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The  effect  of  Green  Advertising  on  Customer  Engagement  

Behavior  intentions  

The  moderating  roles  of  perceived  quality,  perceived  pro-­‐social  behavior  and  environmental   involvement  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Hans  Langedijk  

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The  effect  of  Green  Advertising  on  Customer  Engagement  Behavior  intentions  

The  moderating  roles  of  perceived  quality,  perceived  pro-­‐social  behavior  and  environmental  involvement  

 

 

                      Master  Thesis   June  2012     Author     Hans  Langedijk   Student  Number;  1905104    

Eikenlaan  214,  9741  EV  Groningen     hanslangedijk@gmail.com  

+31  (0)  613963447    

Supervisors  

Prof.  Dr.  J.C.  Hoekstra  (1st)    

E.L.E.  de  Vries,  MSc  (2nd)  

 

University  of  Groningen    

Faculty  of  Economics  and  Businesses,  Department  of  Marketing    

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Abstract  

This   research   examines   how   green   advertisements   can   influence   customers’   engagement   behavior   intentions.   Hypotheses   based   on   salience   literature   are   developed   and   tested   in   an   online  experiment.  One  group  considered  a  green  ad  that  emphasized  on  the  environment  that   included   an   environmental   certificate   and   environmentally   friendly   words.   Another   group   considered   a   non-­‐green   appeal   that   included   a   regular   tourism   logo   and   without   environmentally  friendly  words.  Further,  the  consumers’  environmental  involvement,  perceived   quality   and   the   pro-­‐social   benefits   of   the   service   are   measured.   After   cleaning   the   data,   the   analysis   was   performed   on   423   respondents.   These   respondents   mainly   consisted   out   of   students.    

The   main   finding   concludes   that   green   advertising   has   a   negative   impact   on   customer   engagement   behavioral   (CEB)   intentions.   The   main   explanations   for   this   are   the   declining   interest  of  consumers  in  overall  environmental  protection  and  the  perceived  overload  of  green   messages,   which   result   in   less   engaged   consumers.   Pro-­‐social   benefits   have   a   positive   direct   influence  on  the  willingness  to  engage  in  CEB.  Consumers  are  motivated  to  express  and  present   themselves  in  a  socially  desirable  way.  Consuming  green  services  facilitates  this  goal.  Contrary  to   earlier  findings,  however,  no  evidence  is  found  that  perceived  service  quality  and  environmental   involvement  have  a  moderating  effect  on  CEB-­‐intentions.    

   

Keywords:     Customer   engagement   behavior,   environmental   sustainability,   green   marketing,  green  advertising,  service,  tourism,  pro-­‐social  benefits.    

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Table  of  Contents  

1.   Introduction   6  

1.1.   The  necessity  of  having  a  green  image   6  

1.2.   Introduction  to  the  dependent  variable:  Customer  Engagement  Behavior   6  

1.3.   Green  Tourism   8  

1.4.   Problem  Statement   9  

1.5.   Relevance   9  

1.6.   Structure   10  

2.   Impact  of  Green  Marketing  on  Consumer  Behavior   11  

2.1.   Environmental  Sustainability   11  

2.2.   Effect  of  Green  Marketing  on  Consumer  Behavior   12   2.3.   Effect  of  Green  Advertising  on  Consumer  Behavior   15  

2.4.   Customer  Engagement  Behavior   17  

2.5.   Conclusion   19  

3.   Impact  of  Green  Advertising  on  Customer  Engagement  Behavior   20  

3.1.   Conceptual  Model   20  

3.2.   Hypotheses   21  

4.   Research  Design   27  

4.1.   Sample  and  Sampling  Technique   27  

4.2.   Data  Collection  Method   28  

4.3.   Manipulation  of  the  Independent  Variable   29  

4.4.   Measurement   29  

4.5.   Data  Analysis   34  

5.   Results   38  

5.1.   Data  Characteristics  &  Descriptive  Statistics   38  

5.2.   Hypotheses  Testing   38  

5.3.   Conclusion   41  

6.   Discussion   42  

6.1.   Summary  and  Discussion  of  Findings   42  

6.2.   Implications   44  

6.3.   Research  Limitations  and  Future  Research   44  

6.4.   Conclusion   45  

References   46  

A.   Email   52  

B.   Dutch  Survey  and  Manipulated  Advertisements   53  

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Definitions  &  Abbreviations  

Definitions  

Blogging

 

A   social   and   networking   process   that   includes   links   and   comments   regarding  previous  posted  content.

