EXTRA-CURRICULAR ACTIVITY; DOES IT PAY OFF?
Examining the relationship between extra-curricular activities, personality traits and job performance.
Master thesis, Msc HRM, specialization Human Resource Management University of Groningen, Faculty of Economics and Business
June 4th , 2012
Jiska Rutteman studentnumber: 1352563
University of Groningen
Msc, Faculty of Management and Organization, Human Resource Frits Diepenlaan 93
2497 DH Den Haag Tel: 06-44244271 e-mail: jrutteman@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
1. INTRODUCTION
Students spending a part or a full year of study on an extra-curricular activity (ECA) are the most appealing to recruiters of different companies. These students have a higher chance of getting a job and are likely to get a job earlier than those not involved in an ECA (WO monitor 2004). Intuitively, ECAs seem like valuable student experiences. But do these ECAs also have an effect on job performance? Literature shows that personality characteristics do play an essential role in predicting job performance (Barrick & Mount, 1991; Judge et al.,2007). The aim of this paper is to examine the relationships between an ECA, personality traits and job performance.
In order to make the decision whether or not to hire a candidate, a recruiter often uses information about a job-candidates’ background, which is often referred as bio-data. The theoretical arguments in support of bio-data as a selection device are rooted in notions of consistency: past performance predicts future performance (Capelli, 1992). A large body of literature shows that bio-data are among the most effective predictors of job performance (Asher, 1972). Bio-data offers the possibility of assessing knowledge, skills and abilities (KSAs) that have been acquired outside of traditional classroom settings, or even those KSAs that are acquired in the classroom but not measured by grades. Many types of bio-data exist, but the most widely used at the college recruitment level are curriculum vitae’s (C.V.) and applications. Although C.V.’s are not standardized, validated instruments like job-specific bio-data, they represent a culmination of at least the last four years of a student’s school and work experience (Rubin et al, 2002). For most adults, college represents an important fundamental period of development, and it would be remarkable if lifeexperience during that period did not explain something about later job-performance (Capelli, 1992).
the employment decision. Further research should confirm whetherECAs can really be seen as a determinant of productivity and is therefore taken into account in this research.
Not only being active in ECAs can play a role in later job performance, but also personality characteristics can play an essential role. Several researchers investigated the relationship between the Big Five personality traits and job performance (Barrick & Mount, 1991; Judge et al.,2007). Judge et al (2007) found that from the Big Five personality traits, conscientiousness predicts most of the job performance followed by extraversion. Given the importance of job performance, it is still needed to investigate the Big Five personality traits in relation to job performance.
Another reason for investigating the effect of ECAs on job performance is given by the plans of the Dutch Government which propose that the students who take longer than regular to finalize their studies have to pay a higher college fee. This can cause pressure of getting results instead of being involved in an ECA. Research of Intermediair and Ebbinge in 2007 shows already that the last few years less students became a (active) member of a student organizations, student societies/fraternities, student unions and student sport clubs. Moreover, de Volkskrant of 7 march 2012 (J. Jolij) also discussed the possible advantages of being an active student in a student association, were a student for example learned to organize events. He linked this towards the Dutch Government plans, like the possibility to get a college free year for students during their ECA.
Building on these reasons, this research will focus on the question what are the effect of an ECA on job performance, and what the effect of personality traits will be on job performance. Do personality traits mediate the relationship between ECA and job performance? And which of the independent variables (ECA and personality traits) explain most of the variance of the dependent variable (job performance)?
Based on a sample of 162 persons, a research is presented that examines the relationship between personality, ECA and job performance.
quantitative research. Chapter three describes the data and methodologies and chapter four discusses the empirical results. The thesis ends with the discussion in chapter five.
1. THEORY SECTION
2.1. ECA, the transition to the labour market and job performance
College recruiters commonly examine job candidates’ extra-curricular activities (ECAs) in search of “well-rounded,” emotionally intelligent, and interpersonally skilled students. Intuitively, ECAs seem valuable student experiences. Increasingly, universities around the world encourage their students to complement their academic program with involvement in sports, voluntary student associations, or community clubs that cater to a wide range of interests and needs. The conventional wisdom is that extra-curricular involvement builds character, improves self-discipline, and teaches participants the value of teamwork and leadership (Eide/Ronan, 2001; Eccles/Barber, 1999), traits that standard course-work is less effective in conveying.
Quite often students can involved in two types of ECA while studying at university: employment to sustain academic life vs. leisure and social activities. Some examples of social activities include student union, childcare, and helping disabled or drug-addicted people, while ports, arts and culture are examples of leisure activities. Such social and leisure activities constitute non-market activities (Tchibozo, 2007).
