Home-Based Telework
An Exploration of Appropriate Supportive Leadership for
Employees Working from Home During a Crisis
Nousjka Frieswijk S3648664 Date: January 18th, 2020 MSc BA Change Management Thesis Supervisor: dr. I. Maris – de Bresser
2
Home-Based Telework
An Exploration of Appropriate Supportive Leadership for
Employees Working from Home During a Crisis
Nousjka Frieswijk
University of Groningen, The Netherlands
Abstract
This empirical study aims to determine the optimal balance of appropriate leadership activities in a crisis situation that forces employees to work from home. Current literature lacks research on leadership and home-based telework during a crisis. Theory has developed, with the COVID-19 pandemic as a crisis, to add to the current literature on leadership. Experiences of employees were used to investigate their needs for supportive managerial activities. By conducting sixteen semi-structured interviews within a public organization situated in the Netherlands, it was examined how leaders can respond to the needs of employees for the benefit of the organizational effectiveness. Findings reveal that leaders can affect employee work performance and well-being by balancing between transactional and transformational leadership activities, with a tendency towards the transformational or relation-oriented leadership style. Leaders should at least be active in showing interest in the personal situations of the employees, but also help to make work more enjoyable by arranging practical matters for a decent home-office. Interestingly, employees observed improvements in telework behaviors over time. Future research can contribute to change management literature through more in-depth examination of the essence of this perceived learning curve after an unexpected change within a dynamic environment.
3
Table of Contents
1. Introduction ... 5
2. Literature review ... 6
2.1 Leadership over time ... 6
2.2 Home-based Telework ... 9 2.3 Leadership at a distance ... 11 3. Methods ... 12 3.1 Research approach ... 13 3.2 Research setting ... 13 3.3 Data collection ... 13 3.4 Data analysis... 15
3.5 Validity and reliability ... 18
4. Findings ... 19
4.1 Experiences of working from home ... 20
4.1.1 Positive experiences ... 20
4.1.2 Negative experiences ... 20
4.1.3 A Review of the experiences ... 25
4.2 Needs in managerial support ... 26
4.2.1 Psychological support ... 26
4.2.2 Social support ... 29
4.2.3 Practical support ... 30
4.3 Overview of managerial activities ... 31
5. Conclusion and Discussion... 32
5.1 Theoretical reflections and contributions ... 33
5.2 Managerial contributions ... 35
5.3 Limitations and Future Research ... 36
References ... 37
Appendices ... 45
4
B. Argumentation Interview guide ... 49
5
1. Introduction
The unpredictability of the COVID-19 pandemic challenges industries worldwide and forces organizations to react and make appropriate decisions about their organizational direction (McKibbin & Fernando, 2020; Zhang, Hu, & Ji, 2020). Making appropriate decisions is difficult, since the COVID-19 pandemic can be characterized as a crisis: “(…) a complex and unexpected event that creates instability, damage, threat, or risk to the company and its people” (Tibbo, 2016, p. 54). Such a complex and unexpected event is often accompanied by feelings of helplessness as well as a lack of coping strategies to deal with the situation (Holenweger, Jager, & Kernic, 2017). Hence, the unpredictability of the crisis makes it difficult for leaders to adequately steer their organizations in the right direction. Most industries have been limited in their choices by the government, and are obligated to initiate working from home as the new norm (DMA, 2020; Veth, 2020). This new way of working creates both positive and negative workplace experiences for employees, such as increased freedom to schedule working hours, increased feelings of insecurity about the impact of COVID-19 on career plans and personal health, and a reduced sense of connection with colleagues and the organization (Rigotti, Cuyper, & Sekiguchi, 2020; Veth, 2020).
Forcing employees to work from home is a major change, affecting the work performance and well-being of employees, and jeopardizing the survival of the organizations (Albrecht, 2020; Veth, 2020). According to research about the survival of organizations in extreme situations, organizations that take the time to thoroughly support each employee’s personal recovery are remarkably successful at getting their operations back on track and establishing the long-term success of their organizations. This support of employees’ personal recovery can be provided by managerial activities of leaders (Tibbo, 2016). Leaders have to detect incoming issues in a fast-changing environment, make sense of a dynamic threat with limited information, and respond by making critical decisions and coordinating action among employees (Boin, McConnell, & Hart, 2020). Leaders can coordinate and support employees through various styles of leadership, and their aligned actions which meet employees’ core needs (Tibbo, 2016). There is, however, a lack of research on leadership within a dynamic and unpredictable environment containing unexpected risks and extreme uncertainty regarding the nature and significance of potential threats and the actions are needed to counteract them (Baran & Scott, 2010). According to Tibbo (2016), leadership support can take many forms, both during and after a crisis. This empirical study aims to discover the best form of leadership support by evaluating an appropriate balance of leadership behaviors in the current crisis of the COVID-19 pandemic.
6
work performance. In order to achieve these objectives, an answer have been formulated to the following research question:
How can leadership support employees who work from home as a consequence of the unexpected COVID-19 pandemic, in an attempt to maintain their work performance?
The outcome of this paper is important to literature on leadership and organizational change, as it is currently unclear how leaders can best support employees in a dynamic and unpredictable environment related to uncertainties about the damage of the crisis. Moreover, whereas many studies have studied relationships between leadership and home-based telework (Coun & Gelderman, & Perez-Arendsen, 2015; Dahlstrom, 2013; De Vries, 2019; Savolainen, 2014), and leadership in a crisis (Stoker & Garretsen, & Soudis, 2019; Tibbo, 2016), not many studies have researched leadership and home-based telework during a crisis (Bartsch et al., 2020). As the COVID-19 pandemic has produced a unique crisis situation, whereby working from home has a more mandatory character than ever before, the already existing literature is useful only in a limited sense (Bapuji et al., 2020; Rudolph et al., 2020; Veldhoven & Van Gelder, 2020). Thus, the present study can broaden and deepen the scarce literature about distanced leadership during a crisis. For managers in organizations contemplating this new work situation as a future alternative, a better understanding of the needs of home-based employees can be useful. Explorative research into mandatory home-based telework during COVID-19 informs managers about their supportive role and their ability to positively affect employee's work performance and well-being for the benefit of organizational effectiveness.
The research question was answered by means of a qualitative research method, based on interviews within a public organization situated in the north of the Netherlands. The following chapters present the theoretical background, a detailed methodology, and the most important findings. The discussion and conclusion summarize various perspectives, provide an answer to the research question, and highlight limitations and areas for future research.
