Overuse in the Criminal Justice System

OVERUSE IN THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM LE RECOURS EXCESSIF AU SYSTÈME DE JUSTICE PÉNALE

Overuse in the criminal justice system_voorwerk.indd 1 16/04/2019 12:36:06

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OVERUSE IN THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM

On Criminalization, Prosecution and Imprisonment

LE RECOURS EXCESSIF AU SYSTÈME DE JUSTICE PÉNALE

Aux sanctions et poursuites pénales et à la détention

Edited by

P.H.P.H.M.C. van Kempen M. Jendly

Cambridge – Antwerp – Chicago

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Overuse in the criminal justice system: On criminalization, prosecution and imprisonment

Le recours excessif au système de justice pénale : Aux sanctions et poursuites pénales et à la détention

© The editors and contributors severally 2019

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In memory of Judge Michael Reilly (1945-2016)

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

In editing this forty-seventh publication of the International Penal and Penitentiary Foundation I am delighted to have been joined by professor Dr Manon Jendly. She joins me in offering grateful thanks first of all to all contributors to this book, for the energy they have put into their contributions.

This volume is the result of the four-day IPPF colloquium that was held in Helsinki, Finland, in June 2016. In this respect I am also indebted to professor Dr Tapio Lappi-Seppälä, Justice Ilkka Rautio and Director General Esa Vesterbacka, and their colleagues from Finland, for their support and enthusiasm in organizing the colloquium. Ms Inge de Wit deserves great appreciation for her assistance in organizing and editing the book, as does Mrs Fiorina Argante, MA, for supporting me with the enormous amount of correspondence that this project has entailed.

Piet Hein van Kempen

Secretary General International Penal and Penitentiary Foundation

Professor of Criminal Law and Criminal Procedure Law, Radboud University, Nijmegen, the Netherlands

Intersentia vii

REMERCIEMENTS

C’est un plaisir pour moi d’avoir pu compter sur l’assistance de la Dr. Manon Jendly à l’occasion de l’édition de cette quarante-septième publication de la Fon- dation Internationale Pénale et Pénitentiaire. Elle se joint à moi pour remercier chaleureusement tous ceux qui ont contribué à cet ouvrage, pour l’énergie qu’ils ont déployée dans leurs contributions. Ce volume est le résultat du colloque de quatre jours organisé par la FIPP à Helsinki, Finlande, en juin 2016. Je me dois également d’exprimer ma gratitude à l’égard du Dr. Tapio Lappi-Seppälä, du juge Ilkka Rautio et du Directeur Général Esa Vesterbacka pour l’aide qu’ils m’ont apportée et l’enthousiasme dont ils ont fait preuve lors de l’organisation du col- loque. Mme Inge de Wit mérite également toute ma reconnaissance pour l’aide qu’elle m’a apportée dans l’organisation et la publication du livre, de même que Mme Fiorina Argante, MA, pour son soutien dans le traitement de la volumi- neuse correspondance générée par ce projet.

Piet Hein van Kempen

Secrétaire général de la Fondation Internationale Pénale et Pénitentiaire

Professeur de droit pénal et procédure pénale, Université Radboud, Nijmegen, Pays- Bas

Intersentia ix

CONTENTS

Acknowledgements . . . vii

Remerciements . . . ix

PART I. INTRODUCTORY SYNTHESIS AND ANALYSES 1ÈRE PARTIE. SYNTHÈSE ET ANALYSES INTRODUCTIVES Criminal Justice and the Ultima Ratio Principle: need for limitation, exploration and consideration Piet Hein van Kempen . . . 3

I. Introduction . . . 3

II. The ultima ratio or ultimum remedium principle . . . . 5

III. Support for the four aspects of the ultima ratio principle by legally binding law . . . 8

IV. Interests that demand reasonable rather than absolute use of the ultima ratio principle. . . 11

V. Selections of results from the chapters in this volume. . . 12

V.1. General . . . 13

V.2. Overuse of criminalization . . . 14

V.3. Overuse of prosecution . . . 16

V.4. Overuse of imprisonment . . . 18

VI. Conclusion: the significance of the ultima ratio principle to countering overuse . . . 21

La justice pénale et le principe de l’ultima ratio : exigence de limitation, d’exploration et de réflexion Piet Hein van Kempen . . . 23