 

Co-­‐creation

 

A  concept  that  includes  consumers’  collaboration  with  businesses  or  other   consumers  to  create  some  kind  of  value.

 

Customer   engagement   behavior

 

The   customers   behavioral   manifestation   toward   a   brand   or   business,   beyond   purchase,   resulting   from   motivational   drivers   such   as   word-­‐of-­‐ mouth,  recommendations,  willingness  to  help  other  customers,  writing  a   blog,  co-­‐creation,  and  providing  customer  ratings.

 

Ecotourism

 

Responsible   travel   to   natural   areas   that   conserves   the   environment   and   improves  the  wellbeing  of  local  people.  

 

Environmental   involvement

 

Affect   or   the   emotion   associated   with   beliefs   about   environmental   protection.

 

Green  advertising

 

Advertising  a  product  or  service  with  environmental  sustainable  claims.

 

Perceived  quality

 

Opinion  of  consumers  of  the  ability  to  fulfill  the  consumers’  expectations.

 

Pro-­‐social  benefits

 

Consumers’   perceptions   that   a   product   or   service   help   the   society   and  

thus  capture  the  social  dimension  of  consumers’  choice.

 

Word  of  Mouth

 

The  passing  of  information  from  person  to  person  by  oral  communication.

 

 

Abbreviations  

ANOVA       Analysis  of  variance  

CEB       Customer  engagement  behavior   e.g.       For  example  

et  al.     And  others  

i.e.       That  means,  in  other  words  

M       Mean  

Sig.       Significant  

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1. Introduction  

The  request  for  environmental  sustainable  products  and  services  has  increased  globally  with   the   continuous   rise   in   consumer   fear   about   climate   change.   Environmental   consciousness   has   evolved  into  a  societal  norm,  as  both  consumers  and  businesses  aim  to  accept  responsibility  for   the  consequences  of  consumption  (Rundle-­‐Thiele,  et  al.  2008).  Despite  the  economic  downturn,   two-­‐third   of   the   consumers   consider   the   importance   of   businesses   with   good   environmental   records  (Ferguson  &  Goldman,  2010;  Laroche  et  al.,  2001).  Businesses  respond  to  this  growing   consciousness   by   developing   and   communicating   products   and   services   that   appeal   to   consumers’   norms   and   values.   These   products   and   services   can   benefit   society   while   fulfilling   the  business’  objectives  of  achieving  long-­‐term  profitable  growth  (Luchs  et  al.,  2010)  and  create   a   sustainable   competitive   advantage   (Laroche   et   al.,   2001).   However,   sales   of   green   products   and   services   have   still   not   reflected   the   level   of   environmental   concern   (Montoro-­‐Rios   et   al.,   2006).  Some  even  reveal  a  declining  interest  of  consumers  in  overall  environmental  protection   (Gupta  &  Ogden,  2009).  

1.1. The  necessity  of  having  a  green  image  

Businesses   increasingly   recognize   that   sustainability   factors   drive   profitability   and   use   environmental   issues   as   an   additional   promotional   dimension   (Ghosh,   2011;   Mascaranhas,   2009;   Peattie   &   Crane,   2005).   Consumption   is   connected   to   the   communication   of   social   messages,   with   aspirations   and   ideals   that   touch   on   important   aspects   of   human   existence.   Every  misjudgment  or  miscalculation  related  to  environmental  sustainability  can  create  serious   damage   on   how   citizens   judge   a   business   (Mascaranhas,   2009).   A   positive   image   and   way   of   communication   regarding   the   environment   is   crucial   for   a   business’   existence.   It   is   a   great   challenge   to   get   consumers   engaged   and   to   act   in   an   environmentally   responsible   manner.   Environmental  problems  still  do  not  directly  impact  individuals.  However,  it  does  affect  society,   others,  and  the  planet  (Konrad  et  al.,  2012).    