2. Literature review
This chapter first addresses leadership before discussing relevant literature about working from home and leadership at a distance or during a crisis.
2.1 Leadership over time
7
extensively in many different areas and often defined in the literature (Northouse, 2016), leadership currently exists without having a universally accepted definition. Nevertheless, its essence is commonly known and defined as: “a process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal” (Northouse 2016, p. 6). Over the past decades, the definition of leadership has evolved in terms of the most applicable interpretations and practical considerations of its style. Leadership is a dynamic concept, with continuously changing perceptions about how to exert influence. This chapter aims to highlight different perspectives on leadership. A division is made, based on three categories. The most frequent classification of leadership involves distinguishing: (1) the traits of the leader, (2)
the Leader-Member Exchange Theory, and (3) a contextual approach (Burnes, 2017; Northouse,
2016). Each of these, despite their shortcomings, is relevant for organizational effectiveness.
One of the earliest theories of leadership focuses on the traits of leaders. Leaders have individual characteristics that universally differentiate them from non-leaders, and that explains why some leaders are effective and some not. Advancing this early view, Carlyle (1841) claims that certain people were born with special traits that make them great leaders. Although many researchers have tried to differentiate leaders from non-leaders with the help of the five main personality traits - intelligence, self-confidence, determination, integrity, and sociability - (Northouse, 2016), grounded and reliable evidence is missing. However, research has found a positive relationship between the expertise of the leader and the employees’ need for leaders. Additionally, a greater need for leadership is positively related to the impact and effectiveness of leadership (Nelissen, 2019). Limitations of this trait theory are, its failure to perceive good leadership as a cooperation between leader and employee, and its underestimation of the impact of situational variables on the effectiveness of leadership (Burnes, 2016).
8
leadership builds on mutual respect, trust, and the overall quality of the working relationship (Krishnan, 2005a; Sias, 2009). A study examining such a relational approach (Nelissen, 2019) found that most employees appreciate it if leaders arrange matters in the upper level of the hierarchy, provide information, and acknowledge and value the contribution of employees. Even when the context differs, employees maintain effective exchange with the leader. Yet, experienced, professional, and independent employees are less in need of interaction with their leaders. A limitation of the study by Nelissen (2019) is that it under-researched personal needs per organization. As such, it fails to explain which activities of leaders are appropriate for which employees’ needs within different circumstances. Burnes (2017) and Northouse (2016) maintain that LMX-theory is too general, and fails to provide clear guidance to help leaders identify how they should behave and create high-quality relationships in specific circumstances. Additionally, leader effectiveness is determined not only by the quality of the relationship between two people, but also by the nature of the organization in which it operates (Bass & Riggio, 2006).
According to multiple studies, leadership is effective when its leadership style is aligned with the organizational context in which it is operating (Burnes, 2017; Higgs & Rowland, 2003; Nelissen 2019; Van Breukelen & De Vries, 2011). That is why, for the past few years, many organizations adopted the
contextual approach or contingency theory of leadership (Burns, 1978). The theory differentiates
between two basic contingencies of organizations (stable and dynamic), and two matching leadership styles (transactional and transformational). Transactional leadership wants to optimize the status quo through interaction whereby leaders offer rewards to employees who perform to achieve a common organizational goal (Northouse, 2016). It focuses on goal clarification, task completion, and optimizing the performance of the organization through small changes in structures and practices (Burnes, 2017). At a first glance, transactional leadership may appear similar to the LMX-theory because of the exchange between the leader and employee. Nonetheless, within LMX-theory, leaders do not make explicit demands on employees for rewards (Krishnan, 2005a). LMX-theory is more related to transformational
leadership since transformational leaders engage in personal, emotional, and inspirational processes to
9
become an effective leader the key is to find the optimal balance between both styles. Effective leaders combine the best of both styles (Robbins & Judge, 2012) and shape their behaviors after analysis of the self, the employees, the organization, and the environment (Tannenbaum & Schmidt, 1973; Vroom & Jago, 1988; Vroom & Yetton, 1973). The Tannenbaum-Schmidt Leadership Continuum is a helpful model, showing the relationship between the level of authority and freedom (Figure 1).
Figure 1. The continuum of leadership behavior (Tannenbaum & Schmidt, 1973, exhibit 1, p.4).
The left side of the continuum has similarities with transactional leadership; managers use authority and tell employees what to do. The right side of the continuum has similarities with transformational leadership. Employees have more freedom and autonomy to make decisions within the boundaries of the leaders (Helmond, 2020). In the most extreme form, at the right, leaders are passive or absent, and trust employees to make all the decisions (Eagly, Johannesen-Schmidt, & Van Engen, 2003). This is useful only in a context with highly qualified and trained workers who require little or no supervision. Thus, leaders may display different types of leadership at different times (Helmond, 2020). To reveal the undiscovered appropriate optimum of crisis leadership it is useful to know more about the contingencies.
2.2 Home-based Telework
10
of others (Baumeister, 1982). Changes in environments lead to changes in the self-image. Lastly, human beings are motivated to forge connections with others as a way to introduce meaning into their lives (Baumeister & Leary, 1995). The fact that employees build relationships with others at work enhances the meaning of their work and their work identities. Hence, work gives meaning, generates feelings of identity, and provides support (Belle, Burley, & Long, 2015). Employees generally spend a significant amount of time at work. When employees lose the structure and physical environment of work, new work experiences may appear which affect their work performance (Dahlstrom, 2013).
The literature shows that, on average, employees experience more advantages than disadvantages while working from home (Veldhoven & Van Gelder, 2020). According to a recent study by Veth (2020), most employees feel comfortable in their new home office and would like to sustain their new way of working. One self-evident advantage is that employees have more time for work because they spare travel time (Veth, 2020). Furthermore, in a flexible work environment employees have more freedom and responsibility to make decisions about when to work and how to perform their work (Mertens & Recker, 2020; Torraco, 2005). Research shows that telework is accompanied by increased job satisfaction and productivity (Bailey, & Kurland, 2002). According to critics, the positive results only apply to highly qualified and excellently performing employees who are generally less in need of support (Nelissen, 2019). A different study, using moderately educated employees within a non-profit, indicates that employees’ efficiency increases because of less distractions when working from home (De Vries, 2019). Critiques of both research settings (Nelissen, 2019; De Vries, 2019) claim that results are difficult to generalize to the current pandemic situation, as employees are now very limited in their choice of workplace.