I. Introduction . . . 23

II. Le principe de l’ultima ratio ou ultimum remedium . . . 25

III. Soutien du droit légalement contraignant en faveur des quatre aspects du principe de l’ultima ratio . . . 28

Intersentia xi

IV. Intérêts nécessitant un recours raisonnable plutôt qu’absolu au

principe de l’ultima ratio . . . 32

V. Sélection de résultats tirés des chapitres de ce volume. . . 33

V.1. Généralités . . . 33

V.2. Recours excessif à la criminalisation . . . 34

V.3. Recours excessif aux poursuites . . . 37

V.4. Recours excessif à l’incarcération . . . 39

VI. Conclusion : de l’importance du principe de l’ultima ratio pour contrer tout recours excessif. . . 43

PART II. THEMES 2ÈME PARTIE. THÈMES Overuse of the Criminal Justice System: Analytical Approach, Rules and Practices José Luis Díez-Ripollés . . . 47

I. An analytical approach . . . 47

I.1. Punitive moderation as an objective . . . 47

I.2. Social inclusion as an objective. . . 51

II. Overview of punitive rules and practices. . . 53

II.1. Criminalization . . . 53

a. Selecting punishable criminal behaviour . . . 53

b. Maximum penalties . . . 54

c. System of sanctions . . . 55

II.2. Prosecution . . . 56

a. Control of public spaces. . . 56

b. Legal safeguards . . . 57

c. Youth justice . . . 58

d. Sentencing system. . . 59

e. Pre-trial and preventive detention . . . 60

II.3. Enforcement of sanctions. . . 61

a. Prison regime . . . 61

b. Legal and social status of offenders and ex-offenders . . . 63

c. Police and criminal records. . . 64

III. Conclusions . . . 65

Contents

xii Intersentia

The Overuse of Criminal Justice in the Case Law of the European Court of Human Rights

Paulo Pinto de Albuquerque . . . 67

I. Introduction . . . 67

II. Overuse of criminalisation. . . 68

II.1. Criminalisation of defamation: the old question . . . 69

II.2. Crimmigration: a new trend . . . 71

III. Overuse of imprisonment. . . 73

III.1. Abuse of pre-trial detention. . . 75

III.2. Excessive custodial sentence . . . 79

IV. Conclusion . . . 81

Overuse of Criminalization: a Philosophical and Political Approach on the Latin-American Situation José Luis Guzmán Dalbora. . . 83

I. Terminological clarification and conceptual delimitation. . . 83

II. Overview of the primary criminalization in the Ibero-American continent . . . 86

III. Metaphysical meaning, political background and legal consequences of the overuse of criminalization. . . 90

IV. Political legitimization and criminal symbolism . . . 95

V. Bibliography . . . 97

Overprosecution and Negotiated Justice in Europe Katalin Ligeti & Gavin Robinson . . . 101

I. Introduction . . . 101

II. Causes and consequences of overprosecution. . . 102

II.1. Causes . . . 102

II.2. Consequences . . . 104

III. Negotiated justice in Europe: trends, forms and tensions . . . 107

III.1. From the common law to the Continent . . . 107

III.2. Forms of negotiated justice in Europe . . . 109

III.3. The evolving roles of prosecutor and judge. . . 116

IV. Conclusions . . . 123

V. Bibliography . . . 124

Contents

Intersentia xiii

The American Experience with the Prosecutorial Overuse of Plea Bargaining

Phillip Rapoza. . . 129

I. Introduction . . . 129

II. The current status of plea bargaining . . . 130

III. Historical aspects of plea bargaining . . . 132

IV. Contours of the plea bargain . . . 134

V. Plea bargaining and the “mutuality of advantage” . . . 136

VI. Plea bargaining: is the playing field level? . . . 139

VII. The innocence factor: when does plea bargaining become coercive? . . 144

VIII. How effective is the “effective assistance” of counsel? . . . 148

IX. Plea bargaining and the way forward . . . 151

IX.1. Limiting the role of enhanced and mandatory minimum sentences. . . 152

IX.2. Pre-plea discovery and disclosure of exculpatory and impeachment evidence. . . 155