Most research about the effect of ECAs is done in the United States (U.S). The researchers often looked at a students’ activity before entering college like, such as participation in any kind of sport activities, cheerleading, music related activities, drama clubs, school government, school yearbook/ newspaper, academic clubs, and hobby clubs. Kaufman and Gabler (2004) for example, looked at the role that extra-curricular and other ‘‘non-academic’’ enrichment activities plays in the college admissions process. However comparison between the studies done in the U.S. about the effect of ECAs before entering college and this research is not justified because of the differences in school systems between the Netherlands and the U.S. Therefore, this study will be based on a sample of people from the Netherlands.
In the Netherlands it is usual that student clubs like student societies/ fraternities, student organizations and student sport clubs are managed by the students member of the club themselves along with the activities in the student clubs. Such managing of club or activities by students can considered as ECAs. The ECA field that has not received a lot of attention in research is that of students who are involved in a board membership or (large) committees of student unions, student organizations, student societies/fraternities, and student sport clubs. This research will focus specially on this kind of ECA in a student association or in a student study association.
In the Netherlands, research has been done about the transition from higher education to the labour market. This research is conducted through the so named “WO-monitor”. The data from the WO-monitor is used by universities to monitor the entrance in the labour market of their own graduates. In the Netherlands many students participate in activities which can be relevant when entering the labour market, this happens during their high school or university. The WO-monitor (2008) shows that 38% of graduates in higher education have been involved in a board membership experience during their study. This type of board membership experience will also be considered ECA in this paper.
From the WO monitor report, it can be concluded that the transitional period to the labour market is lower for students who have been involved in an ECA. Having been involved in an ECA also has a positive influence on the chance of getting a job. Further, having management competences and professional knowledge has a positive effect on the chance of getting a job (WO monitor, 2008).
begin their careers as office employees rather than as managers. These findings show that involvement in ECA does makes a difference.
Tchibozo (2007) addresses the influence of the extra-curricular non-market activities (social and leisure activities) on graduates’ in the United Kingdom later access to the labour market. Employers value the non-market activities of job applicants. ECA has influence on the outcome of the transitional process. Not only the WO monitor and the paper of Tchibozo (2007) found results about ECAs and the transition to the labor market. Also, Kuh (1995) found that participation in ECA has been a more accurate predictor of workplace competence than grades. He also state that most scholars who study the impact of college on students agree that what happens outside the classroom (the other curriculum) can contribute to valued outcomes of college.
Taking all these things into account, it can be expected that students with an ECA will be better performers at work. This will result in a higher amount of income compared to other students who have not been involved in an ECA. Besides, the expectation exists that they also will be the manager of more employees compared to those not involved in an ECA. The term job performance in this research is measured is by: (a) income one year after graduation; (b) income five years after graduation; (c) increase in salary; (d) the amount of employees managed one year after graduation; (e) the amount of employees managed five years after graduation and (f) the transitional period to the labor market.
Hypothesis 1: Graduates with an ECA will show higher job performance compared to graduates without an ECA
2.2. Environment of ECA
participated in student associations or in social sector had lower first-job wages than those who participated in sports.
Hypothesis 2: Graduates with an ECA in a student study association will show higher job performance compared to graduates with an ECA in a student associations.
2.3. Nature of the ECA; Leadership role assumed in ECA?
Further investigations demonstrate that within the group of the graduates who decided to be involved, the nature of the ECAs matters. Graduates who had been leaders in their ECAs had a lower risk of experiencing unemployment before the first job (Tchibozo, 2007). According to Tchibozo (2007) a leadership experience also gives more chances of reaching managerial positions. Of the respondents with EC experience, 71,9% reached a managerial position within 3 years after graduation, 59,4% right from the first contract on. Most firms appreciated the graduates’ ECA experience as leaders or in citizenship activities, and took it as a predictor of high productivity.
Boone, Kurtz, and Fleenor (1988) found that those who became CEOs had considerably higher involvement in ECA during their college years than other students. They found that three of every four CEO’s held at least one office in a club or organization during college. Further, bio-data research suggests that holding leadership roles and gaining leadership experience at work and social settings are important in the prediction of job performance (Gandy, Dye, & MacLane, 1994; Glennon, Albright, & Owens, 1966).
Hypothesis 3: Graduates with an ECA as a leader will show higher job performance compared to graduates without an ECA as a leader
2.4. Personality characteristics and job performance
conscientiousness, on which people differ. The individual differences refer to stable patterns of behaviors or tendencies which are independent of each other (Furnham et.al., 2007).