11
days a week (Bailey & Kurland, 2002). Other negative experiences of home-based telework are a reduced office influence, unfavorable home working environment, and reduced loyalty and motivation (Mann & Holdsworth, 2003).
Veldhoven and Van Gelder (2020) demonstrate that the experiences of working from home can be beneficial and at the same time detrimental. Which of these experiences is more important depends on the person. Employees might choose to work from home to get more work done, even when they experience mainly negative effects (De Vries, 2019). Support from significant others in the workplace, including leaders, affects their experiences. For example, the meaning of belonging can be positively affected by creating a supportive climate among team members (Belle et al., 2015).
2.3 Leadership at a distance
When employees are working from home, leaders are required to manage from a distance. The leader will have to adopt a different role and, where necessary, be able to deal with the distance and independence of employees (Yukl & Mahsud, 2010). The overview in Table 1 shows that current studies about leadership at a distance and leadership in a crisis sympathize with the ideas of Burnes (1978) and Tannenbaum and Schmidt (1973). They correspond with the idea to combine different types of leadership. Moreover, some studies highlight the importance of high-quality relationships between the leader and the employee (Dahlstrom, 2013; De Vries, 2019; Veth, 2020). Qualitative LMX-relationships are crucial for reducing negative effects of working from home, such as a feeling of isolation (De Vries, 2019). Nonetheless, building a high-quality relationship is increasingly challenging since employees who have little face-to-face interaction with their leaders are likely to have lower quality relationships (Collins et al., 2016; Golden, 2006).
Table 1
Telework, crisis, and leadership behaviors
Styles Author (year)
Subject
Shared leadership and traditional vertical leadership.
A coaching or supportive style of leadership for employees with greater autonomy over how, where, and when to work.
Coun et al., (2015)
Shared leadership and the new way of working
Controlling leadership combined with empowering leadership, and high-quality leader-member exchange. Make use of expertise, support, and
task-orientated leadership.
De Vries (2019)
12 Balance between task and relationship-oriented behavior, with the weight toward
relationship-oriented leadership behavior, particularly communication.
Dahlstrom (2013)
About telecommuting
Traditional leadership and transformational leadership. Leaders need to make more effort to build relationships with the followers.
Savolainen (2014)
E-leadership
Directive and participative leadership Stoker et al. (2019)
Leadership behaviour following the financial crisis
Task- and relation-oriented leadership to maintain
work performance in a virtual environment during crisis situations.
Bartsch et al. (2020)
leadership in matters of crisis-induced digital transformation within service firms (COVID-19)
Digital leadership: highlights the importance of a good, empathetic relationship between the manager and his/her team.
Veth (2020)
Switch towards working from home
(COVID-19)
According to the contingency theory, leaders need to display different types of leadership activities in different times and contexts (Burns, 1978). The literature provides general conclusions about the nature of supportive leadership during teleworking or a crisis. However, previous studies have not been able to offer a clear explanation for the gap between the appropriate leadership activities within a public organization when people are teleworking during a crisis. Therefore, this study aims to provide more explicit information about the role of the leaders at a distance during a COVID-19 pandemic within a non-profit organization. Three objectives have been explored: (1) what are the experiences of employees within home-based telework during COVID-19, (2) what support do employees need, and (3) how can leaders meet the needs of employees to deal with the workplace experiences. How this study managed to identify these objectives is explained in the following chapter.
3. Methods
13
3.1 Research approach
The research question of this paper required development of a theory (Eisenhardt, 1989), as extensive research did not provide a comprehensive understanding, and was limited regarding the topic of mandatory working from home due to a crisis. Leadership during a crisis, in which employees are obligated to work from home, has rarely been explored. A qualitative study approach was suitable for in-depth exploration of a specific occurrence, to improve understanding of the phenomenon (University of Utah College of Nursing, n.d.). This involved defining a how-question to research the connection between employees’ needs and managerial activities. The answer to the research question relies on employees’ experiences of home-based telework and the preferences of employees regarding supportive activities on the part of their leaders. With the help of interviews, this exploratory study examined how employees experience working from home, what their needs are, and how leaders can use managerial activities to offer support.
3.2 Research setting
This qualitative study was conducted within a public organization with over three thousand employees, situated in the north of the Netherlands. Its main purpose is to serve citizens. This organization was suitable for current study, as little research has been done within public organizations about different leadership styles and the potential impact of home-based telework during a crisis (De Vries, 2019). Moreover, the organization needed to change very quickly because of the crisis. All employees were obligated by the government to work from home. Hence, all respondents work from home at least three days per week. This makes the organization more suitable since for employees who work from home more than three days a week consequences are more significant. The respondents’ jobs are, some more than others, suitable for home-based telework due to Information Technologies. The employees depend on others’ knowledge to fulfill their tasks. Hence, large part of the jobs includes communication with involved stakeholders. The respondents fulfilled different positions, varying from consultants and coaches to project leaders and policy advisors (see Table 2). Some positions e.g., project leader and coaches, may be misleading. None of the respondents supervise or manage other employees.
3.3 Data collection
14
understanding of the employees’ experiences of home-based telework during a crisis, the interviews contained mostly ‘why’, ‘how’, and ‘what’ questions. Respondents were found by means of the snowball sampling technique (Thompson, 2002). All sixteen interviews followed the same interview guide (see Appendix A). The first set of questions addressed general topics to learn more about the context, such as: “What are the main tasks or activities of your function?” and “How often do you work from home?” The second set of questions addressed the experience of Home-based telework during the COVID-19 pandemic. Questions were asked such as: “How do you experience the benefits/drawbacks of working from home during the crisis?” and “Can you give examples?” The final set of questions addressed the managerial activities of the leader: “In your experience at the moment, how is your leader supporting you in meeting your needs?” If the respondent was less satisfied about the leader’s support, the following question was asked “How can your leader support you in meeting your needs, so that you can deal with (name of the challenge)? Which activities can this person do?” Questions were based on key findings in the literature review. The interview argumentation can be found in Table B1 in Appendix B. During the first two interviews the researcher noticed the difficulty of transition from the topic ‘work experiences’ towards ‘managerial activities’, and adjusted the interview schedule. One of the adjustments was that more focus was placed on ‘the managerial activities during working from home’ instead of ‘the general leadership style’. Furthermore, after the sixth interview the following questions were added to the interview schedule: “What weighs more, the advantages or disadvantages of working from home during corona, and why?” and “From your point of view, should a leader adapt a different role in relation to employees working at home during COVID-19?” These questions gave respondents the opportunity to provide more information about their experiences and the explicit role of the leader without asking them explicitly to be critical about their own performance and that of their leader.
