The effect of ‘going green’ on the brand image of an entertainment service provider

(1)

The effect of ‘going green’ on the brand image of an

entertainment service provider

(2)

Master Thesis

The effect of ‘going green’ on the brand image of an

entertainment service provider

Name: Ronald van de Worp

Student number: 1615920 Address: Wielewaalplein 198 9713 BR Groningen E-mail: ronaldvdworp@gmail.com Telephone +31 (0)6 227 899 46 Date: 14-05-2013 Department: Marketing

First Supervisor: Prof. Dr. J.E. (Jaap) Wieringa

Second Supervisor: Dhr. S.F.M. (Sander) Beckers MSc.

Organization: Fc Groningen

‘The effect of ‘going green’ on brand image of an entertainment service provider – Master thesis:

(3)

Management summary

Currently the role of going green is not considered in determining the brand image of an entertainment service provider. This paper discusses the used variables of going green (price, quality, assortment, service, logo, location, atmosphere, logo and other conveniences) which explains the brand image of an entertainment service provider. Next to that, this paper explains why green should be used in determining the brand image of a company.

Since the beginning of the 90’s is going green an important topic, and many companies announced that they were going green. An entertainment service provider, Fc Groningen, also went green. This paper shows which variables affect the brand image of an entertainment service provider. In accordance with scientific literature, the outcomes state that there are variables that affect the brand image. However, not all variables are found to be useful in explaining brand image for this entertainment service provider. The green variables that affect the brand image are green price and green promotion. These two variables have a direct effect on brand image and also when they are moderated, they have an effect on brand image. Green price affects brand image with the moderators Fc Groningen’s greenness and supporters. Green promotion influences brand image with the moderator ‘work’. The green activities have no direct influence on the brand image of Fc Groningen. However, ‘field heating’ influences the brand image with moderator ‘your own sustainability’ and school challenges influence brand image with age. Next to that, there are five moderators that have a direct effect on the brand image of Fc Groningen. These variables are: supporter, education, Fc Groningen, yourself and season ticket. In conclusion, green is an important variable which affects the brand image of an entertainment service provider.

Keywords

Brand image, green, entertainment service provider

(4)

Preface

This paper is a master thesis for my masters in Marketing Management and Marketing Research at the University of Groningen. The topic of my research strongly corresponds with my personal interests, and with the knowledge I have gained during my studies.

I would like to thank Fc Groningen for letting me research this topic and assisting me in acquiring the data I needed for my research. Also, I would specifically like to thank Ben Haverkort for showing interest in my topic and helping me get in touch with the right people. Next to that, I would like to thank Robbert Klaver for his interest in my topic, for giving me advice and for the interview. Also, I would like to thank my friends, family and girlfriend who all supported me and gave me advice to improve my thesis. I would like to thank my supervisor Prof. Dr. Jaap Wieringa for his input, support and feedback during the entire process of this thesis. Finally, I would like to thank Dhr. Sander Beckers MSc. for being my second supervisor. Without his feedback the paper would not have reached this result.

Kind regards, Ronald van de Worp

(5)

1. Introduction

Since the beginning of the 90’s, companies start to focus more on going green and improving the environment, thus reducing their negative impact on the environment (Saha and Darnton 2005). Being green was one of the biggest issues of the 90’s, therefore these years are referred to as the environmental decade (Manrai et al., 1997). Grove et al. (1996) stated that sustainability became a new trend and 8 out of 10 companies claimed to be environmentalists. These companies tried to change their image into a green corporate image because of the attention that consumers, the media and for example politicians and actors spent on green issues (Saha and Darnton 2005; Chen 2010). Nowadays, Al Gore, a former presidential candidate of the United States of America, inspired many with his commitment to the environment. He expressed his concern by making a movie and giving lectures about environmental subjects. Next to that, Leonardo DiCaprio1_{, a well know actor, is also a} true environmentalist. He drives a hybrid car and installed solar panels on his house. Furthermore, he founded the Leonardo DiCaprio Foundation, which supports environmentally friendly initiatives. He can be a leading example for people to become green. Brad Pitt2_{started the ‘Make It Right} Foundation’ which builds houses with green technology and green materials. He is also discussing funding green housing projects with President Obama. Finally, Cameron Diaz3_{helps to start the Live} Earth concert series together with Al Gore. She also supports and encourages green traveling. This shows that green raises more awareness these days.

Based on the above, going green is important for both communication and execution of green and therefore it is recommended to adopt green marketing. Polonsky (1994, p2) defined green marketing as following:

“Green marketing consists of all activities designed to generate and facilitate any exchanges intended to satisfy human needs or wants, such that the satisfaction of these needs and wants occurs, with minimal detrimental impact on the natural environment”.

Every consumer finds other environmental issues important (Ottman, 2010). The natural marketing institute (2009) named the top environmental concerns (ranked from highest to lowest): water quality, hazardous, toxic and nuclear waste, pollution from cars and trucks, water conservation, deforestation, global warming, overpopulation, reliance of fossil fuels and lack of open space. Customers change their behavior in order to try to be greener. They do this by (from high to low): conserving energy by turning off lights, turning of electronics when not in use, conserving water, recycling plastic bottles, jars and paper, taking their own bag to the grocery store (Natural Marketing Institute, 2009).

Behavioral changes of customers are linked to football, because there is much attention of supporters and consumers for football, being the most popular sport in the Netherlands4_{. For}

1_{http://www.thedailygreen.com/environmental-news/latest/green-celebrities-actors-actresses-0323} (Assessed 8-1-2013 on 17.08) 2_{http://www.thedailygreen.com/environmental-news/latest/green-celebrities-actors-actresses-0323} (Assessed 8-1-2013 on 17.08) 3_{http://www.thedailygreen.com/environmental-news/latest/green-celebrities-actors-actresses-0323} (Assessed 8-1-2013 on 17.08) 4_{http://www.duodecim.nl/upload/file/POPULARITEITSINDEX_SPORT_2011.pdf}_{(Accessed at 8-5-2012 on} 15.00)

Ronald van de Worp (s1615920) Pagina 7

(8)

instance, the attendances over the last couple of years, based on only the Eredivisie, are around six million stadium visitors per season5_{. When a football club is going green, there is an extensive crowd} that could be reached. In addition, these football clubs desire to conceive profit, which could be obtained by going green. However, there are almost no clubs focusing on a green image. Fc Groningen is the first and only football club which is green and durable. Together with Energy Valley Topclub, a green alliance of BAM, Gasunie, Gasterra, Groningen Seaports, Imtech, Essent and Energy Valley, Fc Groningen6_{wishes to build a durable and innovative energy region. They wish to achieve} their goals with, for example, windmills, solar collectors, automatic lights and cars on gas7_. Furthermore, their goals are8_{; to create a good platform to join forces and to share knowledge, which} is specifically aimed to start innovative energy projects and to increase the involvement of a wider audience. Their larger goal is to accumulate competition, development and attraction of the northern region. It is stated that a sports club is a unique medium to promote the transition of energy and to increase social visibility. Therefore, the goal of Fc Groningen is to inform, involve and in particular, mobilize the fans to increase the use of green power and gas.