A valid predictor of job performance seems to be conscientiousness. Conscientiousness is the trait of being painstaking and careful, or the quality of acting according to the dictates of one's conscience. Conscientiousness leads people to set more ambitious goals and to be more dedicated to them (Judge, 2007). It includes such elements as self-discipline, carefulness, thoroughness, organization, the tendency to think carefully before acting, and need for achievement. Hurtz and Donovan (2000) revisited the Big Five to see which traits accordingly to them are valid predictors of job performance. There results were highly consistent with earlier results of Barrick and Mount (1991) and conscientiousness was again found to have the highest validity of the Big Five personality traits for overall job performance.
The work of Judge et al (2007) present personality in the form of the Big Five traits and linked it to the prediction of work-related performance. Extraversion may lead to higher performance because both facilitate interpersonal interactions at work (Mount, Barrick, & Stewart, 1998). Extraversion is the trait which include having the tendency to like people, prefer being in large groups, and desire excitement and stimulation. Besides, extravert people are likely to be assertive, active and talkative (Major, Turner, Flatcher, 2006). Judge and colleagues (2007) found that from the Big Five personality traits conscientiousness predicts most of the job performance followed by extraversion.
outcome-based performance measures for real estate agents (J.M. Crant, 1995). Research has shown consistent positive relationships between proactive personality and two Big Five personality traits: conscientiousness and extraversion (Bateman & Crant, 1993; Crant, 1995; Crant &Bateman, 2000). Also Major, Turner and Fletcher (2006) found that proactive personality was significantly correlated with the Big Five personality traits extraversion and conscientiousness.
The WO monitor (2008) shows that graduates who have been involved in a board membership during their higher education do not have problems with falling short in their competences needed for the function they hold. So graduates with board membership experience do not only have a higher amount of competences but also make more use of their competences in their job. Here the question of causality can be asked: do students involve in ECAs because they are competent or does an ECA make them more competent? Competence and having been involved in an ECA seem to be linked to each other. According to de Raad and Barelds (2008), the concept of competence is often, if not usually, used for the description of certain non-personality characteristics, particularly of the skills and capacities type. They came to this conclusion while doing research with the main purpose of not only demonstrating that the Big Five personality traits are insufficient to fully describe the personality trait lexicon but also to provide evidence of lexically based trait dimensions beyond the Big Five. According to them, the factor competence not only includes characteristics of good leadership but also stretches to social efficacy.
Hypothesis 4: Graduates with an ECA will show higher scores on conscientiousness, extraversion and competence compared to graduates without an ECA
Hypothesis 5a: Graduates with a high score on the Big Five personality trait conscientiousness will also show higher job performance
Hypothesis 5b: Graduates with a high score on the Big Five personality trait extraversion will also show higher job performance
Hypothesis 5c: Graduates with a high score on the trait competence will also show higher job performance
Hypothesis 6: Personality traits will mediate the relationship between ECA and job performance
2.5. Conceptual model
The hypothesised relationships can be seen below in figure 1.
The conceptual model illustrates a relationship between involvement in an ECA and job performance is assumed; a relationship between the environment and the nature of the ECA to job performance is assumed; a relationship between personality traits of a person and their job performance is assumed and a relationship between ECAs and job performance is assumed.
One of the purpose of the conceptual model is to identify and explicate the mechanism that underlies an observed relationship between independent (ECA), and dependent variable (job performance) via the inclusion of a third explanatory variable, known as a mediator variable. This mediator is the personality trait of a graduate. It is hypothesizes that ECA leads to higher job performance but this might be due to the mediating effect of personality traits.
3. RESEARCH METHODS
One of the main questions which will be asked during this research is whether a person who has been involved in an ECA will show higher job performance. Because the aim of the research is to determine the relation between the independent variable and the dependent variable quantitative research is used. This chapter describes how information to get an answer on the research question has been collected. An overview of the process will be given by describing how the survey sample was composed, how the questionnaire was designed and how the data was analyzed.
3.1. Respondents
The respondents used in this study came from the database from Young Executive Recruitment (YER). YER is an international recruitment agency that focuses on Bachelors and Masters for permanent and temporary positions; Graduates, Professionals, Executives and Directors. The respondents were approached by email to participate in an online questionnaire.
3.2. Procedure
Data for this research project were collected at YER in coordination with the company’s trainer after defining purpose and goal of the research. The population for this research consisted almost all of people from the database of YER. They were selected through a search in the database. To get the search was performed using criteria from the candidate’s curriculum vitae.
Two kinds of respondents were needed; respondents who had an ECA experience during their study en those who did not have such an experience.