IX.3. Judicial involvement at the plea bargaining stage . . . 158

IX.4. Expanding and sustaining the public discussion about plea bargaining . . . 161

X. Conclusion . . . 162

XI. Postscript. . . 163

Overuse of Imprisonment: Statistical Analyses of Incarceration Rates Across the World Tapio Lappi-Seppälä . . . 165

I. Introduction . . . 165

II. Overview. . . 167

II.1. The use of imprisonment . . . 167

II.2. Occupancy and overcrowding. . . 170

III. Prisoner groups . . . 172

III.1. Pre-trial and remand prisoners. . . 172

III.2. Female prisoners . . . 173

III.3. Foreign prisoners . . . 174

IV. Trends and changes . . . 178

IV.1. Overview . . . 178

IV.2. Europe. . . 181

IV.3. Americas and the Caribbean. . . 190

IV.4. Asia and Middle East . . . 195

IV.5. Africa and Oceania . . . 200

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xiv Intersentia

V. Discussion. . . 207

VI. Bibliography . . . 210

Minimising Prisonisation and the Harms of Custody Mary Rogan . . . 213

I. Introduction . . . 213

II. The harmful effects of incarceration. . . 213

III. Contact with the outside world . . . 215

IV. Conditions . . . 217

V. The harms of unfairness and a lack of accountability . . . 223

VI. Release from prison. . . 225

VII. Conclusion . . . 228

Criminal Policy and Imprisonment. The Case of Lithuania: Open Prisons, Prison Leave and Release on Parole Gintautas Sakalauskas. . . 229

I. Introduction: view to the present through the past . . . 229

II. Overuse of imprisonment. . . 233

III. Open prisons, prison leave and release on parole. . . 241

IV. Conclusion . . . 247

V. Bibliography . . . 247

PART III. NATIONAL REPORTS 3ÈME PARTIE. RAPPORTS NATIONAUX Overuse in the Criminal Justice System in Argentina Roberto P. Ortenzi & Alejo García Basalo . . . 253

I. Introduction . . . 253

II. Overuse of criminalization. . . 254

III. Overuse of prosecution. . . 261

IV. Overuse of imprisonment. . . 265

V. Conclusion . . . 271

VI. Bibliography . . . 272

Contents

Intersentia xv

Le recours au système de justice pénale en Belgique : état des lieux et perspectives

Christian De Valkeneer, Marc Dizier & Vincent Seron. . . 275

I. Introduction . . . 275

II. Le recours excessif aux sanctions pénales . . . 275

II.1. Remarque méthodologique . . . 275

II.2. Aperçu de la criminalité en Belgique . . . 276

a. Criminalité totale enregistrée . . . 276

b. Top 5 des infractions . . . 277

II.3. Dépénalisation et tolérance au travers de l’illustration de la politique en matière de drogues . . . 279

III. Le recours excessif aux poursuites pénales . . . 280

III.1. Note méthodologique. . . 280

III.2. Direction donnée aux affaires correctionnelles entrées dans les parquets belges entre 2003 et 2015 . . . 281

III.3. Les contentieux numériquement les plus représentés . . . 283

III.4. Les règles légales en matière de poursuites en Belgique . . . 284

III.5. Les alternatives aux poursuites pénales et la justice négociée . . 285

III.6. La direction donnée aux affaires correctionnelles en fonction du type de matière. . . 287

III.7. Perspectives . . . 288

IV. Le recours excessif à la détention . . . 288

V. Conclusions . . . 291

Overuse of Criminal Law in Finland Tapio Lappi-Seppälä . . . 293

I. Introduction . . . 293

II. Reducing prison populations in Finland in 1960-1990 . . . 295

II.1. The fall of the Finnish prison population . . . 295

II.2. Crime rates and prison rates . . . 298

III. Crime and criminalization processes 1990-2015 . . . 299

III.1. Violent crime . . . 301

a. Legislation . . . 301

b. Homicide . . . 301

c. Assault and robbery . . . 302

III.2. Sexual and moral offences . . . 303

a. Legislation . . . 303

b. Offences . . . 304

III.3. Property offences. . . 305

a. Legislation . . . 305

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xvi Intersentia

b. Theft . . . 305

c. Thefts of motor vehicles. . . 306

d. Fraud . . . 307

III.4. Drunk driving . . . 307

III.5. Drug offences. . . 309

IV. Prosecution. . . 309

IV.1. Non-prosecution . . . 310

IV.2. Summary fines. . . 311

IV.3. “Plea-bargaining” and sentence negotiations as a means to ease the workload of the prosecutor? . . . 311