Green alliances provide an option which makes a variety of contributions to environmental protection and to sustain development possible (Gunningham; Hartman 1998 and Crane et al., 2008). Normally, these alliances are between businesses and non-governmental organizations (NGOs). However, Crane et al. (2008) stated that every combination is possible. It is not always narrowed down to NGOs, as one can see in the case of Fc Groningen.

“Brand image is the sum total of impressions the consumer has about a company” (Herzog, 1963, p77). There are many sources that researchers use to determine brand image. However, in most of the research ‘green’ is not used as a variable for brand image. Because green is becoming more important it could be used as a variable to determine brand image. There are few entertainment service providers focusing on going green. However, in this case an entertainment service provider, Fc Groningen, is going green. Because green is now an important variable for Fc Groningen, it can be examined if green as a variable has an effect on their brand image.

5_{http://www.1x2wedden.nl/index.php?option=com_joomleague&func=showStats&p=22}_{(Accessed at} 8-5-2012 on 15.30)

6_{http://www.energyvalley.nl/topclub/}_{(Accessed at 9-5-2012 at 16.00)}

7_{http://www.meerdanvoetbal.nl/data/aandeslag_category_document/file_1215.pdf}_{(Accessed at 9-5-2012 on} 16.30)

8_{Folder; Samen Duurzaam aan de Top! Energy Valley Topclub. (Accessed at 9-5-2012 on 16.45)}

Ronald van de Worp (s1615920) Pagina 8

(9)

The following research question is therefore stated:

“What is the effect of going green on the brand image of an entertainment service provider?” The goal of this paper is to discover what the effects of going green are for the brand image of Fc Groningen. Next to that, the respondents are divided into different segments. This way it becomes easier for Fc Groningen to focus their marketing on a specific segment.

This paper contributes to the existing academic literature providing a link between brand image and greening. This research focuses on the importance of green/sustainability for football clubs, which has, to my knowledge, not been investigated yet. The outcome of this research can be helpful for practitioners and other football clubs to decide to become green and to persuade the fans to also go green. Additionally, this research is socially relevant, because, nowadays, as stated before, green is an importance variable to take into account.

This report begins with a description of entertainment service providers. Subsequently, an overview of brand image and green is given. Next, the variables that have an effect on brand image are explained. The result of a depth interview that is conducted to verify variable selection is also shown. Then data on these variables is collected using a survey. In the final chapter these data are analyzed and the outcomes are discussed and interpreted.

(10)

2.1 Entertainment service provider

“Entertainment is the act of diverting, amusing or causing someone’s time to pass agreeably, something that diverts, amuses or occupies the attention agreeably” (Vogel, 2010, p17). According to this statement an entertainment service provider is a broad term, because people have their own idea of entertainment. Vogel (2010) and the University of Edinburgh (2010) stated that an entertainment industry includes mass media, sports, gambling and gaming, theatre and cinema. These service providers want to create brand awareness, image, loyalty, attract new customers and retain existing ones (Keller, 2008). A sports entertainment service provider is a social representation with a high emotional content (Ferrand and Pages, 1999).

Big football clubs like Ajax and Feyenoord have a strong brand. Therefore, smaller clubs, like SC Heerenveen and Fc Groningen, want to improve their brand image. Keller (2008) stated that a strong brand is valuable if the brand name generates a memory of a pleasurable past experience.

2.2 Brand image

Keller (2008) states that brand image is included in brand equity. He explains brand image as one of the sources of brand equity. Brand equity occurs when the consumer has a high level of awareness and familiarity with the brand and when he or she holds in memory strong, favorable, and unique brand associations with the brand (Keller, 2008). In Figure 1 the whole process of brand equity is summarized in a hierarchical model (Keller, 2008).

Figure 1 brand image

On the right side of the model it is clear that brand equity is linked to brand awareness. Brand awareness consists of brand recognition, consumers’ ability to confirm prior exposure to the brand when given the brand as a cue, and brand recall, consumers ability to retrieve the brand from memory when given the product category (Keller, 2008). An example of a brand that everyone recognizes and is aware of is Coca Cola.

Brand Equity

Brand Image

Brand Associations

Brand Benefits _AttributesBrand

Product Service/non product Brand Awareness Brand Recall Brand Recognition

(11)

On the left side of the model it is shown that brand image is a part of brand equity. Brand image is an important concept in marketing. Keller (2008, p51) gives the following definition; “Brand image is consumers’ perception about a brand, as reflected by the brand associations held in consumer memory”.

A part of brand image is brand associations. Brand associations come in all forms and may reflect characteristics of the product or non-product characteristics (Keller, 2008). These brand associations are based on the properties of the product, like favorability, strength and uniqueness. An example of a brand association is a well-known person who is connected to a brand, like tennis player Roger Federer who is an endorser for the brand Gillette. Brand associations are divided into brand attributes and brand benefits. Brand attributes are descriptive features that characterize the product or service. Brand benefits are the personal value and meaning that consumers attach to the product or service attributes (Keller, 2008).

Product attributes focus on the performance of the core product or service (Kaynak et al., 2007). Product attributes for football entertainment service providers are: success, players, coach and management (Bauer et al., 2005; Kaynak et al., 2007). Success is the most important dimension, however, success is fluctuating much, which lowers the reliability of the brand image. This also refers to the players, coach and management, who are also influenced by success. This leads to bias. Wann and Schrader (2000) prevented this bias by doing team identification before a game. Because the responses of the supporters are influenced by the results of the game, it is more reliable to collect data before a game. This, however, is not possible for this research. Therefore, product attributes are not investigated in this research, because the results are biased.

Non-product attributes provide a better picture of the brand image of an entertainment service provider. Kaynak et al. (2007, p348) defined non product related attributes as: “external aspects of the product or service that relate to its purchase or consumption, however, it does not affect the overall performance of the product”.