The first criterion for all the searches made was the criterion to get an homogenous group of respondents who all work or worked for a bank or a financial institution. The second criterion for all the searches made was that the respondents were between the age of 28 and 35 years. It was important that the majority of participants all worked for 5 years or longer, because of the comparison of people’s job one year after graduation and their job 5 year after graduation. For people older than 35 years it can be hard to remember the details about the job they had 5 year after graduation. For people younger than 28 year it will often be the fact that there graduation isn’t five years ago. For this reason the age criterion is added. The third criterion for all the searches made was that the respondents live in the Netherlands. Because YER is an international agency the database also consist of people living in another country. This study focuses on the Netherlands also because of comparison of the kind of ECA, therefore this criterion.
Also, all the consultants of YER in the Netherlands received the same mail requesting them to fill in the questionnaire and send it out to other people they knew. The criteria for the people sending the questionnaire is a minimum of 5 year work experience and having finalized their HBO or WO study within a faculty of business administration or economy.
The questionnaire is conducted with the use of thesistools.com, which is an online web application for making surveys. The questionnaire was in Dutch, because only candidates living in the Netherlands were approached.
3.3. Questionnaire
The data was obtained through an online questionnaire for several reasons. One of the most important reason is the possibility to reach a high number of respondents in a short amount of time. According to Wright (2005) an internet-questionnaire is a useful research method because it provides access to people who would be difficult to reach through other channels. This is also the case for this research where the respondents, who are in the database of YER often with only a recent e-mail address, were approached to cooperate. By sending the respondents an email they could be reached personally in a relatively easily way. Because research suggests that data collected via an online survey is equivalent to data collected via the traditional mail survey and since the online survey is cheaper, faster and has a higher response rate than the mail survey (Deutskens et al.,2005), an internet- questionnaire is used for this research.
The questionnaire consists of eight parts and it took an average of 20 minutes to complete the questionnaire. The content of each part will be explained below.
Part one
The first part are some general question about age, gender, civil class and whether the respondent has children or not.
Part two
The second part are questions about the respondents’ highest accomplished education, in which field his highest accomplished education is, the date the respondent has started, the date he finished his education and his average grade.
The third part consist of questions about the respondents’ activities during study. More specifically it contains questions about the city in which the respondent has studied, membership of a student association, student study association, (student) sports club, or other kind of (student)membership; also the name of is this club. It also asked whether the respondent has been active in one of these clubs, like having been active in the board or in a committee. It contains questions about the intensity of the activity the respondent has taken part in and his function in this activity. Respondents who declare that they don’t have been active in one of the clubs they are a member of can skip the questions about their activities there.
Part four
Part four asked questions about the period before their highest accomplished education. The kind of “middelbare school” they have passed, the grade obtained there, and eventually studies done after the “middelbare school” but before their highest accomplished education.
Part five
In this part questions about the first job after graduation are asked. The time before the respondent starts in the first job, for example, is one of the questions. It also contains questions about the organization the respondent works for, for example the size of the organization, the kind of education the employer requires. The respondents’ salary one year after graduation, the respondents’ tasks, the amount of people he manages and the amount of hours he has to work. These questions have the purpose to measure the job performance of the respondent.
Part six
This part contains of questions about the personality of the respondent. In total 45 questions were asked which measure extraversion, conscientiousness and competence.
acceptable internal reliability (Cronbach’s a=.85). The scores on the fifteen items were computed into a mean score. The higher the score, the more extraverted the participant is.
Conscientiousness was assessed by fifteen items. The items consist of eight negative statements (e.g.”I am chaotic”) and seven positive statements (e.g. “I am disciplined”). These items are adapted from a questionnaire of Boele de Raad and Dick P.H. Barelds (2008). The participants needs to indicate how much this statement describes the self by choosing an answer out of the 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (very inaccurate) to 5 (very accurate). The conscientiousness measure demonstrated acceptable internal reliability (Cronbach’s a=.88). The scores on the fifteen items were computed into a mean score. The higher the score, the more conscientious the participant is.
Competence was assessed by fifteen items. The items consist of statements like “I like solving problems” and “I am a productive person”. These items are adapted from a questionnaire of Boele de Raad and Dick P.H. Barelds (2008). The participants needs to indicate how much this statement describes the self by choosing an answer out of the 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (very inaccurate) to 5 (very accurate). The competence measure demonstrated acceptable internal reliability (Cronbach’s a=.89). The scores on the fifteen items were computed into a mean score. The higher the score, the more competent the participant is.
Part seven
Part seven begins with the question how many years of work experience the respondent has. When he or she has less than 5 year work experience the respondent is asked to answer the next questions about their current job. When he or she has more than five years working experience the respondent is asked to fulfill the questions about their job five years after graduation. The questions the respondent have to answer are the same questions as in part five of the questionnaire.
Part Eight
The questionnaire ends with the question whether the respondent would like to have a summary by e-mail. When they choose that they would like to they can enter their e-mail address.