V. Sanctions and sentencing . . . 312

V.1. Sanctions . . . 312

a. Fines . . . 312

b. Conditional imprisonment . . . 313

c. Community service . . . 313

d. Electronic monitoring (EM) . . . 313

e. Imprisonment . . . 314

f. Sanctions for young offenders . . . 315

V.2. Mediation and restorative justice . . . 316

V.3. Sentencing norms . . . 317

a. Regulating sentencing decisions. . . 317

b. Sentencing principles and criteria . . . 318

c. The choice of sanction following the “ladder model”: Imprisonment as a last resort . . . 318

V.4. Sentencing practice. . . 320

VI. The prison system . . . 322

VI.1. Enforcement principles . . . 322

VI.2. Prisons . . . 323

VI.3. Release from prison . . . 323

a. Basic rules . . . 323

b. “Probationary liberty under supervision”. . . 324

c. Release of high-risk violent recidivists . . . 324

VI.4. Life imprisonment. . . 325

VI.5. Prisoners and offences . . . 326

VII. Discussion. . . 327

Overuse in the Criminal Justice System in Germany Rita Haverkamp, Gabriele Cirener, Axel Boetticher & Johannes Feest . . . 333

I. Introduction . . . 333

II. Overuse of criminalization. . . 334

Contents

Intersentia xvii

II.1. Statistics on crime . . . 335

II.2. Petty volume offences . . . 338

II.3. The criminalization of supplementary penal provisions . . . 340

III. Overuse of prosecution. . . 342

III.1. The prosecutor as investigative authority . . . 342

III.2. A limited form of the legality principle . . . 344

III.3. Overuse in the execution of prison sentences and prevention measures. . . 345

a. The effect on the preparations for early release from prison . . . 349

b. The effect on the post-sentence preventive detention . . . 350

c. The failure of the post-sentence preventive detention . . 351

d. The effect for a longer stay of the detainees in prison or in mental hospitals . . . 353

e. The transfer of social rehabilitation in the new “post- release supervision” . . . 353

f. The first German “Systematic Reoffending Survey” . . . . 355

IV. Overuse of imprisonment. . . 356

IV.1. Importance of imprisonment . . . 357

IV.2. Obligations to impose prison sentences . . . 359

IV.3. Normative alternatives to imprisonment. . . 359

IV.4. Courses of action to reduce imprisonment . . . 359

IV.5. Summary on the overuse of imprisonment. . . 360

V. Conclusion . . . 361

Overuse in the Criminal Justice System in Greece Effi Lambropoulou & Olga Tsolka . . . 363

I. Introduction . . . 363

II. Overuse of criminalization. . . 364

III. Overuse of prosecution. . . 371

IV. Overuse of imprisonment. . . 376

IV.1. Outline of legal provisions and prison population. . . 376

IV.2. Crimes of prisoners. . . 380

IV.3. Sentences served by prisoners. . . 383

IV.4. Alternatives to imprisonment . . . 384

V. Conclusions . . . 387

Contents

xviii Intersentia

Overusing the Criminal Justice System: the Case of Ireland

Mary Rogan & Michael Reilly . . . 391

I. Introduction . . . 391

II. Overuse of criminalisation. . . 392

II.1. Possibilities for decriminalisation, legalisation and policy tolerance . . . 393