Keller (2008) stated several service dimensions, like tangibles, reliability, responsiveness, competence, trustworthiness, empathy, courtesy and communication. This focus is too limited, because it focuses only on service quality and personnel. When the focus is on football entertainment the dimensions are also limited. Bauer et al. (2005) stated the following dimension: logo, stadium, stadium atmosphere and regional importance. Kaynak et al. (2007) and Bauer et al. (2008) stated that logo design, stadium, product delivery and tradition were to be focused on. However, there are more non-product characteristics that are of influence to an entertainment service provider like Fc Groningen. This entertainment service provider has similarities with a store. It has a different meaning than a retail store, but the variables used for store image show overlap with the variables of Kaynak et al. (2007) and Bauer et al. (2008). Next to that, other store variables could influence the brand image of this entertainment service provider. Store image is defined as “the complex of a consumer’s perception of a store on different (salient) attributes” (Bloemer & de Ruyter, 1997, p501). Therefore it is decided to investigate store image, because in focusing on store image, more variables are explained that have an effect on this entertainment service provider.

(12)

The dimensions of store image are investigated. Many authors have written about store image, but only a couple of authors are mentioned in the text and the rest is quoted in an overview in table 1. Martineau (1958) was the first researcher about store image and he declares that advertising, layout and architecture, symbols and color and sales personnel are important for a store. However, this is only the first phase of researching store image, after him many authors have improved this outcome. Berry (1969) distinguished twelve elements: price, quality, assortment, fashion, sales personnel, location convenience, other convenience factors, services, sales promotions, advertising, store atmosphere and reputation on adjustment. And one of the most quoted authors for store image is Lindquist (1974) who renewed Martineau’s store image to nine attributes: merchandise, service, convenience, promotion, store atmosphere, physical facilities, clientele, institutional factors and post-transactional satisfaction. In table 1 the different dimensions stated by the authors are summarized.

Martineau

(1958) Advertising, layout and architecture, symbols and color and sales

Berry (1969) Price, quality, assortment, fashion, sales personnel, location convenience, other convenience factors, services, sales promotions, advertising, store atmosphere and reputation on adjustment

Lindquist

(1974) Merchandise, service, convenience, promotion, store atmosphere, physical facilities, clientele, institutional factors and post-transactional satisfaction Doyle and

Fenwick (1974)

Product, price, assortment, styling and location James et al.

(1976) Atmosphere, personnel, service, assortment, price and quality Bearden

(1977) Price, quality of the merchandise, assortment, atmosphere, location, parking facilities and friendly personnel Samli and

Sirgy (1985) General store characteristics, physical characteristics, price, personnel, promotion, convenience and product and services Hildebrandt

(1988) Service quality (quality in general and personnel) and merchandise quality(quality, price and assortment) Baker et al.

(1994) Merchandise and service quality divided in ambient, design and social factors Ghosh

(1990) Location, merchandise, store atmosphere, customer service, price, advertising, personal selling and sales incentive programs Koo (2003) Store atmosphere, location, convenient facilities, value, employee service, after sale

service and merchandising

Keller (2008) Access, store atmosphere, price and promotion, cross-category assortment and within-category assortment

Table 1: key paper which discuss store image variables

(13)

Much overlap with the aforementioned variables is noticed between the various authors. Dodds et al. (1991) and Kerin et al. (1992) state that service and merchandise quality are the most important components crucial for store image. This is also partially confirmed by Mazursky and Jacoby (1986) who also state that quality is the most important variable. In chapter 3, however, other variables are also used for this research. Next to that, ‘green’ is included as a variable of brand image, but this is discussed in chapter 4. Hirschman et al. (1978) concluded that the image variables are not consistent on every market. This means that the researcher has to decide which image variables are consistent for their research. This is also what Peterson and Kerin (1983) stated. Their conclusion was that the image variables differ per market, because of the different types of products and stores.

Based on the previous enumeration the following variables are explained in the next chapter.  Price

 Quality  Assortment  Promotion

 Sales personnel and service quality  Location conveniences

 Other conveniences  Fashion

 Atmosphere  Green

(14)

3. Image

In this chapter the most important image variables are discussed. Brand image is measured with the Customer Based Reputation (CBR) scale of Walsh and Beatty (2007). This scale shows the reaction of customers about a firm. In this research, however, other than Walsh and Beatty (2007), one factor is used instead of several factors. This factor is composed of ten variables. All these ten variables result in average scores, together these variables are the brand image of a firm. The variables used in this research are store image variables. They are based on the retailer and not on the service Fc

Groningen provides to its customers. In this study the store image variables are of influence to Fc Groningen’s brand image.

3.1 Price

The price is what consumers pay for the products a company is selling. A consumer requires a fair perceived price, because they want to obtain value for money (Jinfeng and Zhilong, 2009). A fair perceived price has a positive effect on the consumers. The consumer is satisfied and the company’s awareness and associations increase, causing the consumer to willingly return. Furthermore, based on Giraldi (2007) and Kunkel and Berry (1968), low prices are important, because low prices are perceived as more attractive (Biswas et al., 2002). Nevin and Houston (1980) go even further and view the general lowness of the product prices to be most important. Additionally, fair or competitive prices, high and non-competitive pricing and values (except with specific regard to premiums) are subcomponents. Next to that, Berry (1968) made a profile of consumers for which the price is most important. He stated that price of merchandise in a positive sense is more important for groups with fewer children and lower incomes. However, price of merchandise is negatively related to brand image for groups having more children at home and upper class groups.

The prices of an entertainment service provider are the prices of tickets. Entertainment is leisure and therefore depends on individual preferences. Entertainment depends on whether a consumer is present or not (Downward et al., 2009). An entertainment service provider offers premium value for money. The social identification function ensures a positive brand association of the price premium. This means that an individual or a group wants to belong to this social environment, and appreciates the brand (Del Rio et al., 2001). Next to that, good quality is associated with a premium price.

3.2 Quality

Quality is an important component of image (James et al., 1976; Szybillo and Jacoby, 1974; Myers, 1960). Szybillo and Jacoby (1974) concluded in their report that image and quality have a significant effect, because they noticed that when consumers knew a sample came from a company known for high quality, merchandise increases. The opposite applies for a company which carries low-quality ratings. This is in accordance with Jinfeng and Zhilong (2009), who stated that good reputation, high popularity and credibility attracts more attention and visits. The subcomponents that are connected to quality are based on Kunkel and Berry (1969), Berry (1968) and Giraldi (2007): quality of the merchandise and stock brand names. Furthermore, Lindquist (1974) stated that the excellence of quality is related to the price of the products. This means that there can be a demand for a higher price for a product of high quality. According to Berry (1968) quality is only important in a positive sense. This is also confirmed by Jinfeng and Zhilong (2009), who stated that a good reputation is a vital extrinsic indicator to a retailer’s perceived quality.

