies.

The research of Wanberg (2012) discussed the different job search strategies that can be used by different individuals. They may engage in a focused search, which means that they have a clear goal and are searching for jobs that meet their criteria. They may also engage in an exploratory search, which means that they gather information about different employment options and are open to their possibilities. Finally, they may also engage in a haphazard search, which means that they are applying for jobs without a plan or collection of information (Crossley & Highhouse, 2005).

Individual differences in job search behavior can be evaluated according to the factors of intensity-effort, which shows how much time is spent on the job search; content-direct, which concerns the methods used and the quality of the activities; and temporal-persistence, which describes the effort used and the changes made over time. Nevertheless, Kanfer et al.

highlight the difficulty in clarifying the person-situation factors and processes that create individual differences in job searching behavior and that affect employment outcomes.

According to Kanfer et al., the various antecedents of job search behavior are based on a “complex interplay of employment motives and goals; personal, emotional, and social tendencies; and unique personal and situational conditions” (Kanfer et al, 2001, pp. 838). Regarding personal conditions, they followed the Five Factor Model (FFM) framework of five major personality constructs: Neuroticism, Extroversion, Openness to Experience, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness. Here, conscientiousness and extroversion would be positively related to job search behavior.

In the study of the situational conditions, financial need and employment commitment proved to be of importance. These conditions reflect, respectively, whether the individual is experiencing economic hardship, and the importance (beyond financial incentive) that the individual gives to employed work.

The antecedents and consequences of job search behavior differ between individuals who are currently unemployed due to involuntary job layoffs and individuals who are seeking new employment opportunities (Kanfer et al., 2001). The research of Kanfer et al. has demonstrated that the relationship between a higher level of job searching behavior and obtaining employment is stronger among unemployed individuals than among employed job seekers.

Thus, job search behavior can be explained in terms of various factors: intensity-effort, which can be divided into preparatory and active search; content-direct, which can be explained by the methods and strategies used; and temporal-persistence, which displays the effort and changes during the job search process. Job search behavior must be taken into account in order to explore how time management may help improve the job search process.

5.5 Job Search Intervention Programs

To help individuals in the challenging process of job seeking, job search intervention programs have been developed. Renn, Steinbauer, Taylor and Detwiler (2014) researched the school-to-work transition of college graduates and their career planning and job search. They state that “career planning includes setting goals, developing plans, and forming strategies for a career”, and that job search “encompasses psychological and behavioral activities associated with the generation and pursuit of employment (pp. 422). Renn et al. explain the difficulty faced by job seekers in managing their time and structuring their life, since their employment environment, in which they often have to deal with rejection and disappointment, is ambiguous and complex (Renn et al., 2014).

The intensity of the job search behavior of an individual can be explained through the theory of planned behavior (TPB). According to TPB, job search intention and perceived behavioral control predict the job search behavior of an individual. Job search intention is the amount of time and effort the individual puts into the process of finding a job. This intention can be predicted by the personal attitude towards job seeking, social pressure, and the feeling of self-efficacy. Perceived behavioral control is the confidence of that individual in his or her ability to perform the various job search activities (van Hooft, Born, Taris & van der Flier, 2005).

Training can improve an unemployed person’s self-efficacy, job-search skills, and re-employment status (Noordzij, van Hooft, van Mierlo, van Dam, & Born, 2013). Previous research by Liu, Huang & Wang showed that counseled job seekers were more likely to gain employment (Liu et al., 2014). This shows that not only individual differences are important in job search, but also career support by mentors (Renn et al., 2014). Renn et al. define mentoring as “a process of an individual with more experience (the mentor) providing

with the aim of enhancing a protégé’s personal and professional development” (pp. 422). Being assigned to a mentor increases an individual’s confidence to perform a task well, thus increasing self-efficacy.

Well-developed mentoring programs consist of three aspects. First, mentors have opportunities to display competence with tasks. Second, they can model appropriate professional behaviors. Finally, mentors help their protégés through supportive coaching. This research was focused on students and their career plans, and demonstrated that students who believed they were capable of managing their careers engaged in greater career planning, while students who lacked confidence exhibited difficulty making career choices and sticking with their career plans (Renn et al., 2014).