III. Overuse of prosecution. . . 396

III.1. Opportunities for diversion. . . 399

III.2. Fixed charge notices . . . 399

III.3. Adult caution scheme. . . 400

III.4. Increased focus on alternatives to prosecution. . . 403

IV. Overuse of imprisonment. . . 404

IV.1. Prison and defaulting on a fine . . . 406

IV.2. Alternatives to prison . . . 406

IV.3. Mandatory sentencing . . . 409

IV.4. Women in the Irish criminal justice system . . . 410

V. Back door strategies in Ireland . . . 411

V.1. Bringing down the Irish prison population . . . 413

V.2. Minimising prisonisation within the prison estate . . . 414

VI. Conclusion . . . 415

Overuse in the Criminal Justice System in Japan Taro Morinaga. . . 417

I. Introduction . . . 417

II. Overuse of criminalization. . . 418

III. Overuse of prosecution. . . 423

IV. Overuse of imprisonment. . . 427

V. Conclusion . . . 429

Tendencies of Overuse in Criminal Law Policy and Criminal Law Enforcement in the Netherlands Paul Mevis . . . 431

I. Introduction: tendency to a ‘tough in crime’ policy with some exceptions . . . 431

II. Substantive criminal law. . . 432

II.1. Terrorism, money laundering and others: the ‘vlucht naar voren’ (headlong rush) and ‘overinclusive’ criminal law . . . 432

II.2. ‘Moral’ crimes; sexual offences, ‘Mein Kampf’ . . . 434

Contents

Intersentia xix

III. Criminal investigation, pre-trial detention and sanctioning illegally

obtained evidence . . . 436

IV. Prosecution; possibilities to prosecute . . . 438

V. Overuse in the sanction system. . . 443

V.1. Increase of maximum, minimum sanctions, naming and shaming . . . 443

V.2. Supervision – restriction of liberty. . . 444

VI. Execution of sanctions . . . 445

VI.1. Less significant position of rehabilitation and resocialization . . 446

VI.2. The blind alley of lifetime imprisonment . . . 446

VII. Conclusion . . . 447

Overuse in the Criminal Justice System in New Zealand Yvette Tinsley & Warren Young . . . 449

I. Introduction . . . 449

II. Overuse of criminalization. . . 450

II.1. Trends in criminal offending. . . 450

II.2. Alternatives to criminalization . . . 454

a. Police Safety Orders . . . 455

b. Pecuniary penalty orders. . . 456

II.3. Other possibilities for policy-based tolerance and education . . 457

III. Overuse of prosecution. . . 458

III.1. Trends in the use of prosecution. . . 458

III.2. The prosecution process. . . 460

III.3. Alternatives to prosecution and options to reduce prosecution further. . . 463

a. Diversion . . . 464

b. Pre-charge warnings. . . 465

c. Community Justice Panels. . . 465

d. Turning of the tide . . . 466

IV. Overuse of imprisonment. . . 466

IV.1. Trends in the use of imprisonment. . . 466

IV.2. Reasons for these trends. . . 468

IV.3. The use of prison and other sentences . . . 472

IV.4. The sentencing regime . . . 474

a. Maximum penalty . . . 474

b. Presumptive mandatory or minimum sentences. . . 475

c. “Two strikes” and “three strikes” laws . . . 475

d. Statutory purposes and principles . . . 476

e. Wide judicial discretion. . . 476

V. Conclusion . . . 479

Contents

xx Intersentia

Overuse in the Criminal Justice System in Nigeria

Uju Agomoh . . . 481

I. Introduction . . . 481

II. Overuse of criminalization. . . 482

a. Robbery . . . 483

b. Rape and attempted rape. . . 483

c. Kidnapping and attempted kidnapping . . . 484

d. Physical assault . . . 485

e. Domestic violence . . . 486

f. Attempted murder . . . 486

g. Theft of mobile phone . . . 486

h. Car theft . . . 487

i. Armed violence other than robbery . . . 487

III. Overuse of imprisonment. . . 494

IV. Conclusion . . . 507

Overuse in the Criminal Justice System in Poland Lech K. Paprzycki & Małgorzata W. Wąsek-Wiaderek . . . 509