(15)

An entertainment service provider shows many similarities with a store. When the reputation, popularity and credibility are high, visits to this provider will increase. The history and tradition of the provider is also important, because consumers identify themselves with these factors (Bauer et al., 2008). When the quality of the provider is high, more consumers are willing to buy tickets. This means that good quality is often associated with a premium price and that a premium price is associated with good quality (Zeithaml, 1988). Furthermore, Jinfeng and Zhilong (2009) stated that a company with a good reputation, high popularity and credibility attracts more attention and more visitors than companies without these qualities.

3.3 Assortment

Assortment is one of the most important components according to respondents (James et al., 1976), like also concluded by Martineau (1958), who stated that assortment for example is more important than the economic values. There are different kinds of assortments. Ailawadi and Keller (2004) mentioned that there is cross-category assortment and within-category assortment. Cross-category assortment is aimed at a broad and different assortment. This offers the consumers more convenience, makes shopping easier and makes it easier to influence the customer’s behavior. However it is hazardous to expand to fast or to slow, so a retailer has to choose the middle way to be most effective (Ailawadi and Keller 2004). A within-category assortment is a consumer’s perception of the depth of a retailer’s assortment within a product category, which is important for image and choice (Ailawadi and Keller 2004; Omar, 1999). With a within-category assortment there is more choice of different items per category which provides an advantage for more brand loyal customers (Omar, 1999).

Omar (1999) made these two assortments more specific and chose four assortment strategies. First, a deep and narrow assortment, that is typical for specialty stores, in this case there are several brands within the store. Secondly, a deep and wide assortment where stores offer many product lines as well as a good selection of products within each line. Thirdly, there is a shallow and narrow assortment; stores sell common products with little depth. Finally, Omar discusses a shallow and wide assortment, which means that a store sells many different products but in small amounts. These categories help to include the subcomponents (Kunkel and Berry, 1969; Berry, 1969; Berman and Evans, 1995; Yoo and Chang, 2005; and Giraldi; 2007): depth of merchandise, breadth of merchandise, carries a brand the customer wants, carries or not elegant brands and availability of the products. The assortment of merchandise is found to be most important by the younger segment and the segment with four of more children at home (Berry, 1969).

The entertainment service provider’s assortment resolves around merchandise. An entertainment service provider uses a store to sell merchandise to consumers. The assortment of this store is shallow and narrow, because they only sell products of one entertainment service provider. Customers purchase merchandise to identify themselves with the brand of the club (Guilianotti and Robertson, 2004). High selling merchandise can increase the transfer budget of new players (Guilianotti and Robertson, 2004). These new players can increase the selling of merchandise, because supporters want t-shirts with the names of new players on the back, which indicates that this is some sort of a vicious circle.

(16)

3.4 Promotion

Based on Van der Vyver (2008) and Greenberg et al. (1983) promotion is one of the most important variables. Price promotions are used to boost sales, to sell redundant inventory and to create a favorable price image (Mulhern and Leone, 1990). There are differences in consumer price sensitivity, these differences are used by retailers to their advantage. Price sensitivity may be a consequence of disparities in consumer’s information about price, difference in reservation price and in transaction costs (Varian, 1980; Lazear, 1986 and Gerstner and Holthauser, 1986). Degeratu et al. (2001) state that price sensitivity is higher in online stores than in brick and mortar stores, because they are giving stronger signals to consumers, though the combined effect between price and promotion is weaker. Furthermore, Mulher and Leone (1990) state that retailers offer price promotions from the disparity in inventory units. They also want to generate traffic and transmit price competitiveness. However, Ailawadi and Keller (2004) suggest other price promotion methods that are, for example, the variation of price over time, the frequency and depth of the promotion. Next to that, they suggest to study whether the company positions itself as ‘every day low price’ (EDLP) or as ‘high-low promotional pricing’ (HILO) (Ailawadi and Keller 2004). EDLP stores are preferred by large basket shoppers, where HILO stores are preferred by small basket shoppers. HILO stores can ask for a higher average price than EDLP stores. The advantage for consumers is the high variation of price of individual products. Ailawadi and Keller (2004) concluded that a consumer receives a more favorable price image when a company has more frequent discounts than when the discounts are less frequent but sharper. If a company promotes very frequently the regular price image is lower (Gupta and Cooper, 1992).

Birtwhistle (2001) states that a product with a high price, which is purchased more frequently, has the most effect on price image. Nystrom et al. (1975), on the other hand, stated that the prices of individual items explain the overall price image. It is therefore important that a company does not let the manufacturer brands dominate their promotions (Porter and Claycomb, 1997). Additionally, price promotion has an effect on store switching by consumers, however, Ailawadi and Keller (2004) concluded that this effect is indirect, because this depends on the price, location, but also on the atmosphere (Arnold et al., 1983). Besides price promotion there is also advertising. Advertising is a paid, non personal way to communicate promotions of goods and services. The sub dimensions of promotion and advertising are: special sales, displays, symbols and colors, frequency of sales, scope of sale product, providence of new product information, placement of right catalogues, variety of gifts, style and quality of advertising, media and vehicles, used information providence of advertisement, usefulness of shopping plan of advertising, appeal of advertising, confidence of advertising and reliability of advertising (Kunkel and Berry, 1969; Berry, 1969; Berman and Evans, 1995; Yoo and Chang, 2005; and Giraldi; 2007).

(17)

Promotions of an entertainment service provider are focused regionally. Bauer et al. (2005) stated that the relevance of an entertainment event is more important to the region and more consumers may be attracted when the entertainment service provider is focused regionally. Next to that, an entertainment service provider is HILO oriented, because the consumers are small basket shoppers (those who satisfy a small proportion of the total demand) and are prepared to pay more for the products. Wakefield and Bush (1998) stated that price promotion is alluring for consumers who are price conscious and who attend the entertainment events infrequently. Price promotion ensures short term sales(Wakefield and Barnes, 1996). However, supporters of Fc Groningen are already very loyal to their club and loyal customers are not influenced by promotion because their perceived value of the leisure is higher (Wakefield and Barnes, 1996). Loyal customers perceive that they pay a good price for the entertainment event (Wakefield and Bush, 1998). Wakefield and Barnes (1996) even stated that loyal customers react negatively to price promotion, because they think it is a reward for the non-loyal customers.