While Renn et al. conducted research on mentoring programs, research on the broader concept of job search intervention programs was performed by Liu et al. (2014). They found that, based on the self-regulation framework, job search interventions should focus on improving job search skills and motivation, since the interventions most often used focused on improving job search skills and interview skills. Furthermore, they claim that interventions that encourage goal setting, enhance self-efficacy and promote social support increase job seekers’ motivation. Liu et al. claim that goal-setting theory should be incorporated into the framework of job search research, since setting difficult and specific goals leads to a higher performance level, receiving feedback results in progress, and the use of proximal goals can enhance the performance of complex tasks (Liu et al., 2014).

Thus, interventions used in job search intervention programs can be focused on either skill development (job search skills and interview skills), or on motivation enhancement (goal setting, self-efficacy and social support). Components that are focused on motivation enhancement boost self-efficacy, encourage proactivity, promote goal setting, enlist social support, and help with stress-management (Liu et al., 2014).

The study of Liu et al. demonstrated that job search interventions that incorporate one of six components (teaching job search skills, improving presentation, boosting self-efficacy, encouraging proactivity, promoting goal-setting, and enlisting social support) are more effective than interventions that do not incorporate such components. However, such interventions are only effective if there is an interaction between skills and the motivational components (Liu et al., 2014). Therefore, both need to be enhanced at the same time.

Skill-based improvements in job search interventions can be understood through the behavioral learning theory. This theory proposes that certain behaviors in the job search process are modified more effectively into the desired behaviors which are considered to contribute to successful job search when reinforced by and under the supervision of a mentor, rather than through direct instructions. Examples of such behaviors are vacancy search, networking, resume writing, and interviewing (Liu et al., 2014). Since this research mainly focuses on exploring the motivation-enhancing components, skill-based improvements will not be discussed in further detail.

TPB is consistent with the enhancement of job search motivation. Through TPB, mentors can change the attitude of the job seeker toward the job search, for example by making them realize the process is wise, beneficial and useful. If mentors succeed in altering the job seeker’s attitude, the intensity of the job search behaviors exhibited will be increased. Furthermore, since TPB proposes that the importance involving the family or partner in the job search process, the mentor may ask the job seeker to send letters to their family to improve the subjective norm of job seeking (Liu et al., 2014).

Finally, social cognitive theory is also important in job search intervention programs. This theory recognizes the importance of goal setting, which mobilizes efforts toward goal attainment. Here, goal progress changes one’s behavior because it activates self-reactive influences in the form of personal goal setting and self-evaluative reactions (Liu et al., 2014).

Research by Gary Latham suggests it is important that, in addition to goal setting, the relationship of the goals to outcome expectancy is also clear to the job seeker. If it is understandable that what one is doing relates to the preferred outcome, the commitment of the job seeker will increase (Latham, 2001).

Another important aspect of social cognitive theory is self-efficacy. This increases the confidence of the job seeker to perform the activity. If the individual has high self-efficacy, he or she will set higher goals, will be more committed to those goals, and will be less demotivated when faced with obstacles or rejections. Higher self-efficacy can be obtained in a number of ways. First, it can be acquired through past experiences. Thus, if the job seeker has successfully performed the task in the past, he or she will be more confident in performing it again. Second, a higher level of self-efficacy can be obtained by learning through observing others perform the task. Here, the job seeker can learn from the mentor or job seeker’s social environment. Third, greater self-efficacy can be achieved by convincing the job seeker that he or she can actually do it. Here, too, the mentor can play a significant role. Finally, it can also be obtained by reducing the negative physiological state associated with fear arousal (Liu et al., 2014).

In summary, successful job search intervention programs are focused on improving job search skills and job search motivation. Mentoring programs, in particular, draw attention to motivation-enhancing components by displaying competence with tasks, modeling appropriate behavior and providing supportive coaching. Here, the theory of planned behavior is important and determines the job search behavior of an individual. Another important theory in job search intervention programs is social cognitive theory, which emphasizes the importance of goal-setting and enhancing self-efficacy.

5.6 Dutch Labor Market

The job search market should always be considered in a relevant context. Attitudes and motivation of job seekers can differ depending on the state of the economy. The Eurocrisis caused a fall in the Dutch economy, which also led to more unemployment and less available vacancies. However, 2017 has been the third year in a row wherein the unemployment rate decreased. The Uitvoeringsinstituut Werknemersverzekeringen (UWV) provides eligible unemployed individuals with unemployment benefits. They noted a decrease in current unemployment benefits, as well as a decrease in newly provided unemployment benefits (CBS, 2018). Moreover, the available jobs and vacancies also increased in 2017 (CBS, 2017). This growth in the economic climate might result in more positive attitudes towards finding a new job.