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production   or   delivery   of   the   service   (Pervan   &   Bove,   2011).   The   customer   participation   behavior   is   referred   to   as   customer   voluntary   performance   (Bettencourt,   1997),   customer   citizenship   behavior   (Groth,   2005),   customer   helping   behavior   (Johnson   &   Rapp,   2010)   and   customer   engagement   behavior   (Van   Doorn   et   al.,   2010).   This   engagement   behavior   shares   customer  characteristics  of  performing  voluntary  behavior,  without  the  expectation  of  getting   any  reward,  in  order  to  improve  products  and  services  and  promote  the  effective  functioning  of   organizations   (Groth,   2005).   As   the   importance   of   becoming   environmentally   sustainable   is   evident  (Mascaranhas,  2009),  getting  customers  engaged  in  environmental  sustainability  is  truly   worthwhile.  A  success  story  in  that  sense  is  Proctor  and  Gamble  (P&G).  In  2005,  P&G  became   partner  with  a  non-­‐profit  organization:  the  Alliance  to  Save  Energy  (ASE).  In  a  green  marketing   campaign  they  spread  news  about  the  money-­‐saving  benefits  of  laundering  clothes  in  cold  water   with  specially  formulated  ‘Tide  Coldwater’.  ASE  showed  promotions  that  encouraged  consumers   to  register  on  the  website  ‘Tide.com’  so  that  they  would  receive  a  free  sample.  Consumers  could   learn  other  energy-­‐saving  laundry  tips,  calculate  how  much  money  they  could  save,  recommend   the  website  to  friends,  and  even  track  how  friends  recommended  their  friends  and  formed  an   engaging   map.   In   two   months,   more   than   one   million   Americans   accepted   the   ‘Coldwater   Challenge’  and  recommendations  via  email,  video  or  written-­‐reviews  went  through,  up  to  ten   times  in  all  states  and  more  than  33.000  zip-­‐codes  (Tide  Press  Release,  2005).    

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the  non-­‐buying  customer,  because  they  understand  that  they  have  to  manage  consequences  of   non-­‐buying  behavior  like  positive  and  negative  comments  on  the  Internet  (Verhoef  et  al.,  2010).   These   businesses   try   to   establish   a   responsible   image,   because   the   majority   of   consumers   understand   the   importance   of   (environmental)   sustainable   behavior.   Communicate   clearly   about   environmental   advantages   will   help   businesses   to   survive   heavy   price   competition   (Kassarjian,  1971).  Hence,  by  communicating  an  environmental  message  a  proper  image  can  be   created.  At  present,  businesses  become  aware  of  the  importance  of  green  advertising,  after  a   downfall   in   green   advertising   claims   in   the   past   10   years   (Hartman   &   Apaolaza-­‐Ibanez,   2009).   Many  large  businesses  are  again  stressing  their  involvement  with  the  environment.    

Research   on   green   advertising   has   focused   mainly   on   consumer   behavior,   where   buying   behavior   predominates   (Chan   et   al.,   2006;   D’Souza   &   Taghian,   2005;   Hartman   &   Apaolaza-­‐ Ibanez,   2009;   Haytko   &   Matulich,   2008;   Leonidou   et   al.,   2011;   Shrum   et   al.,   1995).   In   this   research,   green   advertising   is   discussed   with   the   aim   of   pointing   out   the   effect   on   customer   engagement   behavior.   In   the   scope   of   this   research,   green   advertising   is   understood   as   advertising  a  product  or  service  with  environmental  sustainable  claims.    

1.3. Green  Tourism  

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of   environmental   claims   should   be   even   more   apparent   for   a   service   when   compared   with   a   product.    