3.5 Sales Personnel and service quality

Service quality has an effect on brand image in different ways. Firstly, consumers prefer high quality service of the personnel. Jinfeng and Zhilong (2009) stated that high service quality would lead to a high level of perceived quality of the products of services. Consumers are more positive when the employees treat them friendly, when they have a friendly expression, when they are polite, have a professional appearance and when their overall appearance is appealing (Kim et al., 2009). Furthermore, Kim et al. (2009) stated that consumers have negative emotions when the personnel are unappealing or when they are dressed poorly. Clothing and dressing therefore also affect image, both indirect and direct through the service quality expectations of the consumers (Yan et al., 2011). The clothes of the personnel have an influence on the consumer and its perception of the company. When the sales personnel dress formally it influences the image, because formal clothing is more positive for the image (Yan et al., 2011). Therefore, when consumers think that the personnel are dressed appropriate it has a positive effect on image.

Next to that, the amount of sales personnel is critical when it comes to service quality (Mazursky and Jacobi, 1986). When understaffed for instance a function is not fulfilled the way it should be (Barry, 2009). Mazursky and Jacobi (1986) also stated that the number of sales people affect the merchandise quality. Their knowledge about the products affects the brand image (Berry and Kunkel, 1969). Positive sales personnel is more important to the segments over 60 years, widowed, divorced or separated, the segment with a few children and the segment with a lower income (Berry, 1969). In contrary, the high educated segment and the high income segment are stricter and display more criticism towards the personnel (Berry, 1969). The reason for this is that consumer’s attitude towards shopping becomes less favorable when income and education levels increase.

(18)

An entertainment service provider uses five dimensions of service quality. Brady et al. (2002) defined these five dimensions, which are: reliability of the service provider, responsiveness of the service provider, tangible aspects of the service, assurance provided by the service staff and empathy for the consumers. Next to that, Langeard et al. (1981) explains three components that consist of service experience. The first one is the inanimate environment, this is the facility itself. Second is the sales personnel, the employees of the service provider. They work in the catering, sell tickets or sell merchandise and facilitate the entertainment to the consumer (Chelladurai and Chang, 2000). Thirdly there are service benefits, service benefits are entertainment experiences, which succeed due to the work of the service personnel. Greenwell et al. (2002) stated that the facility and personnel factors have an effect on the behavior of the consumers.

Customers normally spend extended periods of time at an entertainment event, in this case ‘a match of Fc Groningen’, therefore the surroundings play an important role (Wakefield and Blodgett, 1996). The maintenance and development of the stadium ensures that supporters feel comfortable visiting the club and that they come back more often (Westerbeek, 2000). Supporters include the personnel in their judgment. When a consumer’s service experience is positive, it increases their perceived brand image of the company. Cronin jr. et al. (2000) even stated that consumers of entertainment service providers think service quality is more important than the price. Bloemer et al. (1999) also concluded earlier that, next to service quality, reliability is especially important for entertainment service providers. Though, it should be noted that it is most important that consumers have a good feeling about the service quality, because martin et al. (2008) stated that consumer’s emotions lead to satisfaction or dissatisfaction with the company.

3.6 Location convenience

Location is one of the most powerful dimensions of image, concludes Fisk (1961). However, Berry et al. (1969) state that location is less important. A cause could be that consumers are becoming more urbanized and more mobile, in comparison to earlier times (Bell, 1999; Doyle and Fenwick, 1974). This is why authors disagree on the importance of location. It depends on the consumer whether location is regarded as important for a company (Ailawadi and Keller, 2004). Ailawadi and Keller (2004) said that small basket consumers would not go to a location that is not on the route. So he concluded that location does not explain image for every consumer, but it does for some. For consumers that find location important for their choice a company should pay attention to location, easy access and safe parking (Berry and Kunkel, 1969; Gupta and Pirsch, 2008).

For an entertainment service provider the location is the place where customers experience the event they purchased. Therefore, location can enhance the consumption experience (Kaynak et al., 2007). There are several factors that affect this experience. Kaynak et al. (2007) stated that clean restrooms, concession stands, qualities of the stadium and the sense of community are important for the experience of the location of the customer. Also, easy access and parking are of influence to the image of the location. However, since customers are more flexible due to better transport, the location itself is becoming less important. Customers make the choice to go to an entertainment service provider. Supporters want to support their club and are willing to go to the location of the club.

(19)

3.7 Other convenience

Other conveniences, other than location, that affect image are the hours that a store/service is open in regard to others (Kunkel and Berry, 1969). Layout is also another convenience. Martineau (1958) stated that companies are modernizing their appearances to comfort the consumers. Lindquist (1974) confirmed this adding that this includes things like elevators, air conditioning, but also aisle placement and width and architecture. Next to that, the overall convenience of shopping is important. This consists of easy search, wanted good and easy movement (Yoo and Chang, 2005).

Other conveniences are less important to an entertainment service provider. A service provider is open when the entertainment for the customer is there. They also add things, like air conditioning, to their meeting place to improve the overall convenience and to be more sophisticated.

3.8 Fashion

Fashion in merchandise is also called product trends. This is based on emblems, symbols, colors, shape and design of products. Martineau (1958) discovered that oval-shaped symbol with the color scheme of red, white and blue scored best, whereas triangle symbols received the lowest rating.

Logos are important for an entertainment service provider. Logo, colors and uniforms convey and strengthen the image of a provider (Kaynak et al., 2007). Consumers identify themselves with the logo, colors and uniform of an entertainment service provider, which improves the brand image of the entertainment service provider. A sports entertainment service provider is a social representation of a group with a high emotional content (Ferrand and Pages, 1999). Therefore, this effective and symbolical component (the logo, the colors and the uniforms) is linked to the behavior of the consumer. This means that consumers need symbolism to bring people together and that there is a need for symbols to be a collective (Ferrand and Pages, 1999).

3.9 Atmosphere

Atmosphere is one of the most important dimensions (Berry, 1969 and Greenberg et al., 1983). Kotler (1973) defined atmosphere as: ‘the effort to design buying environments to produce specific emotional effects in the buyer that enhance his purchase probability’. Ambient factors are of influence on brand image (Giraldi, 2007 and Baker, 1994). These are non-visual, background conditions like lighting, music, temperature and smell. These conditions may influence consumers to stay at or leave a company (Giraldi, 2007). Design factors, on the other hand, are elements that are more visual than ambient factors. This consists of floor covering, wall covering, displays, color, cleanliness, ceilings, signs and aisles (Baker, 1994). This also includes the lay out, however, in contrast to other conveniences this is not aimed at convenience (Kunkel and Berry, 1969). These elements influence the evaluation of consumers. It could for example be the case that a certain color is popular at a certain moment which influences the consumer positively when used. When atmosphere is positively received it encourages consumers to visit more often, buy more of stay longer (Ailawadi and Keller, 2004 and Giraldi, 2007). A great atmosphere may also influence the price perception. Finally, Kunkel and Berry (1969) alert that consumers may not think of atmosphere when they think about a store or service. Therefore consumers have to be required to evaluate these characteristics, because they have much effect on brand image.