6. Research Design

6.1 Methodology

As discussed in the section on theoretical framework, self-regulation theory as well as time management and procrastination are all related and are relevant to the process of searching for a job. The focus in the current exploratory study is on how these aspects influence the thought process and behavior of job seekers, and which the problems they encounter. Emphasis is also given to a smartphone application that may help the job seekers in this process by providing advice and enabling improvement of their time management skills. The theoretical framework leads to the following questions: How do job seekers become involved in the job searching process? What are the problems they encounter? How do they think these problems could be solved? And how could a smartphone application help them? In answering these questions, the type of job seeker must be taken into account. Is the individual employed, but looking for a new job? Or is the individual unemployed? These questions lead to the following research question:

How do job seekers experience the job search process and how might time management tools offered in a smartphone application increase their efficiency during this

process?

Data is collected through semi-structured interviews with 18 job seekers to discover whether virtual mentoring would help them increase their efficiency and motivation in the job searching process in order to accomplish their ultimate goal: obtaining a job. According to McIntosh & Morse, semi-structured interviews will help capture the subjective experiences of job searchers in the job search process (McIntosh & Morse, 2015). Furthermore, a qualitative

research design is appropriate here because it seeks to ensure objective analysis of subjective meanings (Johnston, 2010). Johnston states that qualitative research “is based on the assumptions that reality is socially constructed, and variables are complex and difficult to measure” (pp. 188). Through this particular research design, a more in-depth analysis can be conducted about the desires and requirements for a potential application. This qualitative study can be used to complement the existing quantitative studies on the job search process and time management, because the approach in this study imbues new richness and depth into the area of analysis (Wanberg et al., 2012). According to Pernice (1996), qualitative research aims to understand the experiences of the job seeker by attempting to develop shared meanings (Pernice, 1996).

The current study reflects an equal distribution of employment status and gender of the interviewees. Other criteria used were that the interviewees must participate actively in the job search process, which means they must actively search for and apply for jobs, and that they belong to different age categories. These criteria are important for obtaining a thorough view of how a smartphone application would be received in the diverse groups, and how requirements and desires might differ among groups.

Because of the broad range of respondents, 18 interviews were necessary to collect relevant evidence and to create reliability. All the interviewees were from the Netherlands. An overview of the interviewees is provided in Appendix 1.

The respondents were approached through a personal network and through messages on social media networks. Interviewees were also asked whether they knew other job seekers who would be willing to participate in this research.

The topics covered were divided into five broad questions. The first topic gave insight into the individual’s background and working experience. Subsequently, the second topic covered the participation and strategy of the interviewees in the job search process. This was

followed by the third topic, on the problems they face while looking for a job and how these might be solved. Next, the fourth topic concerned the development of an application, as well as the interviewees’ opinions on various time management aspects. Finally, the fifth topic was a card-sort method, in which the participants were asked to order the different, possible aspects of the application into three categories, namely: “this definitely needs to be in the application”, “this might be in the application”, and “this definitely does not need to be in the application”, later, they were asked to explain their choices. A detailed overview of the interview structure can be found in Appendix 2.

This research is necessary. Extensive research has been conducted on time management in a working environment to help employees be more productive: however, time management in the job searching process requires much more self-regulation. The job seeker depends on his or her own motivation, deadlines and evaluation to complete this process successfully, and this approach allows room for procrastination and inefficiency. In order to get individuals back to work as soon as possible and in the job they desire, it is important to support those individuals by increasing their time management skills.

Furthermore, as Wanberg et al. denote in their research, past studies have not focused on what precisely makes the job search process difficult and whether the experiences of unemployed and employed job searchers are different (Wanberg et al., 2012).

This study will explore whether time management tools and support from intervention programs could effectively be incorporated into a smartphone application. Not everyone can afford to spend a significant amount of money on a job search coach. For these individuals, an application might be useful to keep them motivated and structured. This means that this research will take an inductive approach, with the experiences of job seekers being used to develop theory.

The eventual goal is that the results of this study can be combined with those of other studies to develop an application to help job seekers maintain their motivation to search for a job.

Strengths of this research design are that a great deal of explorative data concerning the job search process and time management is gathered from different demographic groups, and this might lead to more focus in the application-development stage.

A limitation of this research design is that the application has not yet been developed, which makes it difficult for interviewees to imagine what the application looks likes and whether the tools and support motivate them practically. A follow-up study should research these issues once the application has been developed.