Interviews were conducted with the help of IT since all respondents were obligated by the government to stay at home. Interviews were done mainly with the help of video calling software MS Teams and
Zoom. A few interviews were done over the phone. Recording the interviews made the coding process
15
Table 2
Overview of the conducted interviews
Respondent Datum Duration Communication channel Position Respondent I 19-10-2020 65 min Zoom Policy advisor
Respondent II 21-10-2020 50 min MS Teams Policy advisor
Respondent III 26-10-2020 60 min Zoom Coach
Respondent IV 27-10-2020 50 min Telephone Policy advisor
Respondent V 28-10-2020 30 min Zoom Project leader
Respondent VI 02-11-2020 50 min Zoom Consultant
Respondent VII 12-11-2020 35 min Zoom Consultant
Respondent VIII 16-11-2020 40 min Zoom Project leader
Respondent IX 16-11-2020 55 min Zoom Policy advisor
Respondent X 19-11-2020 55 min Zoom Policy advisor/project leader
Respondent XI 19-11-2020 45 min Telephone Consultant
Respondent XII 24-11-2020 50 min Zoom Policy advisor
Respondent XIII 25-11-2020 60 min Telephone Coach
Respondent XIV 26-11-2020 50 min Zoom Trainee policy advisor / researcher
Respondent XV 07-12-2020 60 min Zoom Process manager
Respondent XVI 08-12-2020 50 min Zoom Project Manager / policy advisor
The goal of the interviews was made clear to the respondents beforehand. Respondents were informed that anonymization of data would protect their privacy and confidentiality by omitting names or other elements that could identify subjects in the transcripts. The interviews were conducted in Dutch to allow respondents to respond as naturally as possible in their own native language (Russell, 2000). Transcription of the interviews was also done in Dutch. Direct quotes were translated into English for the final presentation.
3.4 Data analysis
16
17
Figure 2a. The coding process: respondents’ experiences.
18
Figure 2c. The coding process: managerial activities.
3.5 Validity and reliability
Awareness of respondent bias and researcher bias was also of great importance in strengthening the reliability of this study. Prevention of at least three biases was central during this study. Firstly, according to the desirability bias, it is not rare that respondents change their answers to create a better social impression of themselves (Kaiser et al., 1999). Respondents were asked to be critical of their own work performance and their leader’s behaviors. Since respondents have some dependency on their leaders, and leaders assess their employees, it was important to explain the purpose of this study and assure respondent anonymity before starting with the interview. This hopefully prevented respondents from giving desired answers, and increased the accuracy and relevance of the findings. Furthermore, the interview schedule was pre-tested with two other respondents to observe how they experienced the questions. Both testers were very understanding of the leader’s situation and thought it would be difficult to come up with something the leader could do differently. Both considered it to be their own responsibility, and not that of the leaders, to deal with the situation. These observations indicated that critical questions should be asked subtly. Furthermore, it was noted that the following activities could provide more insightful information: discussing the role of the leader, and formulating concluding statements.
19
Goede, & Teunissen, 2009). It is a pitfall to focus on finding confirmation of one’s own beliefs and experiences (Klayman, 1995). In line with the advice of Auerbach (2003), the research question was kept next to the interview schedule to maintain focus. Furthermore, the interviewer attempted to stay as objective as possible towards respondent answers, by questioning their statements with “how” and “why”.
Finally, to overcome the language-bias, the interviews were conducted in the native language of the respondents so that they could respond as naturally as possible (Russell, 2000). This prevented them from being unable to explain answers, with the result that important information would not be included in the findings.
Additionally, to achieve a more reliable and valid outcome, the following was considered. According to the study of Van Breukelen & De Vries (2011), patterns about the needs of leadership appear to be related to the work unit and the organization in which the respondents work. Hence, this study was conducted within one organization in an attempt to limit different contingencies. Furthermore, due to the snowball sampling technique, the probability exists that the initial contacts may form the entire sample, to the exclusion of other respondents in the population of interest (Etikan, Alkassim, & Abubakar, 2016). At the start of the study, two different positions in the same department were approached to approximate a wider range of the population and prevent the limitation of the snowball sampling technique.
4. Findings
This chapter provides an overview of the findings obtained from the interviews. The first part explains the positive and negative experiences of interviewees who started to work from home because of the restrictions ordered by the government. The second part explains the interviewees’ needs in terms of managerial activities of leaders, with a distinction between psychological, social, and practical support. The final part provides an overview of the managerial activities. Table D1 in Appendix D provides quotations supplementary to the one described below. Before interpreting the findings, some general information about the context of the employees is provided.
Most positions are independent positions located within a team. All positions can be performed from home thanks to digital communication technologies. “In general, I can do my job just fine. Everything
just runs. I can do anything. I can call anyone. I can access all documents.” [Interviewee XVI] A large
number of positions depend on others’ knowledge to fulfill their own tasks. Hence, all positions include communication with involved stakeholders: “That means many conversations with partners, and with
20
4.1 Experiences of working from home
4.1.1 Positive experiences
Efficiency
Only one obvious positive experience is described by all employees: increased work efficiency. Examples of more work efficiency include the feeling of being more productive and more flexible due to shorter appointments and less travel time. Nearly all interviewees indicate that they have more focus and less distraction at home: “(…) I can get more done at home than in the office, because at the office
there is simply more distraction.” [Interviewee IX] Additionally, they get more work done in a shorter
time: “(…) and at home you may be doing the same things you do at the office in eight hours, and now
in six hours.” [Interviewee XI] Although a few interviewees mention distractions at home (e.g.
household tasks), they often experience this as positive because (1) it can help clear the mind between work tasks, and (2) it can save time on household tasks during leisure times. Furthermore, many interviewees reported the advantage of less travel time. The time saved due to not traveling can be used for other things such as: a good sleep, sports, and being flexible in scheduling appointments: “You can
arrange your calendars more easily if you consult by the phone or this way. It is also easier with people outside the city.”[Interviewee V] Nonetheless, only working from home is not ideal and has its
limitations.