(20)

For an entertainment service provider the atmosphere during the event and at the location plays an important role. Bauer et al. (2005) stated that the entertainment value relies on the atmosphere in a stadium. Kaynak et al. (2007) agree with this, because they state that the capability of the product to satisfy the consumer’s need for entertainment relies on the atmosphere. This means that a good atmosphere is to be created at the place where the entertainment is. However, atmosphere does not only add value to the product, it also creates a unique experience (Uhrich and Benkenstein, 2010). Next to that, Wakefield and Blodgett (1996) concluded that consumers will stay longer at a location of an entertainment service provider if the atmosphere is good due to a well-thought-out design. Furthermore, Uhrich and Benkenstein (2010) stated that the image of a club probably is positively influenced by atmosphere.

(21)

4. Green

Based on the previous brand image dimension, it is striking that green is not considered, because consumers are becoming more green minded (Wagner, 1997). All the previous researchers only acknowledge the attributes of the store and the service, but not the role of the store/service in a larger social environment (Gupta and Pirsch, 2008). These attribute dimensions are known as corporate ability (CA) (Brown and Dacin, 1997; Gupta and Pirsch, 2008). The influence of some image dimensions becomes smaller when corporate social responsibility (CSR) policies increase. This is confirmed by Arnold et al. (1996) who states that ‘low prices, value for money, convenient location, fast checkout service and helpful advertising’ became less relevant for a store/service choice, when the CSR policies increases. CSR programs act in two different ways. It acts as an attribute-based cue to signal image and as an affective cue for consumer evaluation (Gupta and Pirsch, 2008). Therefore, it is stated by Arnold et al. (1996) that a positive perception of the consumers leads to commitment and a positive image.

4.1 Corporate social responsibility

Corporate social responsibility (CSR) is defined as a company’s activity and status related to its perceived societal or stakeholders obligations (Luo and Bhattacharya, 2006). McWilliams and Siegel (2001) mentioned two sources of demands; consumer demand and demand from other stakeholders. As mentioned before, consumer demand might lead to commitment and a positive brand image. Whereas stakeholders demand is satisfied when the investment in CSR leads to maximize profit (McWilliams and Siegel, 2006). As stated by Zaharia and Grundey (2011), there are three other arguments for CSR. First, there is an increase of more modern companies. These companies create many social problems. The corporate world addresses these problems and takes responsibility. Secondly, In the long run it is in the company’s best interest to perform CSR to have a future and to avoid government regulations. Thirdly, large corporations have large reserves of human and financial capital and use this in addressing social issues. On the other hand, there are also disadvantages to adopting CSR (Zaharia and Grundey, 2011). First, it is not economically feasible, a company has to focus on making profit and CSR does not. Secondly, it leads to competitive disadvantages in comparison to the companies that are not adopting CSR. Thirdly, CSR is an expression of capitalist domination and multinational power because CSR is used as a method to gain the trust of the consumers. Fourthly, companies who are most capable should address social issues, because not every company deals with these problems. These companies may contribute in a way that other companies are motivated to also deal with social issues. Finally, CSR is an instrument to redirect attention from the companies practices oriented against people and environment.

(22)

It is stated that a Corporate Ability (CA) based image needs CSR activities, because a positive CSR program supports consumer’s choice and rewards the company (Arnold et al., 1996; Gupta and Pirsch, 2008). This also means that when a company has a positive image with a negative CSR, consumers do withdraw their support (Gupta and Pirsch, 2008). Therefore, a positive or negative CA does not have any effect, when the CSR is negatively evaluated (Handelman and Arnold, 1999). There are different CSR programs aimed at six programs according to Sen and Bhattacharya (2001): community support, diversity, employee support, a program aimed at the environment, non-U.S. operations and a program aimed at the product. Gupta and Pirsch (2008) concluded four CSR programs in which companies are involved. Support the community in which they operate (1), try to hire diverse employees (2), be good to their employees (3) and be environmentally responsible (4). To conclude, in both articles going green is a CSR program that is used by companies to increase their image and the consumers’ commitment to the companies.

4.2 Green marketing

As stated before, going green is important to be socially responsible. According to the definition of Polonsky (1994, p2): “Green marketing consists of all activities designed to generate and facilitate any exchanges intended to satisfy human needs or wants, such that the satisfaction of these needs and wants occurs, with minimal detrimental impact on the natural environment”.

Green marketing applies to both green products and green companies (Prakash, 2002). Going green could be traced back to the 1960s when environmentalists tried to change business practices; however, this then did not have any impact. In the 1970s the research of Hennison and Kinnear (1976) showed the beginning of the ecological marketing concept, this was, however, based on more local environmental problems. As stated before, in the early 1990s green marketing, or as Varadarajan (1992) called it environmental marketing (Menon and Menon, 1997), really started to become popular. Other researchers also named it ecological marketing (Fisk, 1974), sustainable marketing (Belz, 2006) and greener marketing (Charter and Polonsky, 1999).

The role of the marketers changes when going green, because marketers now do not only have to focus on what the consumer wants, but also on the customer’s welfare (Mulhern, 1992). Consumers need to be analyzed as a means for consumption, because people have many varied wants and needs that are incompatible to companies. Therefore, consumers have to be considered as having a bundle of wants and needs, so companies can keep consumers with their conflicting desires satisfied (Peattie and Charter, 2003).

During the green age customers sometimes reject products because of the environmental harm caused by the products or the company that produces the products. Another reason can be that they disapprove of the activities of the company (Peattie and Charter, 2003). These arguments are based on the four success factors of Peattie (1995) which are: First, the satisfaction of the customer’s needs. Secondly, the safety of the products and the production for consumers, workers, society and the environment. Thirdly, social acceptability and finally, sustainability of the product, their production and other activities of the company. Therefore, companies try to acquire a green image and become sustainable. This makes the triangle of sustainability important.