Measures
Because there were almost no differences between graduates with a part-time ECA and graduates without an ECA the choice is made to combine the category part-time ECA with no ECA and make a new category of it which is marked out against the category of those graduates with a fulltime ECA. ECA is coded as a dichotomous variable coded as 1 for fulltime ECA and 0 for no ECA and part-time ECA.
The independent variables are: ECA which is coded as a dichotomous variable coded with 1 for fulltime ECA and 0 for no ECA and part-time ECA. Graduates with a fulltime ECA in a student study associations or in a student association are coded as dichotomous variable. Graduates with a fulltime ECA in a student study associations are coded as 0 and graduates with a fulltime ECA within a student association is coded as 1. Graduates with or without a leadership position during their fulltime ECA are also code as a dichotomous variable. Graduates without a leadership position are coded as 0 and graduates with a leadership position are coded as 1. Also dummy variables are created. Dummy 1 are graduates involved in an ECA but without leadership experience. Dummy 2 are graduates involved in an ECA as a leader. The personality traits extraversion, competence and conscientiousness are all measured on a 5 point Likert scale.
The dependent variables are: Income one year after graduation and income five years after graduation in Euros. The incomes are corrected for inflation. Growth in income measured in percentage between the income one year and five years after graduation. The amount of people managed one year and five years after graduation; the last one is the time in months looking for a job after graduation.
variables salary one and five years after graduation might be influenced by the education level and by the gender of the respondent. But there can also be a certain trend in salary depending on the year of graduation. Although the salaries are corrected for inflation they might have an influence. In the questionnaire the year of graduation is asked and after analyzing these years the choice is made to choose for two categories namely graduation until 2003 or after 2003. Graduation until 2003 is coded as 0 and graduation after 2003 is coded as 1. Gender was measured as a dichotomous variable coded as 1 for male and 0 for female. Membership of a student association is coded as 1 for a membership of student association and 0 for no membership. Also level of education is coded as a dichotomous variable with 0 for HBO level and 1 for university.
3.4. Data Analysis
The main descriptive statistics for each variable (means, standard deviations, and coefficients of correlation among variables) were calculated. The internal reliability of each variable was evaluated by means of Cronbach’s alpha.
To test hypothesis one to four, several linear regression analyses were conducted. In each regression analysis the outcome variables; (a) income one year after graduation; (b) income five years after graduation; (c) increase in salary; (d) the amount of employees managed one year after graduation; (e) the amount of employees managed five years after graduation and (f) the transitional period to the labour market, are used as criterion. The predictors used are; 1. ECA; 2. environment of ECA; 3. nature of ECA; 4. personality traits (competence, extraversion and conscientiousness). In Step 1 control variables (gender, educational level, membership of student association and year of graduation) were added to the regression equation. In the second step each predictor is added individually to the equation.
4. RESULTS
4.1. Descriptive statistics
Correlation between the control variables and the dependent variables appear in table 1a of the appendix. As can be seen in table 1a the income one year after graduation positively correlates with the level of education (r=.224, p<.001), membership of a student association (r=.193, p<.005) and with whether graduation happened until 2003 or after (r=.313, p<.001.). This means that those with a higher level of education earn a significant higher income one year after graduation compared to those with a lower education level. The same pattern hold for graduates who were member of a student association, they also earn a significant higher income one year after graduation compared to those without being member of a student association. Another correlation is that being manager of more people one year after graduation, results in a significant higher income one year after graduation (r=.174, p<.005) and does also correlate positively with the amount of people being manager five years after graduation (r=.289, p<.001)
In table 1c of the appendix correlations between all independent variables and control variables appear. It can be seen that the education level does positively correlate with the personality trait conscientiousness(r=.226, p<.001). A strong correlation (r=.243, p<.001) also exist between being involved in an ECA and membership of a student association.
4.2. Hypothesis tests
Multiple regression analysis was used to test the hypothesis. Multiple regression
analysis involves a number of assumptions which must be met in order to be allowed to perform analysis (de Vries & Huisman, 2007; Field, 2009). Firstly, the sample must be large enough such that it can be generalized to a broader population. In general, the sample has to have at least 8 cases per independent variable. This study has 10 independent variables, including 4 control variables; therefore sample must consist of at least 80 cases. This assumption is met, since the sample for this study has 162 cases. Secondly, data was checked for existence of outliers. No extreme outliers were identified; therefore this assumption is also satisfied. Next, normality of the sample was checked by using box-plots. This analysis showed that this assumption is met, as well. Finally, linearity, homoscedasticity and no multicollinearity of the data was checked. These assumptions were checked respectively by analyzing residual scatterplots for both linearity and homoscedasticity; and by examining the variance inflation factor and tolerance values (de Vries & Huisman, 2007; Field, 2009). All assumptions were met.