4.1.2 Negative experiences
Questioning the efficiency
While efficiency is generally considered the one positive experience of working from home during a crisis, it is questioned whether the efficiency is really that sufficient. According to all employees it is not, unless employees can occasionally go to the office. Interviewees are able to do more work from home in a shorter time period, but this time-efficiency is frequently related to a lower quality of work performance: “We could catch up with our entire assignment enormously by having a lot of
conversations, but at the same time that was very disappointing because I noticed that those conversations simply have less quality.”[Interviewee III] The decrease in quality may be associated with
the difficulty to perform certain tasks without the knowledge of others. Most interviewees mention being more aware of the underestimated value and convenience of informal, spontaneous contact with colleagues at the office for the quality of the job performance: “The coincidences, the coffee moments,
the things that you think ah this actually adds little, those social contacts and chats, among others. (...). With corona and working from home, you realize how much added value those, at first sight pointless, moments actually have.” [Interviewee I] By brainstorming with colleagues, the quality of work
21
with digital communication: “But what I really miss is the creativity and brainstorming, and we
especially need that for the projects (…). And that is very difficult via digital working.” [Interviewee XVI]
Moreover, working at the office provides an opportunity to easily ask questions to other colleagues. Hence, employees save time when solving problems at the office: “(…) if you are just sitting next to
each other at the office and you can show your screen like 'gosh I am struggling with this, how was that again?' That is faster than having to take an extra action again to call people.” [Interviewee VII] Most,
not all, experience a threshold to contact colleagues and ask for help: “(…) just ask that question to a
colleague or discuss something about a client, you do that less quickly when you do not see each other.” [Interviewee XIII] Some feel burdened to ask others for help, think it is not efficient, or do not know
who to ask for help: “So, I really have to look specifically for someone. So, then maybe this person
knows. Nah. He may not know. (…) That makes it a bit complicated, because uh that just takes quite a lot of time, but that also makes it less easy for you to do your work.” [Interviewee I] Consequently,
employees are now more dependent on their own knowledge to solve problems.
Team commitment
According to many interviewees, team commitment is important, and related to motivation and productivity in work. “That way you had more connection. And you have also more knowledge of each
other's work. Which also benefits your work performance.” [Interviewee I] When interviewees were
asked about the experiences of commitment to colleagues when working from home during a crisis, many expressed experiencing a loss of team commitment: “I do miss the atmosphere that you are
working together on something.” [Interviewee VIII] “The connection is now really much less. We meet online, but not everyone says what they think online. You cannot see with the body posture if you disagree. So, uh yes, physical connection is much better.” [Interviewee XVI] This loss of commitment
could be affected by less physical contact with colleagues, the threshold to contact others, and the loss of overview. Additionally, the way the organization is structured with independent positions generates the opportunity to increase individualization: “The nature of our team is that everyone actually works
very independently because everyone has their own tasks that can also be done by each person individually. (…) I think that was already the case before corona, that everyone had their own piece, but that that is now being reinforced even more.” [Interviewee XII] This increased individualization
makes it more difficult to perform tasks: “(…) the shared responsibility does not always feel shared.
You seem to be facing it alone by yourself very quickly, and then if you do not have the answer yourself it is difficult to know how to proceed,” [Interviewee I] Furthermore, this increased individualization is
associated with an increased feeling of loneliness. According to some interviewees, work is a great part of their social network, and that part of the network disappears a bit: “(…) but for some it is possible
22
when only working from home.” [Interviewee VIII] When interviewees were questioned about ‘What if
you did not feel part of the group?’ The interviewees reported: “I think I would have felt very lonely
otherwise.” [Interviewee IX] Hence, less commitment is associated with a feeling of loneliness.
Furthermore, it is more difficult to get to know others and build relationships due to the limitations of communication technologies. In particular, for new employees it is more difficult to orient, network, and build relationships with other colleagues: “Normally, you will all come to the office regularly. Then
you see each other, then you talk to each other, then you have a break with each other. (…) It is less likely to happen when you call with someone you do not know.” [Interviewee XI] Interestingly, some
interviewees remain committed to a small group of colleagues. These small groups are often colleagues with whom the interviewees had already built a good relationship before the crisis: “I have still a very
good relationship with two colleagues from the old team. (…) Especially, because we do have that bond already (…) we are very happy that we can organize our get-together.” [Interviewee I]
Job satisfaction
When interviewees were asked about which negative experience weighed most, all reported the decrease in job satisfaction that is associated with missing colleagues. Work is more than just work; it is also about socializing with colleagues: “What is the principle of productivity, right? Social contact with your
colleagues is also part of work.” [Interviewee VI] “I think the most important thing is that all informal contact with colleagues disappears. And I also notice that that affects me the most. Uh yes. The fun side of the work disappears and that is a disappointment.” [Interviewee II] Interviewees miss the informal
chats that occur spontaneously next to the coffee machine or in the corridors. They are more conscious of the value of informal spontaneous contact with colleagues, not only for quality of work but also for job satisfaction and motivation: “(…)Then a certain energy is created and then you feel like working
again.” [Interviewee I] “If you have no social contacts at all at work, and you do not have the idea that you belong to a team, then yes I will lose the fun in work.” [Interviewee XIV]
Working from home is boring without those informal, spontaneous small talks with others: “Well,
because otherwise I would find my work very boring, I think. If you only sit at the computer.” [Interviewee XVI] The habit of socializing becomes more complicated when people are obligated to
keep a distance and work from home. Furthermore, most work tasks change from regular physical communication with others to working at the computer all day in the same environment: “So, now you
23
Despite the experiences that work is less fun, some interviewees put their situation into perspective and reported being satisfied with the work content, or with having a job during a crisis. “So, I was actually
really happy with (having a job) and it prevailed over the fact that it was a shame that it started like this.” [Interviewee VIII]
Work ergonomics
Another often reported experience is the awareness of a decent work environment in relation to mental and physical health. For example, the benefits of working from the home-office, e.g., less distraction and more focus, can at the same time increase the risk of losing track of time: “You are less likely to
walk to the coffee machine, so to speak, which you did before, or just walk over to someone. You do not see that at home. So, then you notice "oh I have been working non-stop at my desk for two hours now.” [Interviewee VII] Some interviewees feel mentally exhausted, having headaches or neck complaints,
after a whole day of working on the computer without taking breaks or doing exercises between the work tasks: “You sit just totally exhausted behind a screen at the end of the day.”[Interviewee VIII] This pitfall is associated with a decrease in productivity, quality of work, and employee health: “If I do
not take breaks, well then what I said, just halfway the workday it is done. Then nothing works anymore. Yes, then you will make mistakes. Then you no longer see things clearly. So yes, for the quality of my work and for my health (taking breaks) is most important.” [Interviewee XIV] Thus, the distractions of
colleagues at the office, which are reported as a negative influence on work efficiency, are also considered a positive influence on work efficiency: “Well I notice that I uh that you are a bit sharper at
the end of the day (…) and that you ultimately use your time efficiently.” [Interviewee XV] Hence,
contact with colleagues is positively associated with taking (mental) breaks between tasks and maintaining structure. Additionally, interviewees reported that it is easier to behave healthier at the office: “And I think if you are in the office, for example, then a colleague who may not have that deadline
says I am going to take a lunch walk. Are you coming? And that might be easier for you to say yes than if you now decide to go for a walk on your own.” [Interviewee XIV]
Furthermore, the rules ordered by the government contain challenges for employees’ work-life balance. First, because of the obligation to live and work in the same environment, the boundary between time for work and relaxation disappears: “I still have it in my head in the evenings. But that is because you
have been in the same room all day.” [Interviewee II] “ (…) and now it all flows into each other and every day is almost the same. Because you are always working at your desk, and you will never have an appointment at another location again because it is all here.” [Interviewee I] Secondly, interviewees
are missing their normal leisure activities, which are important for breaks from work and ventilating the tensions of work: “I just like to be busy with something completely different and just enjoy sports.”