6.2 Analysis Strategy

Each interview lasted approximately 45 minutes and all were recorded to facilitate the transcription phase. The interviewees were asked whether they agreed with the interview being recorded, and they were assured of the anonymity of the interview. The names of the interviewees are coded as “R1” through “R18”, where the letter “R” represents “respondent”. During the interview, field notes were taken during the interview, an example of which is added in Appendix 3. The average number of transcribed pages per interview is 26 pages, one-and-a-half-spaced. In total, there were 468 pages of transcribed interviews.

When using the program NVivo10, nodes were created to categorize all the data. This was done by creating a mind-map of the topics most discussed in the interviews. An image of this mind-map can be found in Appendix 4. Then a word cloud was created in NVivo to incorporate other topics that were discussed but which may have been initially missed. Finally, all the interviews were read and the data was organized by existing nodes. New nodes

overview of the final codebook is provided in Appendix 5. To convey the results more clearly, the section below contains quotes which are remarkable, or which are similar to the opinion of multiple interviewees. Since the quotes were translated from Dutch, the original interviewee quotes can be found in Appendix 6.

7. Results

NVivo is a tool for organizing data, but it does not conduct a case analysis. The cross-case analysis shown in Appendix 7 provides an overview of possible patterns or significant differences. This is a general overview of the results concerning the job search strategy of the interviewees, the problems they face during the process, and the solutions they used or could use. The problems faced are divided into two parts: internal problems and external problems. Internal problems refer to the issues the interviewees face with their motivation in the process, while external problems refer to the issues they face during the job search process which are out of their control, such as lacking the requirements set by employers.

Table 1 below displays the main results of the codes created in the four sections. The percentage of interviewees who discuss this subject is indicated under “Context level and frequency”. Tables 1.1 through 1.4 cover, respectively, the sections on search strategy, internal problems, external problems and solutions.

Table 1.1 – Search Strategy Ex amp le q u ote s “W el l, ev er yd ay I tr y to lo ok if th er e’ s so m et hi ng in te re st in g in th er e, be ca us e if you re pl y as f as t a s pos si ble o n a v ac an cy , y ou a re o ne o f th e fi rst a nd y ou m ig ht h av e a hi gh er su cc ess ra te ” – R6 “S o I lo ok ed a t, uh , d if fe re nt jo b si te s an d I ke ep a ll th e ta bs o pe n. S o m y co m pu ter h as so m an y tab s op en r ig ht n ow . A nd I lo ok ed at a co up le of co m pan ies: th ose ta bs I ke ep ope n too” – R1 2 “S o I m ad e su re I k no w h ow it w or ks . A nd th at y ou r L in ke dI n pr of il e lo ok s g oo d, a nd th at y ou k ee p it u p to d ate , a nd th at y ou r ep ly o n it, a nd th at y ou r n etw or k is v er y im po rta nt” – R1 1 “U h, it is a ls o a li tt le b it to g et in th ro ugh the gr ape vi ne . Y ou’ re a lw ays ge tt ing som e sor t of pe rs ona l goodw il l. U h, ye ah, you coul d de fi ni te ly sa y it’ s a s tr ate gy ” – R1 5 “Y ea h, n o, I d on ’t r ea ll y ha ve a s tr at eg y. I ’m ju st lo ok in g ra nd om ly , s o to say , at ev er yt hi ng th er e is an d th en I sel ect th ose w ho seem in ter est in g to me ” – R1 6 “U h, w el l.. . a s pe ci fi c st ra te gy , t ha t i s se ar ch in g w it hi n a pa rt ic ul ar r eg io n. It is im po rt an t t o m e to li ve n ot m ore th an h al f an h ou r aw ay f ro m w ork . Uh , a nd I a ls o lo ok a lo t a t t he k in d of s ch oo l a nd th e po pu la ti on on a sch oo l t o see if it fi ts w it h m e. S o I do n’ t ap pl y to al l v acan ci es” – R1 D efi n iti on Se ar ch f or v ac an ci es e it he r th ro ug h jo bs it es jo b si te s or th ro ug h lo ok in g di re ct ly at the w ebs it e of c om pa ni es Lo ok in g fo r a jo b ei th er b y us in g pe rs ona l ne tw or k, Li nk ed In , o r re cru it ers Se ar ch in g kn ow in gl y ei th er in a sp ec if ic o r a br oa d w ay f or a jo b C od e n ame _Webs it e se ar ch Ne two rk in g Sc op e of se ar ch st ra te gy C on te xt l eve l an d fr eq u en cy To ta l: 1 7 à 94% Em pl oy ed : 9 Un em pl oy ed : 8 To ta l: 1 5 à 83% Em pl oy ed : 7 Un emp lo ye d: 8 To ta l: 1 2 à 67 % Em pl oy ed : 6 Un em pl oy ed : 6