TABLE 2A
Means and standard deviation comparing parttime & fulltime ECA
All parttime&no ECA Fulltime ECA
mean SD mean SD mean SD
income 1 year 2473,56 767,11 2347,63 739,41 2704,04 770,12
income 5 year 4320,53 1494,58 4185,69 1365,98 4567,31 1691,12
% growth in income 0,79 0,57 0,84 0,6 0,72 0,51
amount of employee 1 year 0,90 2,74 1,19 3,26 0,42 1,39
amount of employee 5 year 2,74 4,60 3,01 5,28 2,28 3,13
Transitional time 1,61 3,02 1,65 2,64 1,55 3,60
competence 4,04 0,41 3,97 0,45 4,14 0,31
extraversion 3,69 0,62 3,62 0,66 3,85 0,50
conscientiousness 3,88 0,55 3,83 0,56 3,93 0,54
Hypothesis 1 suggested that graduates with an ECA show higher job performance. Job performance is measured through six independent variables.
outcome variable ‘amount of people managed one year after graduation’ (Beta = -.145, p = .081). Which mean that someone with an ECA managed less people one year after graduation compared to someone without an ECA.
Hypothesis 2 suggesting that the environment of the ECA matters; no support was found for this hypothesis. Fist a comparison was made between three groups namely; graduates without an ECA, graduates with an ECA in a student study association and graduates with an ECA in a student association. Secondly, the graduates without an ECA were compared with the graduates with an ECA in a student association and the graduates with an ECA in a student study organisation. The analysis did not gave significant outcomes.
TABLE 2B
Means and standard deviation comparing graduates with or without leadership experience
All leader
No
Leader
mean SD mean SD mean SD
income 1 year 2473,56 767,11 2522,59 785,35 2465,58 766,92
income 5 year 4320,53 1494,58 4373,45 1759,94 4311,91 1454,56
% growth in income 0,79 0,57 0,75 0,39 0,81 0,59
amount of employee 1 year 0,90 2,74 0,68 1,76 0,94 2,87
amount of employee 5 year 2,74 4,60 2,27 2,55 2,81 4,85
Transitional time 1,61 3,02 2,36 4,98 1,50 2,59
competence 4,04 0,41 4,24 0,33 4,01 0,41
extraversion 3,69 0,62 3,95 0,37 3,67 0,64
TABLE 2C
Means and standard deviation comparing graduates with an ECA with(out) leadership
Fulltime ECA ECA no leader
ECA
leader
mean SD mean SD mean SD
income 1 year 2704,04 770,12 2823,11 748,33 2522,60 785,35
income 5 year 4567,31 1691,12 4694,52 1660,35 4373,45 1759,94
% growth in income 0,72 0,51 0,70 0,58 0,75 0,39
amount of employee 1 year 0,42 1,39 0,26 1,13 0,68 1,76
amount of employee 5 year 2,28 3,13 2,29 3,45 2,27 2,55
Transitional time 1,55 3,60 1,08 2,44 2,36 4,98
competence 4,14 0,31 4,09 0,30 4,24 0,33
extraversion 3,85 0,50 3,78 0,54 3,95 0,37
conscientiousness 3,93 0,54 3,94 0,54 3,94 0,54
Hypothesis 3 suggested that an ECA as a leader is positively related to job performance. The first analyses made is the comparison between the graduates without leadership experience and the graduates with leadership experience. No significant differences are found between these two groups. Secondly the group without leadership experience during their ECA and the group with leadership during their ECA are compared to the group without ECA. There was a significant difference between the groups with an ECA, both with and without leadership experience, and the group without an ECA (Beta = .228, p = .004). A significant negative difference is also found in amount of people managed one year after graduation, between the group with a ECA without leadership experience and the group without ECA (Beta = -.151, p = .007). Hypothesis 3 is not supported.
Hypothesis 5 suggested that the personality traits competence, extraversion and conscientiousness are positively related to job performance. Only the predictor competence showed a significantly positive relationship, this relationship occurred between income after five years and competence (B = .167, p = .049).
Hypothesis 6 predicts that personality traits mediates the relationship ECA and (a) income one year after graduation; (b) income five years after graduation; (c) increase in salary; (d) the amount of employees managed one year after graduation; (e) the amount of employees managed five years after graduation and (f) the transitional period to the labour market. To establish the mediation effect of personality traits the three following regression equations are estimated to take the four steps of Baron and Kenny (1986).
Step 1. First, regression equations were conducted with the different outcome variables as criterion and ECA as a predictor. Step 1 is only satisfied in the case of income one year after graduation. The first step of Baron and Kenny (1986) was not met in case of all the other outcome variables and will, therefore, not be reported in the next steps.