24
fun.” [Interviewee XI] Thirdly, the normal structure of workdays, with the daily rituals of starting or
finalizing the workday, is associated with a clear work-life balance: “(…) that structure of getting up,
going to the office, turning off the computer at the end of the day and going home. That does give a kind of structure to your life, and I think that is also worth something.” [Interviewee XII] “It is more difficult to close the workday, because you do everything in the same environment.”[Interviewee X]
Consequently, working from home during a crisis can be an extra challenge for keeping a work-life balance. Another extra challenge is keeping a work-life balance when having a newborn child at home. A conflict of roles exists between the role of the parent and that of the employee: “So, when he cries
you hear that, and you want to respond as a parent. That remains very difficult. So you are constantly at home and at work. I find that very difficult.” [Interviewee VI] At the same time, parents also
experience the situation as positive, since working from home creates the possibility to be at home during the development of the child: “Also, I think there are few parents who can spend that much time
with their child at the very beginning. So that was a lot of fun and very nice.” [Interviewee VIII]
Interestingly, some interviewees manage to maintain a healthy work-life balance by dividing work hours into tasks, prioritizing tasks, taking breaks, organizing moments of contact with colleagues, and by having a clear boundary between work and leisure time. A solution to get a more structured workday is working together from home with a colleague: “So that the two of us started working, and then you also
notice that the structure is a better, because then you actually have what you have in the office of 'okay we are going to take a break at that time and then continue again.' That uh motivates say mutually a bit to uh well have a good rhythm in your day.” [Interviewee XII]
Furthermore, some interviewees have to deal with an extra burden, the responsibility of making the right choice where to work: “And I still find that an extra difficult component in the dynamics now and then,
because then you indicate that I think it is not a necessary to meet, so we just have to do it digitally according to the guidelines, but then it is of course very abstract when is it necessary. And then you notice that especially the older colleagues really want to meet physically.”[Interviewee IX] “I try, but at the same time I am a very social animal, and I really want to talk to people face-to-face.” [Interviewee III] Some experience a conflict between what they want and what is suitable for the work situation.
Lastly, an often reported example of the physical consequences is the experienced lack of adequate work equipment in the home-office: “What I found very difficult in the beginning was that my workplace was
actually not suitable for working from home. So, after three weeks or so I had really bad back pain.” [Interviewee IX]
25
Digital skills and abilities
Despite the advantages of communication technologies (flexibility and less travel time), they also have their limitations: missing information through missing non-verbal signals, risk of different interpretations, difficulty to discuss sensitive topics, difficulty to get to know others and build relationships, shorter and fewer social appointments, experience of more distance, and the awkwardness of group meetings:“But I am convinced that working completely online, at least for my field, where I
have to bring all stakeholders together (…). For those kinds of tasks, it is very difficult and too limited to work only online.” [Interviewee V] Another interviewee mentioned the demotivating influence of
online working: “And then you sometimes just sit for hours in such a conference, actually, but yes that
it just makes you very tired because you just do not do anything yourself and you just have to absorb information and at a certain point it does not work anymore.”[Interviewee XII]
Furthermore, some interviewees differentiate between older and younger employees and their digital skills. According to them, working with IT can lead to more stress because some lack the know-how of IT, which can hinder the progress of team meetings: “(…) but there are enough colleagues, one or two,
who still struggle with that. That is very annoying. These often hinder the meetings.” [Interviewee VI]
None of the interviewees experienced this difficulty themselves but witnessed it with older colleagues.
4.1.3 A Review of the experiences
When interviewees are obligated to follow the restrictions ordered by the government to keep social distance from others, nearly all interviewees reported that the negative experience of working from home outweighs the positive experiences: “Actually, I do not see many benefits from working from home.”
[Interviewee III] “I want to be able to have physical appointments or physical events. And the point that there is nothing at all now that makes it very tough or very challenging. Working from home is not challenging.” [Interviewee I] In the future, some are willing to combine working from home and at the
office more often, since it is more accepted within the organizational culture. Moreover, some interviewees experience a learning curve. They observed improvements over time in work behaviors and digital skills: “(…) what it does for your own work attitude and uh daily schedule and etc. But the
longer the situation lasts, the more you should do that, I think.” [Interviewee XV]
26
Figure 3. Relationship between physical contact with colleagues and work outcomes.
4.2 Needs in managerial support
In an attempt to answer the following question: ‘How did (or could) your leader support you in (…) while working from home during corona?’, interviewees differentiated between psychological, social, and practical support. Interviewees who indicated a lack of supportive managerial activities, and interviewees who perceived supportive managerial activities, reported similar answers. To prevent overlap between the findings, both answers are summarized in this section.