1.4. Problem  Statement  

The   purpose   of   this   research   is   to   investigate   whether   green   advertising   increases   the   engagement  of  customers  in  a  service  context.  The  main  question  is:  

“How  does  green  advertising  influence  customer  engagement  behavioral  intentions?”  

A  related  sub  question  is:  ‘which  factors  limit  or  drive  this  relationship?’.  The  research  question   is   tested   in   the   light   of   green   tourism,   because   consumers   especially   rely   on   components   of   customer   engagement   behavior   (CEB)   when   it   concerns   such   service   (Lee   et   al.,   2010).   For   example,  it  is  often  more  difficult  to  estimate  the  quality  of  a  holiday  destination  beforehand,   compared  to  a  physical  product.  People  often  rely  on  others  experiences  by  visiting  websites  like   ‘hostelworld’  and  ‘tripadvisor’  to  decide  upon  a  booking.  The  behavioral  manifestations  of  CEB,   other   than   purchases,   could   be   both   positive   (i.e.,   posting   a   positive   message   on   a   blog)   and   negative  (i.e.,  organizing  public  actions  against  a  business).  This  study  only  focuses  on  positive   CEB.    

1.5. Relevance  

This   research   is   managerially-­‐,   scientifically-­‐,   and   socially   relevant.   First,   it   is   practically   relevant   for   management   that   wants   to   increase   the   engagement   of   customers   and   seeks   for   ways  to  realize  this.  Second,  a  major  barrier  to  adopt  green  applications  is  that  managers  do  not   recognize  the  importance  of  environmental  sustainability.    They  are  only  interested  in  improving   areas   where   there   are   demonstrable   consequences   (Penny,   2007).   Third,   it   is   relevant   for   advertisers  who  want  to  understand  the  importance  of  green  content  and  cues  in  ads.  Fourth,   CEB  stimulates  buying  behavior  (Kumar  et  al.,  2010;  Verhoef  et  al.,  2010),  while  this  might  seem   clear,  less  is  known  about  the  behavioral  processes  that  drive  these  outcomes  (Goldenberg,  et   al.,   2001).   For   example,   Berger   and   Schwartz   (2011)   indicated   that   less   is   known   about   why   consumers  talk  or  how  marketing  campaigns  can  generate  more  WOM.      

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benefits   and   environmental   involvement   are   taken   into   account.   Further,   the   way   in   which   services  should  be  advertised  remains  a  relatively  unexplored  research  area  (Tripp,  1997).  

Third,  this  research  is  relevant  for  society  because  it  is  important  to  evaluate  the  status  of   society  with  respect  to  environmental  involvement,  and  the  public  opinion  about  measures  to   increase  awareness  for  a  sustainable  society  like  green  advertisements.      

1.6. Structure  

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2. Impact  of  Green  Marketing  on  Consumer  Behavior    

This  chapter  brings  together  concepts  and  theories  about  environmental  sustainability  as  a   driving   force   of   green   marketing   in   section   2.1.   The   effect   of   green   marketing   on   consumer   behavior   is   discussed   in   section   2.2,   followed   by   the   effect   of   green   advertising   on   consumer   behavior  in  section  2.3.  Last,  customer  engagement  behavior  (CEB)  is  introduced  in  section  2.4.  

2.1. Environmental  Sustainability  

Sustainability  concerns  whether  this  generation  can  leave  future  generations  with  the  same   basket   of   resources   that   is   present   now.   Sustainability   refers   to   social-­‐   and   environmental   responsibility,   ranging   from   issues   of   human   rights   to   conservation   of   natural   resources   (Fenwick,   2007).   Sustainability   could   be   divided   in   two   types:   environmental   and   social   sustainability.  Environmental  sustainability  involves  the  protection  of  the  environment,  nature,   and  prevention  of  waste  and  pollution  (Goodland,  1995).  Social  sustainability  is  out  of  scope  for   this  research,  because  the  environment  has  become  a  major  constraint  on  human  progress  and   environmental  sustainability  is  always  a  prerequisite  of  social  sustainability.  Social  sustainability   needs   a   total   different   research   approach.   It   encompasses   human   rights,   labor   rights   and   corporate  governance,  therefore  it  is  out  of  scope  for  this  research.  With  regard  to  marketing,   businesses   and   their   marketers   have   operated   on   the   assumption   of   an   endless   supply   of   resources.   Once   society   began   to   acknowledge   resource   limitations   and   externality   costs,   traditional   marketing   reinvent   its   practices   to   be   environmentally   sustainable   (Kotler,   2011).   Environmental  sustainability  is  the  driving  force  of  green  marketing.    