5. DISCUSSION
5.1. Discussion of the outcomes
Up until now, not much research has been done regarding the benefits of the specific ECA culture we have in the Netherlands among the higher-educated during their study time. This study shed new light on this topic by examining the relationships between ECA and job performance on the one hand and personality traits and job performance on the other hand.
It was assumed that graduates involved in an ECA show higher job performance and that graduates with a higher score on extraversion, competence and conscientiousness show higher job performance in terms of income one and five years after graduation, growth in income, amount of employees managed one and five years after graduation and the transitional time to the labour market. The results showed that graduates involved in an ECA of 15 hours or more per week have a significant higher income one year after graduation. Contrary to what was expected, they have a marginal significant lower amount of people managed by them one year after graduation compared to those without an ECA. The explanation for this could be that graduates who were involved in an ECA choose to be a consultant or a specialist. This are normally the kind of jobs were you do not have the roll of a leader immediately but only after more years of working for the company. This marginal significant lower amount of people managed one year after graduation is not a line that is continued. Because five years after graduation there is no significant difference in the amount of people managed whether a graduate had an ECA or not. Tchizbozo (2007) state that of the respondents with EC experience almost 72% reached a managerial position within 3 years after graduation. This research does not tell something about the percentage of graduates who reached a managerial position, but compared the amount of people managed.
were not leader. Overall it can be seen that a leadership experience during ECA led to a lower amount of people managed. Although not significant, this is a remarkable result. The logical assumption would be that an ECA as a leader would manage more people compared to those without a leadership experience. Other categories were also created to enable the comparison between ECA with no leadership experience, with those who did not had an ECA and ECA with leadership experience and those without ECA experience. There is a significant difference in those with an ECA experience and income one year after graduation compared to those without an ECA. In this case it does not matter whether they act as a leader during the ECA or not. A significant negative difference can be seen in comparing graduates with an ECA but without leadership experience and graduates without ECA towards the amount of people managed one year after graduation. That is graduates with an ECA but without leadership experience during their ECA do managed significant less people in their job one year after graduation compared to graduates without an ECA experience. It can be seen as a trend throughout this research results that graduates with an ECA do manage less people compared to graduates without an ECA. This may raise the question whether the amount of people managed is a good way of measuring job performance. According to Tchibozo (2007) graduates who had been leaders in their ECA had a lower risk of experiencing unemployment before the first job.
In this research the transitional time to the labour market is mentioned. Obvious is that graduates who had been leaders in their ECA has a longer transitional time to the labour market according to this research. Although it is not a significant result it is curious compared with the fact that the mean time looking for a job after graduation is a bit lower for graduates involved in an ECA. This is in line with the results of the WO monitor (2008) and Jolij, J. (2012). A possible explanation is that graduates who had been leader during their ECA are more critical when it comes to their first job. This may result in a first attempt to reach for the highest possible job opportunity which heightened the risk of being rejected. Subsequently, they would have to continue their search for a job, which could lead to a longer transitional time on the labour market.
research the comparison between an ECA in a student study association and in a student association is made. Regarding job performance, there were no significant differences between these two environments of the ECA. One explanation may be that in this research the same kind of activities were compared, the only difference was if it took place in a student study organization or in a student organization. Another explanation could be that the research of Tchibozo (2007) is a survey of graduates in the United Kingdom. This research specially focused on the Dutch kind of ECA, while the research of Tchibozo (2007) took a lot more kinds of ECAs in account. Another reason why no differences appeared could be that there is a strong correlation between being involved in an ECA and membership of a student association. So it could be possible that students involved in a student study association ECA are also the students who are member of a student association. An explanation could be that the students involved in an ECA resemble each other a lot and so differences in the environment are not so important.
predicting how productive a new employee would be. They use the C.V. of applicants for the selection of the candidates. This is due to the fact that bio-data as a selection device is rooted in the notions of consistency; past performance predicts future performance (Capelli, 1992). It might be possible that a recruiter sees ECA as a determinant of productivity and therefore chooses to give a higher salary for the job a graduate who holds one year after graduation. Another thing which should be taken into account is that the standard deviation in income one year after graduation is much lower than the standard deviation in income five years after graduation. These show that the salaries of graduates one year after graduation are closer to each other than the salaries five years after graduation. The consequence of this is that it is harder to attain a significant result for income five years after graduation.
In this research some control variables were also taken into account. Gender, education, membership of a student association and graduation before or after 2003. These variables taken together do have a significant relationship with income one year after graduation and a marginal significant relationship with income five years after graduation. This gives rise to the assumption that these variables might have a stronger influence on job performance than ECA.