Table 1.2 – Internal Problems Ex amp le q u ote s “I n ot ic ed th at it w as k in d of h ar d en te ri ng th e w ho le jo b ap pl ic at io n pr oc es s ag ai n. W hat d oes an in ter vi ew lo ok li ke? W hat d o yo u hav e to say ? A ll th at so rt of s tuf f” – R7 “I n th e be gi nn in g I w as a pp ly in g w ay to m uc h, o f co ur se . T he re a re ju st th in gs [jo bs ] th at I ju st s ho ul d no t d o an ym ore ” – R9 “W el l, us ua ll y on th e st ar t o f th e w ee k I th in k: o h, y ea h, I ’m g oi ng to d o th at o n Tu es da y. W el l, fo r so m e re as on tha t ne ve r re al ly w or ks out ” – R1 1 “A nd th en I ’m g oi ng to lo ok w ha t t he y… a t t he p oi nt , s ec ti on , u h, r eq ui re m en ts fo r m e, y ou k no w . B ec au se y ou a lw ay s ha ve d iffe re nt b ul le t p oi nt s of w ha t y ou ha ve to do. B ut I a lw ays look the re f ir st . A nd if it s ays : t hr ee ye ar s of ex per ien ce, I al read y gi ve up . W hi le m y fr ien ds al w ay s say : y eah , b ut th at ’s th ei r id ea l ty pe o f e m plo ye e, y ou ju st g ot to d o it. B ut th en I a lr ea dy th in k: n o, th at’ s ne ve r goi ng to be m e” – R1 2 “A nd s uc h a m ot iv at io n… lo ok , f or m y st ud y I us ed to w ri te a m ot iv at io n let ter onc e, but tha t i s… ye ah, I don’ t know , t ha t i s som et hi ng you st il l ha ve to ge t us ed to , a nd th at s om etim es y ou th in k: h ow d o y ou a ctu ally … ye ah , h ow d o y ou w rite a go od let ter ?” – R1 4 “A nd s om et hi ng I n ev er q ui te u nd er st an d, an d of w hi ch I d on ’t k no w if it w il l he lp m e fur the r, is L inke dI n” – R1 D efi n iti on Pr ob le m s en te ri ng a nd or ga ni zi ng the pr oc es s of job se ar ch Pr ob le m s yi el di ng a nd ma in ta in in g mo ti va ti on th ro ug h be ing sc ar ed to ta ke the s te p, in vo lv in g in p ro cr as tin atio n, or ge tt ing de m ot iva te d by the hi gh re qu ire m en ts o f em pl oy ers Pr ob le m s w it h la ck in g ge ne ra l know le dge , m ai nl y of L inke dI n or c ove r le tte rs , w hic h c ou ld b e eas il y acq ui red C od e n ame Ap pl ic at io n pr oc es s Mo ti va ti on La ck in g ge ne ra l know le dge C on te xt l eve l an d fr eq u en cy To ta l: 5 à 28% Em pl oy ed : 2 Un em pl oy ed : 3 To ta l: 8 à 44% Em pl oy ed : 3 Un em pl oy ed : 5 To ta l: 3 à 17% Em pl oy ed : 1 Un em pl oy ed : 2