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2.2. Effect  of  Green  Marketing  on  Consumer  Behavior  

Green  marketing  is  used  as  a  synonym  for  terms  like  ecological  marketing,  environmental   marketing   and   responsible   marketing.   Environmental   sustainability   is   the   main   reason   why   green   marketing   is   executed   (Choi   &   Ng,   2011).   Green   marketing   examines   environmental   concerns   within   the   discipline   of   marketing   (Crane,   2000).   It   tries   to   prevent   consumers   from   buying  non-­‐green,  mostly  environmentally  damaging  products.  Green  marketing  consists  of  all   activities  designed  to  generate  and  facilitate  any  exchange  intended  to  satisfy  human  needs  and   wants,   such   that   the   satisfaction   of   these   needs   and   wants   occur   with   minimal   detrimental   impact  on  the  natural  environment  (Polonsky,  2011).  The  two  objectives  of  green  marketing  are:   improving   the   environmental   quality   and   satisfy   customers   (Ghosh,   2011).   The   challenge   of   green  marketing  is  to  meet  the  unlimited  desires  of  consumers  within  the  constraint  of  limited   resources  (Ghosh,  2011).  

There   is   now   a   growing   recognition   that   green   marketing   strategies   gain   better   customer   endorsement  and  therefore  contribute  to  long-­‐term  profits  (Sharma  et  al.,  2010).  Other  articles   also  recognize  the  importance  of  green  marketing  and  their  effect  on  consumer  behavior.  These   studies  analyze  different  effects  of  green  marketing  on  the  effectiveness  of:  green  ads  (Chan  et   al.,  2006),  purchase  intentions  and  actual  buying  behavior  (Choi  &  Ng,  2011;  Gupta  &  Ogden,   2009;   Mohr   &   Web,   2005;   Picket-­‐Baker   &   Ozaki,   2008;   Montoro-­‐Rios   et   al.,   2006),   and   willingness-­‐to-­‐pay  (Van  Doorn  &  Verhoef,  2011).  Table  1  gives  an  overview  of  these  and  other   studies   and   their   most   relevant   findings.   However,   the   scope   and   the   number   of   the   current   literature  in  this  field  are  much  broader  than  it  can  be  presented  here.  

 

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Table  1:  Overview  of  Studies  analyzing  the  effect  of  Green  Concepts  on  Consumer  Behavior   Authors   Independent  

Variable  

Dependent  Variable   Moderators   Main  Relevant  Findings   Sen  &   Bhattacharya,   2001.   Product  quality   information   Purchase  intention     Business  evaluation  

General  beliefs  about   environmental-­‐  and   social  responsibility   and  consumers’   personal  support  for   environmental-­‐  and   social  responsibility.  

Environmental-­‐  and  social  responsibility   initiatives  can,  under  certain  conditions,   decrease  purchase  intentions.  Consumers’   business  evaluations  are  more  sensitive  to   negative  than  positive  environmental-­‐  and   social  responsibility.  

Mohr  &  Web,   2005.   Corporate   Social   Responsibility   Business  evaluation     Purchase  intention   Social  responsible   consumer  behavior,   price    

High  environmental-­‐  and  social  responsibility   has  a  positive  impact  on  evaluation  of  the   business  and  purchase  intent.  

  Chan  et  al.,  

2006.  