4.2.1 Psychological support
All interviewees reported about the psychological support of the leader when working from home during a crisis. According to them, leaders should at least make an extra effort to manage their employees by showing interest in and empathy for employees’ well-being. This is important, because some employees experience complications of home-based telework during a crisis: “I know that quite a few people really
have difficulty with working from home and with the change. And especially the older colleagues.” [Interviewee XIV] “To feel good psychologically is different from before. It is not fun for anyone now, so I think it is important for a manager to pay attention to that.” [Interviewee XI] Employees are dealing
27
situation, for example, can be influenced even more because the person is now at home and has less contact with colleagues.” [Interviewee XV] “I have had times when we called four, five, or six times in a row and keep missing each other. Yes, that is a lot more complicated to do if you are a manager now.” [Interviewee I]
According to the satisfied interviewees, leaders kept a close LMX-relationship by initiating contact and asking personal questions of those working from home during a crisis: “(…) she asked about how are
you actually doing? Are you still feeling good about yourself? Is there anything else I should consider? That is very nice.” [Interviewee II] “(…) I also like that she just calls to ask "how are you?" That's just nice, I think, of a manager, that she is doing well despite everyone sitting at home.” [Interviewee VII]
Initiating contact with a proactive and inviting attitude demonstrates two things to the employees. First, it gives them recognition that they are more than just workers. “(…) because quite a few colleagues
have trouble working from home. And it is also nice uh that you know that you are being thought of.” [Interviewee X] Recognition by leaders is important for commitment and motivation. “And I think now with working from home, a manager must also show a lot more initiative to ensure that everyone remains involved with the organization of the team.” [Interviewee XIV] “And if the leader occasionally initiates that contact herself, it certainly helps (…) because on the one hand it also shows that you really find it important.” [Interviewee XV] Secondly, a good relationship is a two-way investment. Through the
inviting attitude of the leader, employees are more likely to approach the leader: “Sounds a bit cliché,
but if the door is open, then you do (approach the leader) sooner.” [Interviewee XV] “I just like the fact that uh if you have a hard time having everything at home, or that the whole world is turned upside down, that there is also room to talk about it. And to express doubts or concerns.” [Interviewee II]
When the leader initiates pleasant and informal contact, it stimulates employees to approach the leader themselves. However, interviewees are less willing to invest in a relationship with a temporary leader since a they have less to offer. Consequently, contact is often more business-related: “So I did not get
to know her that well at all. And I am like, yes, you will be gone in October anyway, so, whatever.” [Interviewee II]
Furthermore, according to some interviewees, leaders should be aware not to shift their active role towards a controlling role: “I am also not waiting for someone who is checking me every week about
how it is going.” [Interviewee IX] “I would not like it if someone were constantly looking over my shoulder and giving instructions to do it this way. I do not like that.” [Interviewee VIII] Leaders should
build on trust by expressing confidence in employees, and by sharing in decision-making about how to fulfill tasks when working from home. Leaders’ belief in the capabilities of the employees is associated with an increased motivation: “I think you should give your employees freedom, responsibility, trust,
28
must be able to do my own thing and find my way. That stimulates me. I enjoy working that way. I like that too, I enjoy it.” [Interviewee VIII]
Moreover, leaders should be aware of personal differences and needs: “In any case, I would have made
sure that you uh just personally called everyone like: "Hey, how are you?" Just that. That could be five minutes for one, and another might take half an hour, because the one finally has the feeling of being heard.” [Interviewee II] So, one employee needs more attention from the leader than another employee.
Through the difficulty of keeping a close relationship due to less face-to-face contact, a greater possibility exists that leaders do not perceive how employees are feeling. Home-based telework during a crisis is associated with an increased risk of becoming invisible as an employee: “(…) I also hear from
people that some people disappear a bit, disappear a bit from the radar because a manager can no longer have a view of how people are doing.” [Interviewee XII] Some reported that this risk of
invisibility is greater for employees with introvert and independent personalities. Those employees are more reserved in approaching the leader, and less likely to ask for help: “I may be someone by nature
who will not quickly ask for help. So, this (situation) is of course not ideal for me.” [Interviewee XII]
Leaders’ attention is important to prevent negative effects of government restrictions on employee well-being, such as an increased sense of invisibility (see Figure 4).
Figure 4. Managerial influence on the negative effects of government-ordered restrictions.
Moreover, leaders with social skills were associated with a greater ability to meet the needs of the employees, give personalized support, and build a good LMX-relationship: “But someone who has
29
Moreover, a few interviewees expressed a desire to receive an act of recognition from the organization in the form of a present, as appreciation for their efforts: “I now incur extra costs because I work for my
employer, so I think it is also possible for him to compensate that” [Interviewee XVI]
4.2.2 Social support
Since one of the biggest drawbacks is missing colleagues, interviewees were asked what supportive activity of the leader could help employees to deal with this lack of contact. They would appreciate it if the leader focused more on team commitment. “(…) just make sure you get a bond. That people do not
lose their connection.” [II] “For those who are losing much when they are no longer allowed to go to the office. I think you have a very important role as a manager to keep those people committed.” [Interviewee VIII] Leaders can do this by continuing regular meetings such as one-on-one meetings with
the leader (bilats) and online team meetings, which help employees to stay updated and committed: “(…) you were also a bit aware of what colleagues are doing. And all those kinds of things fall away.