Table 1.3 – External Problems Ex amp le q u ote s “A nd th en o f co ur se th ey w an t, as w el l a d ip lo m a as 1 0 ye ar s of e xp er ie nc e. An d so me on e wh o is o nl y 20 y ea rs o ld . Uh , b ut y ea h, I th in k… th ey d o to o mu ch p ig eo nh ol in g. T ha t’ s my o pi ni on ” – R1 6 “Y ea h… ye ah … us ua ll y yo u he ar th e sa m e th in g. U h, f or e xa m pl e th at I don’ t ha ve a M as te r’ s de gr ee on m y re sum e. N o uni ve rs it y st udy” – R8 “T o se ar ch th ro ug h 6. 00 0 va ca nc ie s ev er y w ee k, th at ’s n ot r ea ll y ap pe al in g to m e” – R1 6 “E ve n th ou gh it is a w id e fi el d of w or k I’ m s ea rc hi ng in , i t i s al so a s m al l wo rk f ie ld . S o th er e ar e no t t ha t ma ny v ac an ci es . An d if th er e ar e va ca nc ie s, th ey a re o n th e o th er s id e o f th e c ou ntr y. S o th at m ak es it, u h, d if fic ult” – R1 1 “I th in k it is a li tt le b it d if fi cu lt to s ea rc h on s pe ci fi c ke y w or ds , y ou k no w . Be ca us e, y ea h, I nt er na ti on al D ev el op m en t. T he re a re n ot r ea ll y… th er e is no fa nc y na m e of w ha t you ar e goi ng to be the n, or s om et hi ng” – R1 3 “T ha t [ in fo rm at io n ab ou t c or po ra te c ul tu re ] is a li tt le b it th e in fo rm at io n th at I w ou ld lik e to h av e b ef or e a pp ly in g f or a jo b. A nd th at is n ot a lw ay s pr es ent , or the inf or m at ion is ve ry… uh, how to sa y… bi as ed. Y ou ge t w ha t I m ea n? ” – R1 7 “B ut s om et im es y ou h ea r no th in g at a ll , a nd th at is a li tt le b it a nn oy in g. Th en y ou ’v e ap pl ie d, a nd th en y ou d on ’t e ve n ge t a n ac kn ow le dg em en t o f re ce ip t, an d yo u ju st h ea r no th in g fo r th e w ho le w ee k” – R7 “O th er s fi t t he p ro fi le b et ter … th at an no ys m e so m uch . T hat I th in k li ke, an d so m et im es I feel tem pt ed to ju st ask a qu est io n ab ou t t hat , y ou k no w . I cal l, or I sen d an em ai l. A nd u h, y eah , t hat ju st m ean s no th in g to m e. L oo k, it c an b e y ou r o pin io n. B ut c an y ou e xa ctly te ll m e o n wh at p oi nt s I fa ll sh or t? B ecau se th at ’s so m et hi ng I can u se” – R9 D efi n iti on Pr ob le m s m at ch in g em pl oy er s req ui rem en ts in ag e, ed ucat io n, s al ar y, ex per ien ce et cet er a Tr ou bl e fi nd in g re le va nt va ca nc ie s Pr ob le m s us in g a w eb si te o r la ck o f in fo rm atio n in the va ca nc y Pr ob le m s ge tt in g an y or re le va nt re sp on se o f em pl oy er s af ter ap pl yi ng f or a jo b C od e n ame No t ma tc hi ng re qu ire m en ts Av ai la bi li ty of r el eva nt va ca nc ie s Am bi gu ou s we bs it e or va ca nc y Re sp on se o f em pl oy er s C on te xt l eve l an d fr eq u en cy To ta l: 1 0 -à 56% Em pl oy ed : 5 Un em pl oy ed : 5 To ta l: 7 à 39% Em pl oy ed : 3 Un em pl oy ed : 4 To ta l: -à 6 -à 33% Em pl oy ed : 3 Un em pl oy ed : 3 To ta l: 4 -à 22% Em pl oy ed : 2 Un em pl oy ed : 2