(23)

4.3 Triangle of sustainability

This model states that social, economic and environmental issues are connected and propose a balance between these issues (figure 2). The three issues determine the outer sides of the triangle. The further the distance from an issue, the less this company is associated with this issue. When a company comes close to the corner, it means that it is strongly associated and dominated by this issue (Kleine and von Hauff, 2009). Kleine and von Hauff (2009) stated that a company could also be influenced by multiple issues, this is called partial association. Especially, the social issue plays an important role for the stakeholder’s recognition and public image. This is because of the social desirability, which is a personality trait rendering the individual acceptance in social or interpersonal relations. (Saha and Darnton, 2005; Schaeffer, 2004). Social issues are important to companies. Griskevicius (2010) stated that social oriented motives may be even more powerful than economy and ecology oriented motives. This influences people’s tendencies to remain with a company, which could have a positive effect on the company

Figure 2 triangle of sustainability

(24)

4.4 Positive ‘greening’

When companies start to invest in green marketing, and are not green washing (which is explained in chapter 4.6), there are several benefits they could achieve (Shrivastava 1995; Chen 2008; Chen 2010; Bauer 1996; Peattie and Charter, 2003). First, companies get a first mover advantage. Secondly, they demand a higher price for green products. Thirdly, they improve their corporate image. Fourthly, they develop new markets. Fifthly, there are new market opportunities, because greening represents the fastest growing area. Sixthly, it provides differentiation opportunities. Finally, it ensures opportunities for cost advantages.

Often it is stated that greening leads to increased costs, but Porter and Van der Linde (1995) state that a successful investment most often will not lead to an increase in net costs. Companies gain a competitive advantage, they create unique and inimitable products, and they reduce long-term risks. Also, they improve the eco system and the environment of the company. Besides the opportunities for the company aimed at consumers, there are also opportunities that are business oriented. Grove et al. (1996) stated that there are opportunities for sustainability like energy savings and green services fee. Green companies are also more attractive for jobseekers, because of their green image (Bauer, 1996).

4.5 Negative greening

Not everyone is positive about the use of green marketing. Hussain (1999) state that the greener option is more expensive and that the financial gains are insufficient. Whilst the most important issue for a company is to make profit. When a manager is not convinced that they make profit going green, they refuse it. Hussain (1999) put the economic issue above the social issue. Particularly when the profit is decreasing there are different opinions that could be the best for a company. The marketers have to develop strategies to ensure that they prevent poor credibility, consumer cynicism and consumer confusion (Mendleson and Polonsky, 1995). Rex and Baumann (2006) reported that the willingness to pay extra for green products was small. Next to that, they state that the market shares of green products shows no significant change over the last decade. Furthermore, they state that there was negative publicity about green marketing, because consumers were distrustful and suspicious about the advertisements and the claims.

Confirming this trend, Peattie and Crane (2005) showed five manifestations of green marketing, which were not successful. First; green spinning, when dirty companies try to achieve a green status and get involved, consumers and pressure groups, however, were not convinced. Secondly, green selling. At the beginning of the 90s companies concluded that green would sell. They promoted their products as green, which they were not, this is called green washing. Thirdly, green harvesting. When companies want to make short-term profits with green selling. However, when companies truly become more sustainable, they have to change radically and invest more management, time and money, which is an unattractive option for green harvesting firms. Therefore, green marketing fails in the medium to long term for green harvesting firms. Fourthly, Enviropreneur marketing. These firms are producing green products, but they are not considering the needs of the consumers. Consumers find the products either underperforming or over-priced. These firms were unsuccessful because they did not understand their customers. Finally, compliance marketing. These firms are going green, but with very little change, and they only make changes through legalization.

(25)

4.6 Green washing

One of the negative greening options was green washing, even though companies were claiming that their products/services were good for the environment (recycled or recyclable) they actually were not. At the beginning of the 90’s many companies only changed their communication and not their actions (Grove et al., 1996; Manrai 1997). Schmidt and Schwegler (2008) stated that these companies were still polluting, because they prioritize the value of their products above the positive external effects such as less emission. This is called green washing, because the claims are misleading or deceptive (Saha and Darnton2005; Manrai 1997; Ginsberg 2004). Dahl (2010) stated seven sins of green washing: Firstly, hidden trade-off, with a narrow set of green attributes. Secondly, there is no evidence that a product is green. Thirdly, vagueness, in which an environmental claim is poorly defined or too broad. Fourthly, irrelevance, a product is green, but it is unimportant for consumers. Fifthly, lesser of two evils, which is green but has other more severe consequents. Sixthly, fibbing, which are falsely environmental claims, and seventhly, false labels. When consumers discover one of these sins, it negatively affects the brand image. Therefore, the following hypothesis is made:

H1: Green washing has a negative influence on brand image 4.7 Green consumers

Since the green period there is evidence that green consumers affect the markets. Next to legal issues, consumers also change their buying habits and boycott non-environmental products (Wagner, 1997). 70 percent of the consumers occasionally buys green products and 10 percent or more buys green products frequently (Wagner, 1997). Peattie (2001) named these occasional green consumers ‘fit and forget green purchasers’ and the frequent green buyers ‘consistent ecologists’. The other consumers, who are not acting green, are the ‘grey consumers’. Several researchers tried to make an effort to define the green consumer segment. They tried it with socio-demographic variables, changing consumer values and knowledge of environmental values (Peattie, 2001; Peattie and Charter, 2003). However, these outputs are frequently inconclusive and contradictory. There are four factors that explain these difficulties (Peattie and Charter, 2003). First, every consumer is a green consumer when faced with a choice between two products that are almost identical except one product is green and therefore is differentiating itself. Second, researchers look at purchases of green products most of the time, but another important variable like delaying or avoiding a product is not measurable. Third, consumers do not have to buy green products for the greenness, they can buy them because of their personal preference, or for example, economic benefits. Fourth, general environmental issues are harder to measure than specific environmental issues.

(26)

Therefore, Peattie (2001) and Peattie and Charter (2003) suggest to focus on green purchases and not on green consumers. Herefore, Peattie (2001) made a purchase perception matrix, where he explains four kinds of green purchases based on the purchaser’s confidence and willingness to compromise. Based on this matrix the green strategies are made (figure 3).

Peattie (2001) stated that many green purchases involve a form of compromise. First, consumers pay a green premium. Second, consumers accept a lower level of technical performance in exchange for improved eco-performance. Third, consumers travel to non-standard distribution outlets. At the end of the 80s ‘the green consumer’ was defined with the dislikes of the product (Peattie, 1999, 2001). First, non green products endanger the health of consumers or others. Second, they can lead to significant damage to the environment caused by the production, use or disposal. Third, the product consumes disproportionately large amounts of resources. Fourth, it causes unnecessary waste caused by over-packaging, excess features or an unduly short lifespan. Fifth, it uses materials made from endangered species or environments. Sixth, the product involves cruelty to animals. Finally, it adversely affects other countries. Companies need to take these points into account when a company is going green.