I. Introduction . . . 509

II. Overuse of criminalization. . . 510

III. Overuse of prosecution. . . 517

IV. Overuse of imprisonment. . . 522

V. Concluding remarks . . . 527

Overuse in the Russian Criminal Justice System Yakov Gilinskiy . . . 529

I. Introduction . . . 529

II. Overuse of criminalization. . . 529

III. Overuse of prosecution. . . 534

IV. Overuse of imprisonment. . . 538

V. Conclusion . . . 540

Overuse in the Criminal Justice System in Spain Deborah García Magna. . . 541

I. Introduction . . . 541

II. Overuse of criminalization. . . 542

II.1. Reality of crime in Spain . . . 542

Contents

Intersentia xxi

II.2. Factors influencing the criminalization of behaviors:

supranational obligations and pressure groups (populist

dynamics). . . 544

II.3. Opportunities for legalization, decriminalization or policy- based tolerance of certain behaviors . . . 546

III. Overuse of prosecution. . . 549

III.1. Police and judicial prosecution in Spain . . . 549

III.2. Determinants of prosecution in Spain. Alternatives to prosecution in the Spanish legal system . . . 551

IV. Overuse of imprisonment. . . 553

IV.1. Prison reality . . . 553

IV.2. Limitations to the judicial discretion on the imposition and enforcement of prison sentences. Alternatives to imprisonment in the Spanish penal system. . . 557

V. Conclusions . . . 558

Recourt-on de manière excessive au système pénal en Suisse ? André Kuhn & Matteo Solcà . . . 561

I. Introduction . . . 561

II. Recours excessif au droit pénal en matière de criminalisation. . . 562

II.1. Considérations générales . . . 562

II.2. Le cas de la Suisse . . . 564

II.3. Remarques finales . . . 567

III. Recours excessif à la mise en accusation . . . 569

III.1. Considérations générales . . . 569

III.2. Le cas de la Suisse . . . 570

III.3. Remarques finales . . . 572

IV. Recours excessif à la privation de liberté . . . 573

IV.1. Considérations générales . . . 573

IV.2. Le cas de la Suisse . . . 577

IV.3. Remarques finales . . . 583

V. Conclusion . . . 585

Overuse of the Criminal Justice System in Taiwan Rong-Geng Li. . . 589

I. Introduction . . . 589

II. Overuse of criminalization. . . 589

II.1. The annual number of crimes . . . 589

II.2. Top five crimes in Taiwan . . . 591

II.3. Problematic obligation to criminalize certain actions. . . 592

Contents

xxii Intersentia

a. Post-Martial Law period . . . 592

b. Societal obligation to criminalize certain acts . . . 592

c. Offences related to narcotics. . . 595

d. Abortion. . . 597

II.4. Possibility of decriminalization. . . 598

II.5. The practical method of decriminalization. . . 599

III. Overuse of prosecution. . . 599

III.1. Prosecuted crimes per year . . . 599

III.2. The top five offences . . . 599

III.3. The legality principle. . . 600

III.4. Alternatives to prosecution . . . 603

a. Deferred prosecution . . . 603

b. Summary procedure. . . 604

c. Bargaining process . . . 605

III.5. Possible offences that can be excluded from prosecution . . . 606

III.6. The practical strategy to decrease the number of prosecuted cases. . . 607

IV. Overuse of imprisonment. . . 607

IV.1. Criminals in prison facilities . . . 607

IV.2. Top 10 crimes. . . 609

IV.3. The imposition of prison sentences . . . 609

IV.4. Alternatives to imprisonment . . . 611

IV.5. Possible offences for which non-custodial sentences can be imposed . . . 611

IV.6. Realistic method to decrease imprisonment. . . 612

V. Conclusion . . . 612

Overuse and Underuse of the United States Criminal Justice System in the Area of Business Crimes Edgardo Rotman . . . 615

I. Introduction . . . 615

II. Overcriminalization of business crimes. . . 616

II.1. The Lacey Act as a paradigm of overcriminalization. . . 617

II.2. Examples from the Lacey Act . . . 618

III. Underenforcement resulting from preferential treatment of white- collar offenders. . . 621

IV. Cyclical aspects . . . 624

V. Retreats from overcriminalization and underenforcement: the story of the two Yates . . . 626

VI. Conclusions . . . 629

Contents

Intersentia xxiii