Table 1.4 – Solutions Ex amp le q u ote s “I th in k es pe ci al ly o th er s, a s in a cq ua in ta nc es , t ha t t he y wo ul d sa y: n o, y ou re al ly c an d o th at . A nd th en th at th ey f or ex am pl e w ou ld h el p w it h, u h, p os it iv e asp ect s or so m et hi ng . I th in k th at … b ecau se th en I th in k: o h, y eah , al ri gh t, yo u ar e ri gh t” – R1 2 “W e ha ve th ou gh t a bo ut a ll th e po ss ib il it ie s. A nd th en w e to get her cam e to th e co ncl usi on … m ay be a car eer co ach ” – R1 6 “S o ye ah … f or m e it ’s k in d of im po rt an t t o ha ve s om e so rt of bi g st ic k” – R1 1 “B es id es th at , y ea h, m ay be s ea rc hi ng m or e fo r jo bs li ke J un io r A cc ou nt Ma na ge r, in st ea d of ta ki ng a s ho rt cu t a nd sear ch in g di rect ly fo r A cco un t Ma na ge r” – R1 4 “S o uh , y ea h, w ha t I c ou ld d o is a sk in g fe ed ba ck o n th e le tt er s I w ri te to m ak e su re th at th e am ou nt o f in ter vi ew s I get in vi ted fo r ar e en lar ged ” – R1 “F or e xa m pl e, in D ec em be r I’ m ta ki ng a c ou rs e fo r nu tr it ioni st . T ha t’ s w ha t in te re sts me , t ha t’ s wh at I li ke , a nd I lo ve c oo ki ng , a nd I lo ve h ea lt hy f oo d, a nd I th in k it is im po rt an t. U h, a nd th en I m ig ht d o th e ac ad em y af te rw ard s” – R6 “U h, y ea h, m ay be s ti ll c on ta ct in g ot he r pe op le a b it m or e in de ed , t o, y ea h, ex po se yo ur sel f a li tt le bi t. B ecau se uh , j ust ap pl yi ng o n th e In ter net … I th in k th er e a re ju st s o m an y p eo ple a pp ly in g a nd th at y ou ju st s in k in to o bliv io n. S o it wo ul d be g re at if y ou a re a li tt le b it f ami li ar s ome wh er e, a lr ea dy , o r so me th in g” – R1 3 “U h, I c ou ld a pp ly f or in tr od uc tio n d ay s a t c om pa nie s th at in te re st m e. U h, a nd sen d m y resu m e to r ecr ui ter s of w hi ch I th in k th ey m ig ht h av e rel ev an t j ob s fo r me ” – R1 0 D es cr ip ti on He lp f ro m a p ro fe ss io na l co ach , t ip s, o r su pp or t f ro m pe er s, f am il y and fr ie nds Us in g a di ff er en t s tr at eg y th an b ef or e, o r c ha ng in g th e st ra te gy th ro ug h se tt in g de adl ine s and pl anni ng Im pro vi ng p ers on al ly b y acq ui ri ng s ki ll s an d know le dge or r ec ei vi ng re le va nt f ee db ac k to e va lu at e Im pro vi ng n et w ork th ro ug h Li nk ed In , n et w or k da ys o r re cru it ers C od e n ame Co ac hi ng Ch an gi ng se ar ch st ra te gy Pe rs on al im pr ov em en t Ne two rk im pr ov em en t C on te xt l eve l an d fr eq u en cy To ta l: 9 à 50% Em pl oy ed : 5 Un em pl oy ed : 4 To ta l: 9 à 50% Em pl oy ed : 3 Un em pl oy ed : 6 To ta l: 8 à 44% Em pl oy ed : 2 Un em pl oy ed : 6 To ta l: 7 à 39% Em pl oy ed : 6 Un em pl oy ed : 1

7.1 Job Search Process

7.1.1 Search Strategy

Table 1.1 displays the most frequently used channels to search for vacancies, which are “Website search” and “Networking”.

Website search includes searching for vacancies at job sites or directly viewing the career page of interesting companies. Some interviewees stated they preferred viewing a company’s website because they had trouble entering key words in the search engine of the job site, or because they wanted to work for a company that suits their interest.

Networking includes using one’s personal network, LinkedIn, or recruiters to find a job. LinkedIn was mentioned 61 times by 17 interviewees, which attests to the relevance of this social media site. Of these 61 entries, employed job seekers discussed LinkedIn 35 times, while unemployed job seekers did so 26 times. Although LinkedIn was commonly used among the interviewees, not everyone perceived it as positive. Some interviewees experienced problems with using LinkedIn. This was related to a lack of skills in using the network, or a lack of relevancy of LinkedIn, since one interviewee stated:

“The problem of LinkedIn is that it shows precisely the vacancies that are linked to your previous work experience. So then… that is not specifically the direction I am looking for. I

am searching more widely” – R10

Furthermore, 12 interviewees mentioned the scope of their search strategy. This could be either broad (open for all opportunities), or narrow (only applying to relevant vacancies or vacancies that match certain criteria). This was divided equally between employed and

describing their search strategy and type of job they were looking for. Here, it appeared that 11 interviewees wield a broad scope, while seven interviewees used a narrow scope. Of those 11 interviewees with a broad scope, eight were employed job seekers. Of the seven interviewees with a narrow scope, six were unemployed. Some interviewees also related the changes they made in their search strategy. Two unemployed interviewees stated that they used to apply to vacancies too much and too broadly, which gave no positive results. Due to this, the interviewees changed their strategy to applying only to relevant vacancies wherein the success rate would be higher.

7.1.2 Internal problems

Table 1.2 displays the internal problems that interviewees face in the job searching process. These problems can be classified as “problems in the application process”, “problems with motivation”, and “lacking general knowledge”.