Each control variable will be shortly discussed. The variable gender showed a very marginal significant relationship with income one year after graduation but a less marginal significant relationship with income five years after graduation. This shows us that being a female does have a more significant relationship with income five years after graduation than it does one year after graduation. This might be due to the fact that a company has a more or less standard salary for a job (one year) after graduation. Five years after graduation this kind of standard does not exist anymore and then it comes down to other factors, like ability of negotiation and the way of showing yourself to the company and the managers. The fact that women do earn less than men is a well-known fact. Interesting is that this effect is larger in a job five years after graduation than in a job one year after graduation.
skills that will be useful on the job, but rather to signal to employers that the student was capable of performing well on the job. According to the signalling model workers are endowed with a given level of productivity. Schooling does not affect their productivity, but it is correlated with it because the more productive individuals find it easier to get through school (Edward, P. Laezar, 1973). The persons graduated before 2003 earn significant less in their job one year after graduation than the persons graduated after 2003, despite the fact that the incomes are al corrected for inflation. This effect cannot be seen with the income five years after graduation. The reason of this can be due to the economical conjuncture movement.
The most interesting outcome is the effect of membership of a student association. This variable is the only control variable who has a significant strong relationship with income one year after graduation and income five years after graduation. This remarkable effect of membership of a student association might be explained by the effect of old boys network. Thompson (2005) suggests that network building mediates the relationship between pro-active personality and initiative-taking behaviours, which in turn contribute to job performance. Proactive people are likely to seek ways to construct a social environment conducive to their own success on the job. A possible explanation might be that during a membership of a student association students learn to be pro-active and take initiative. Or the other way around, pro-active students became member of a student association. J. Boers (2012) did elaborate on the benefits of a membership of a student association he specially mentioned the social aspects.
This study also examined the mediating effect of personality on job performance in terms of income one and five years after graduation, growth in income, amount of employees managed one and five years after graduation and the transitional time to the labour market.
but it is also possible that someone with these personality traits is willing to be involved in an ECA. This research showed that personality trait does not accounts for the relationship between ECA and job performance.
5.2. Limitations and future research
There are some limitations that call for attention when interpreting the results of the study . First of all, the survey was carried out through the database of one large organization (one source) in the Netherlands may raise questions about the ability to generalising the results. Thus, the potential homogeneity of the candidates who are in the database of an international recruitment agency that focuses on graduates, professionals, executives and directors should be taken into consideration compared to the rest of the graduates. For example this recruitment agency has a system with student scouts in large student cities in the Netherlands. This are often scouts who have been involved in an ECA, who also scout students who are involved in an ECA. So it is likely that the respondents are not a representative sample of graduates. It is also possible that because of the same educational background (the field of economics and business administration) of most of the respondents there only small differences in the results. This makes it difficult to generalise the results to all graduates. Hence, future research could take into account graduates who are not in the database of an recruitment agency but rather students from different educational background improve the generalizability.
An obvious thing is that the control variables membership of a student association does have a significant relationship with income one and five years after graduation. It might be interesting to see if these results also appear in future research. This could give an interesting view on the fact that less students become member of a student association. One of the reasons mentioned for this trend is the pressure of getting study results. This is because of the decision of the Dutch Government to let students pay a higher college fee when they need more years to accomplish their studies than the regular amount of years. When more is known about membership of a student association and the effect it has on income, future student could make a consideration based on facts. They could think about the cost it might take to be member of a student association and the risk that this this result in more time before they accomplish their study and that they have to pay a higher college fee. On the other hand they could think about the possible benefit the membership has and calculate how much more income they would attain.
A remark is that in this research causality is not proofed, so based on this research it is not possible to say that because of a membership a graduate attain a higher income. The causality in the analyzed relationships thus is another limitation of this study. A longitudinal study might be fruitful. This would make it possible for example to see if someone who already scored high on the trait competence is the one who is going to be involved in an ECA or that the score on competence is higher after the ECA. In this research the choice was made to take the control variable; gender, education level, membership of a student association and year of graduation into account. But there might be other control variables which have a relationship with job performance. Chia (2005), for example, looked at how some variables influences the successful outcomes at different stages of the recruitment process. One of the outcomes taken into account is the academic results. These results are not involved in this research but they might also have an influence.
of people managed. It is more important to see if someone does manage other people and thus is a leader or if he isn’t. It might then even be interesting to have a look at the (education) level of the employees managed.
In this research, ECA is measured as being involved in a board membership or (large) committee of student (study) association. These are not the only possible ECA’s, also an internship or studying abroad might have an interesting relationship with job performance. In this research it could be possible that someone involved in a board membership may have also studying abroad. This could interfere with the other ECAs. In future research it might be useful to take the possibility that someone might have been involved in different ECA’s into account.
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