Different  types   of  green  ads  

Effectiveness  of   green  ads  

Involvement   Green  ads  enhance  communication  

effectiveness.  For  high-­‐involvement  services,   green  ads  generate  more  favorable  attitudinal   responses.   Montoro-­‐Rios   et  al.,  2006.   Perceived   ecological   performance   Brand  attitude     Purchase  intention  

Environmental  label   Positive  relation  between  perceived  ecological   performance  and  brand  attitude.  

Montoro-­‐Rios   et  al.,  2008.  

Environmental   information  

Brand  attitude   Purchase  frequency,   involvement,  and   product  category.  

Individual's  knowledge  about  environmental   benefits  of  the  brand  is  relevant  when  forming   attitudes,  only  if  the  brand  has  a  high-­‐purchase   frequency  and  is  a  high-­‐involvement  product.   Pickett-­‐Baker  

&  Ozaki,   2008.    

Green  products   Buying  behavior    

Product  preference  

Individual-­‐  and  socio-­‐ economic  

characteristics,   corporate  reputation,   and  WOM.  

The  strength  of  environmental  beliefs  affects   the  faith  in  a  product.  

Green  products  are  judged  based  on  previous   experience  and  WOM.    

  Gupta  &  

Ogden,  2009.    

Green  products   Buying  behavior   Social  value   orientation  

Individual  social  value  orientation  (e.g.  trust,  in-­‐ group  identity,  expectation  of  others)  differs   between  non-­‐  and  green  buyers.  

Hartman  &   Apaolaza-­‐ Ibanez,  2009.   Green   advertising   Brand  attitude     Brand  image  

Content  of  ad    

Nature  imagery  cues  

Nature  imagery  in  green  ads  increase  green   brand  attitude.  Green  brand  attitude  positively   affect  brand  image.  

Lee  et  al.,   2010.   Green  tourism   (cognitive-­‐  and   affective  image)   Word-­‐of-­‐Mouth    

Willingness  to  pay    

Revisit  intention  

/   Green  tourism  overall  image  favorably  enhance   behavioral  intentions,  like  WOM,  WTP  and   revisit  intentions.  

  Luchs  et  al.,  

2010.     Sustainable   products   Buying  behavior     Product  preference  

Product  type  (strong   or  gentle)  

When  attributes  related  to  strength  are  valued,   preference  for  sustainable  products  decreases.   When  attributes  related  to  gentleness  are   valued,  preference  for  sustainable  products   increases.    

Chang,  2011.   Strength  of   green  claims    

Attitude  

Brand  Attitude   Ad  believability    

Green  claim   believability  

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ambivalence   Choi  &  Ng,   2011.   Environmental   sustainability     Economic   sustainability   Business  evaluation     Purchase  intention  

/   Consumers  respond  more  negatively  to   business’  poor  commitment  to  caring  for  the   environment  than  to  the  business’  poor   commitment  to  economic  sustainability.   Lee  et  al.,  

2011.  

Green  tourism   Word-­‐of-­‐Mouth   intentions    

Visit  intentions  

/   Expected  outcomes  of  green  tourism  like   environmental  protection,  eco-­‐friendly   practices,  eco-­‐friendly  facilities  and  organic   foods  have  a  positive  relation  with  word-­‐of-­‐ mouth  intentions  and  visit  intentions.     Van  Doorn  &  

Verhoef,   2011.  

Organic  food   Willingness  to  pay   Product  type  (vice  or   virtue),  quality,  pro-­‐ social  product   benefits  

Vice  food  with  organic  claim  is  associated  with   lower  quality,  and  lower  WTP.  Virtue  food  with   organic  claim  increased  WTP.      

Konrad  et  al.,   2012.    

Assertive  green   requests  

Environmental   compliance  

Perceived  importance   When  message  receivers  perceive  an   environmental  issue  as  important,  they  are   affected  more  by  assertive  than  non-­‐assertive   phrasing  and  are  more  willing  to  comply  with   the  message.  

White  et  al.,   2012.  

Ethical  products   Consumer   intentions       Buying  behavior   Product  type   (indulgence  or   necessity),  justice   sensitivity,  and  need.  

Strong  ethical  purchase  intentions  emerge,   when  people  are  aware  of  great  need  and   believe  that  the  opportunity  to  restore  justice   exists.  