Five interviewees experienced problems entering the application process, or structuring this process properly. Interviewee 7 related his problems with refreshing his job interview skills. He also mentioned his problems with structuring his applications:

“And if you… the hardest part is actually to remember all the lines you’ve set out. Sometimes you apply so much that you don’t even remember what you’ve applied to” – R7

The second category reveals the problems interviewees face in their motivation, which was mentioned by a total of eight interviewees, of which five were unemployed. Troubles in motivation can be related to an initial lack of motivation, because the job seeker is scared to take the first step. Several interviewees stated that they enjoy searching for vacancies, but face

to becoming involved in procrastination or having trouble writing a good motivation letter. Furthermore, two interviewees stated that they feel discouraged by the high requirements employers set out in their vacancies.

Three interviewees mentioned the third classification, which concerns a lack of general knowledge. They faced problems using LinkedIn or writing a good cover letter.

7.1.3 External problems

Table 1.3 illustrates the problems interviewees face due to external factors in the process that are beyond their control. These factors can be classified in four groups: “not matching requirements”, “availability of relevant vacancies”, “ambiguous website or vacancy”, and “response of employers”.

The first group, which is about the job seeker not matching the requirements set by the employer in terms of age, previous education, salary demands and work experience was mentioned by 10 interviewees, equally divided between employed and unemployed job searchers. These problems were usually encountered when an interviewee was rejected for a job.

Seven interviewees mentioned the availability of relevant vacancies. Problems with this were due to limited regional vacancies in the specific field of work, or unfamiliarity with the area of expertise.

“I used to be a CFO, and there are a few vacancies for that. So, for a carpenter, there are plenty of vacancies, but in a company you only have one CFO of course, so that’s quite

However, one interviewee also mentioned there were too many vacancies that he had to search through, which made the process difficult and demotivating.

Six interviewees identified experiencing problems with job sites or relevant information in vacancies. The type of problems ranged from having trouble searching key words that were relevant in their specific area of expertise or branch to having problems imagining what the job described in the vacancy truly includes. Two employed interviewees also expressed their displeasure with the lack of information, or biased information, regarding the company culture listed in the vacancy or on the website.

Four interviewees discussed the last factor, the response of employers. They all stated that they had difficulties with the lack of response, or irrelevant response, that employers provide when the interviewees completed an application or were rejected for a job. The interviewees feel annoyed when they receive no response at all to an application, resulting in the interviewees having to personally call the company multiple times to receive any information. One interviewee related that when he called to ask for more information, the employer responded that the position was already filled. Finally, the interviewees also feel annoyed when they receive insufficient feedback from the employer when they are rejected for a job, since that makes it unable for them to improve their personal skills or cover letter for the next application.

7.1.4 Solutions

Table 1.4 indicates possible solutions that the interviewees discussed. These could be a solution that the interviewee had already applied, or solutions suggested by the interviewee that could possibly improve his or her current situation. These solutions can be grouped into one of the following categories: “coaching”, “changing search strategy”, “personal

Nine interviewees discussed the concept of coaching. Such coaching consists of professional help from a career coach, but also receiving tips and support from peers, family and friends. “Coach” was mentioned 34 times by nine different interviewees. Some were already receiving help from a job coach, and one interviewee was contemplating approaching one. Several interviewees had already received tips and support from peers, family and friends, or would like to receive more. Tips signify useful tips and tricks about the application process or relevant vacancies. Support was acknowledged as increasing the interviewee’s confidence in the process, which helps the job seeker to better express himself or herself in a cover letter or an interview.

Changing search strategy was mentioned by nine employees, of which six were unemployed. They addressed their search methods that they had already changed, as explained previously, from broad to narrow. Furthermore, some interviewees spoke about setting deadlines and making a schedule that would help them to persevere in the process of searching for a job. Two male interviewees discussed applying at their own level instead of high-level, interesting jobs. Those jobs were not yet realistic for them due to their lack of experience.

Next, eight interviewees talked about making personal improvements; six of these were currently unemployed. Some stated their personal improvement could be enhanced by acquiring skills and knowledge through education or by looking for tips and tricks on the Internet. Another possibility that was mentioned was requesting and receiving feedback in order to evaluate it and learn from it.

Ultimately, seven interviewees discussed the solution of network improvement: six of those were employed. The interviewees stated they could or should become more involved more in networking, either through LinkedIn or by face-to-face networking or introduction