Ginsberg and Bloom (2004) disagreed with Peattie (1999, 2001) and concluded that there are different green consumer segments. After having completed the Roper survey, they stated that consumers demonstrate green sentiments in their habits and purchasing behavior. They derived five different segments of consumers, from high environmental involvement to low environmental involvement (Ginsberg and Bloom, 2004). ´True Blue Greens´ are strongly environmentally involved and are politically active. These consumers do not buy products that are not environmentally friendly. ´Greenback Greens´ are consumers, who prefer to buy environmentally friendly products. ´Sprouts´ form the middle group, these consumers prefer environmentally friendly products, but they rarely agree to pay more for these products. ´Grousers´ are consumers who do not know much about the environment and think that green products are too expensive and underperformed in comparison with the competition. ´Basic Browns´ are the consumers, the last segment, who do not care about environmental and social issues. Furthermore, Straughan and Roberts (1999) stated that young people, females and people with a high education and income are most likely to act green.

Figure 3 green purchases

(27)

4.8 Green strategies

Based on the segments of Ginsberg and Bloom (2004) and the green purchase perception matrix of Peattie (2001) there are four green strategies: lean green, defensive green, shaded green and extreme green. Lean green strategies consider low cost competitive advantages to be more important than green advantages. These companies are committed to the environment but do not show that publically. When the consumers find out that a company has gone green, consumers expect a higher standard that the company cannot live up to (Ginsberg and Bloom, 2004). Defensive green strategies use green marketing as a response against a competitor or in crisis. They do not promote green marketing much and only use it temporarily. They do not start a big environmental campaign even if this would lead to a competitive advantage due to greening. They only sponsor minor environmental events and defend these public relations when they attacked by, for example, competitors or activists (Ginsberg and Bloom, 2004). Shaded green strategies invest in environmentally friendly processes for long term with financial and non-financial commitment. While focusing on green they wish to satisfy the consumers, therefore this strategy will induce a competitive advantage. However, greening is not the primary focus of the companies that apply this strategy. They focus first on the direct, tangible benefits and only after this, they focus on green benefits. Therefore, they do not invest too much in greening, which affects the other direct benefits to be more attractive to consumers (Ginsberg and Bloom, 2004). Finally, companies that apply the extreme green strategy hold environmental issues to be the most important issues. They focus on life-cycle pricing, total quality environmental management and manufacturing for the environment. Apart from that, they often sell their products in small niches (Ginsberg and Bloom, 2004).

Next to that, Peattie and Ratnayaka (1992) researched corresponding potential green strategies companies might perform when pressured to go green. First, there is the strategy called ‘head in the sand’, which indicates that a company is not responding to greening. Second, there is the defensive strategy, which corresponds with defensive green. Third, there is the green lip service, when a company starts green sponsorship, but does not change the product or their policies. Fourth, there is an automatic response, companies start new regulations and also respond to the consumer’s demands. Fifth, this is called ‘follow the herd’, which means that companies follow competitors’ products and promotions. Sixth, there are piecemeal initiatives, in adapting this strategy changes to specific products, practices and promotions are made. Seventh, there is green selling, when green elements of existing products are stressed. Eighth, is green marketing, which consists of new product development and researches the needs of the customers. Finally, greening the company is also a strategy, when the company’s structure, policies and practices are all changed to green.

In this case, the entertainment service provider, Fc Groningen, applies a shaded green strategy. They focus on green to get a competitive advantage and to satisfy the consumers. However, the primary focus remains on their core product which is football

(28)

4.9. The 4 P’s

In marketing the 4 p’s are a basic, frequently used marketing mix. The 4 p’s represent: product, promotion, price and place. The 4 p’s also apply to the green dimension.

4.9.1 Green product

When a company acts green it needs to reconsider their products and create demand for the new green product (Peattie and Charter, 2003). Green product development is the most important element for strategies, because every strategy involves green product development (Ginsberg and Bloom, 2004). The green product influences only the lean green strategy. The other strategies are influenced by the green product in combination with one of the other p’s. There has to be a greater focus on the product, also because consumers do not base their decision on the tangible product only (Peattie and Crane, 2005).

Consumers react in different ways, Prakash (2002) stated that consumers purchase products based on product attributes. Sometimes consumers find company-level attributes important and prefer to buy a green product at a green company. If both are important companies have to invest in their brand, store and corporate image. Furthermore, the green products need to contain; raw materials, quality, safety, reusability, recyclability, lifespans and they need to be energy efficient (Peattie and Ratnayaka, 1992). With their products companies need to reduce pollution and stimulate the conservation of scarce resources (Bukhari, 2011). A start for companies of creating a green product is to make use of green packaging (Peattie and Charter, 2003). This change does not lead to extensive changes in the product and does not induce high costs. Consumers then have to know that the reusable and recycled package is not new, so that it does not lead to misconception by consumers about the product (Peattie and Charter, 2003).

Because the focus of this research is on non-product variables, the effect of the outcome is on merchandise. The products that the entertainment service provider sells contain raw materials and recyclability like mentioned above. The entertainment service provider has to offer merchandise that is better for the environment. Therefore, the following hypothesis is stated:

H2: Green products have a positive influence on brand image 4.9.2 Green promotion

When a company promotes itself through implicit and explicit associations with environmental and social issues this is green promotion (Peattie and Charter, 2003). This is one of the hardest areas of green marketing, because Green washing leads to the consumer’s skepticism about green promotion. When consumers think the product and promotion is incompetent, they do not buy (Zinkhan and Carlson 1995). To prevent this, Davis (1993) and Peattie and Charter (2003) suggested six points to focus on for green promotion. First, ensure that the promoted benefit has a real impact. Second, identify the product’s specific benefit in terms of the product attribute that contributes to improved environmental performance. Third, provide specific data about the benefits. Fourth, provide a context to allow consumers to make meaningful comparisons. Fifth, define any technical terms used. Sixth, explain the benefit, since consumers often have a limited understanding of environmental issues.

The effect of ‘going green’ on the brand image of an entertainment service provider

The effect of ‘going green’ on the brand image of an

entertainment service provider

Master Thesis

The effect of ‘going green’ on the brand image of an

entertainment service provider

Management summary

Preface

Table of contents

1. Introduction

2.1 Entertainment service provider

2.2 Brand image

3. Image

4. Green