As if it was not that important or something. (Meetings) did ensure that you belonged together as a department.” [Interviewee II] “So she came up with the idea that we can have someone tell a short story every week what that person is doing. Then you can still hear a little bit about what is going on.” [Interviewee V] Leaders can also stimulate team commitment through emphasizing mutual contact
between colleagues. According to satisfied interviewees, leaders emphasize mutual contact between colleagues by suggesting possibilities for meeting: “Well, she tries to insist on meeting each other,
calling each other, talking to each other, making sure you do not lose the feeling of work or lose motivation.” [Interviewee III]
Despite the difficulties of building relationships online, stimulating contact between colleagues and clarifying responsibilities within a team was considered helpful for reminding employees of their own responsibilities and those of others: “We are a very large organization and everyone does their own
thing uhm and has their own topics and some are very specialized. And I think it is good to have an overview to ensure that everyone has a bit of an overview.” [Interviewee II] “I think as a manager, you should ensure that people are in the right place. That you look closely at the team who is where. Who can supplement what, and how?” [Interviewee VIII] In particular for new employees, it is helpful to
provide clarity about the responsibilities within a team, since for them it is more difficult to adjust and network with colleagues from a distance: “That is incredibly complicated, because how do you get to
know your network in an organization of three thousand people?” [Interviewee I] Hence, leaders have
to guide and stimulate contact: “By just inviting a different colleague every time and, gosh, have you
already spoken to them? (…) so that they ensure that I know everyone well. So, from now on from home I also feel comfortable asking people for help.” [Interviewee XIV] Stimulating commitment between
30
have a bit of a bond, it is easier to keep talking to each other, and to get information from each other.” [Interviewee VII]
4.2.3 Practical support
Working from home during a crisis leads to a change in the work environment. All interviewees care about the ergonomics of their workplace. When interviewees are obligated to work from home, leaders should arrange practical matters, such as good office equipment for a decent home-office. One satisfied interviewee reported: “The facilities uh of course, they immediately ensured that I got a laptop, an extra
screen, and they just asked, ‘do you need more?’ Certain programs have been put on the laptop. So, uh in terms of facilities they really did a good job.” [Interviewee XIV] A less satisfied interviewee reported:
“I know that there are also a number of people who just kept doing everything with their iPad. Just make
sure that people can simply borrow a laptop from work, and uh have (good work equipment), so that you can also work comfortably at home.” [Interviewee IV] Additionally, some interviewees mentioned
that home-based telework could be improved if more attention was paid to enhancing the digital skills of employees: “I think that it would be beneficial to spend more time on improving digital skills, which
makes it easier to work from home.” [Interviewee I]
Furthermore, some interviewees appreciated that leaders tried to optimize performance by adjusting the workload: “Well, she asked if I still had enough work to do.” [Interviewee X] “She asked ‘can you
manage it all at home? Uh, how is the workload? Do you have enough projects? You do not have too many projects?” [Interviewee XIV] Additionally, some satisfied interviewees reported that their
leaders showed empathy for their work situation: “Then I also noticed that she was very lenient about
this, and that she had a lot of understanding for not being very productive.” [Interviewee VI] “It makes sense that you are not productive for eight hours a day. That is not necessary at all. Just do what you can.” [Interviewee VI] Others appreciate it when leaders think in possibilities, and make
exceptions for employees to do their work elsewhere. For example, when employees could not work from home, they were given the opportunity to work at the office. “I complained that I do not like to
work at home, so she makes sure I can go to the office for a few days.” [Interviewee XVI] Also,
interviewees appreciate it when leaders make an extra effort to stimulate healthy work behaviors:
31
4.3 Overview of managerial activities
Table 3 provides a short summary of the employees’ needs and managerial activities identified in this study. The first column makes a distinction between psychological, social, and practical needs. The second and third columns indicate activities which leaders can undertake to meet the needs of employees. Interestingly, many interviewees expressed understanding for the situation of their leader and their wide span of control. Some interviewees were used to little interference from their leader and reported that not much interference by the leader was needed when all was going well. In the end, the most essential support was considered to be the support of colleagues. However, all interviewees appreciated it when the leader showed recognition for employees’ capabilities, and cared about their well-being when working from home during a crisis:“ (…) but I now think that with the virus so many
drastic measures have so much impact on people, both at home and at work, that a manager is very uh even more important.” [Interviewee XIV]
Table 3
Overview of managerial supportive activities for home-based telework during a crisis
Managerial activities Employee needs
Transactional Transformational
Psychological support Optimize performance through:
- Giving some form of recognition to reward employees’ effort.
- Being aware of controlling role.
Focus on keeping a close relationship with employees through:
- Showing frequent interest in employees’ well-being.
- Initiating pleasant and informal contact.
- Being proactive and inviting in contact.
- Expressing belief in employees’
capabilities.
- Giving trust by sharing in decision-making.
- Making a distinction between personal differences and needs (e.g., introvert and independent personalities).
Social support Optimize performance through:
- Focusing on team commitment by organizing regular (team) meetings online.
- Providing a clear overview of
Motivate relationships between colleagues through:
- Emphasizing contact.
32
responsibilities within the team.
- Giving guidance to new employees on how to meet colleagues.
Practical support Optimize performance through:
- Arranging practical matters (e.g. office equipment) for a decent home-office. - Enhancing digital skills. - Solving complications by checking workload, and making exceptions for employees who cannot work from home. - Motivating healthy work behaviors by emphasizing and expressing possibilities. Stimulate through:
- Showing empathy for situations: “do what can.”
5. Conclusion and Discussion
The aim of this study was to examine how employees experience home-based telework, what their needs are, and how leaders can support employee work performance using managerial activities. Hence, the key question that guided this study was: “How can leadership support employees who work from home
as a consequence of the unexpected COVID-19 pandemic, in an attempt to maintain their work performance?” It was found that home-based telework during a crisis leads to extra complications for
33
fulfilling by checking the workload and arranging practical matters for a suitable ergonomic home-office. Additionally, leaders should pay more attention to enhancement of digital skills.
This chapter provides more insights into the three objectives. The first part reflects on findings related to the literature and the theoretical contributions. The second part provides recommendations for managers. The final part discusses limitations, and emphasizes ideas for future research.
5.1 Theoretical reflections and contributions
The current study makes three theoretical contributions to the already existing literature. The first contribution relates to the experiences of working from home. Previous studies present diffuse findings regarding teleworking, and address both positive and negative experiences (Kurland & Bailey, 1999; Nelissen, 2019; Veldhoven & Van Gelder, 2020; Veth, 2020). However, the findings of this study show not only that the obligation to work from home during a crisis leads to various undesirable consequences such as less job satisfaction and commitment, but that the downsides outweigh the one advantage of working from home (work efficiency).
34
employees depend on the knowledge of other colleagues for their own work performance. Accordingly, their work used to include many physical consultations at various locations and with different stakeholders. However, within the crisis situation, all tasks are performed within the same environment and behind the computer, forcing employees to depend mainly on communication technologies. The current findings show that communication technologies are limited and do not have the same advantages as physical contact with colleagues. Hence, performing tasks is increasingly complicated. Moreover, the organization’s lack of support in enhancing digital skills may reinforce employees’ negative experience of communication technologies. These factors lead to the conclusion that regular working from home (as a choice) is not comparable to being obligated to work from home within a dynamic environment. The claimed benefits of telecommuting, when employees are limited in their choice of where to work, should be nuanced and critically assessed.
Now that the experiences of employees have been discussed, it is essential to look at the question of what they need from their leaders when obligated to work from home during a crisis. We know that highly qualified employees require little or no supervision of their leaders (Eagly et al., 2003). This may sound reasonable, as current findings show that employees receive most of their support from other colleagues. Consequently, leaders should not play a great role in employees’ performance. However, the current study contributes the insight that highly qualified employees who are dealing with an unexpected and rapid change within a dynamic environment do appreciate interference by the leader in the form of psychological, social, and practical support. The downsides experienced with working from home during a crisis may explain this greater need for leadership. For example, findings indicate that leaders are able influence the circular pattern of negative effects that government restrictions have on employees.