Consumers  avoid  ethical  products  under   conditions  of  low  justice  sensitivity  and  no  info   about  the  justice  sensitivity  is  presented.      

The   research   presented   in   table   1   indicates   a   significant   main   effect   of   green   marketing   concepts  (like  green  requests,  green  tourism  and  green  advertising)  on  consumer  behavior  (e.g.   willingness-­‐to-­‐pay,   purchase   intentions,   buying   behavior,   brand   attitude:   Mohr   &   Web,   2005;   Chan  et  al.,  2006;  Montoro-­‐Rios  et  al.,  2006;  Pickett-­‐Baker  &  Ozaki,  2008;  Hartman  &  Apaolaza-­‐ Ibanez,  2009;  Lee  et  al.,  2010;  Luchs  et  al.,  2010;  Choi  &  Ng,  2011;  Lee  et  al.,  2011).    

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frequency   (Montoro-­‐Rios   et   al.,   2008)   environmental   beliefs   (Picket-­‐Baker   &   Ozaki,   2008),   opportunity   to   restore   justice   (White   et   al.,   2012),   personal   characteristics   (Gupta   &   Ogden,   2009),   involvement   (Chan   et   al.,   2006;   Montoro-­‐Rios   et   al.,   2008),   pro-­‐social   behavior   (Sen   &   Bhattacharya,  2001;  Mohr  &  Web,  2005;  Picket-­‐Baker  et  al.,  2008;  Gupta  &  Ogden,  2009)  and   communication  characteristics  like  believability  of  the  ad  (Chang,  2011).    

2.3. Effect  of  Green  Advertising  on  Consumer  Behavior  

Green   marketing   is   expressed   as   green   applications   to   a   range   of   traditional   marketing   topics:  advertising  and  promotion,  purchase  intention,  consumer  behavior  and  market  strategy   (Choi  &  Ng,  2011;  Ghosh,  2011;  Polonsky,  2011).  Green  advertising  reflects  the  business’  level  of   greenness.   On   average,   there   is   a   clear   environmental   substance   (e.g.   green   operations   and   green  product  packaging)  behind  green  advertising  (Karna  et  al.,  2001;  Leonidou  et  al.,  2011).   Green  advertising  is  an  important  concept  because  of  several  reasons.  First,  it  is  a  good  strategic   move   to   build   up   a   responsible   image.   Second,   green   advertising   helps   to   distinguish   one   business  from  competitors  (Ghosh,  2011).  Third,  consumers’  attitudes  are  changing  because  of   their   environmental   concerns.   Green   advertising   is   therefore   a   motivational   factor   for   consumers   (Pickett-­‐Baker   &   Ozaki,   2008).   On   average,   businesses   increased   their   spending   on   green  advertising  the  last  20  years  and  is  the  driving  force  behind  increasing  public  awareness  of   ecological  issues  (Leonidou  et  al.,  2011).  Green  advertising  shifts  gradually  from  a  business-­‐to-­‐ business  perspective  towards  a  business-­‐to-­‐consumer  perspective.  Leonidou  et  al.  (2011)  stress   the   growing   importance   of   environmental   marketing   in   consumer   markets.   Green   advertisements  promote  products,  services  or  a  business’  ability  to  reduce  environmental  harm   in   order   to   create   awareness   and   create   strong   attitudes   and   behavior   towards   brands   and   businesses  (D’Souza  &  Taghian,  2005).  Indeed,  the  successful  creation  of  a  green  image  is  not   possible   when   the   benefits   of   green   products   and   services   are   not   effectively   communicated   (Pickett  et  al.,  1995).  There  are  several  types  of  green  ads.  First,  those  that  directly  or  indirectly   address  the  relationship  between  the  product  or  service  and  the  natural  environment.  Second,   promoting   environmentally   responsible   lifestyles   with   highlighting   a   product   or   service.   Third,   those  that  presents  an  image  or  corporate  environmental  responsibility  (Leonidou  et  al.,  2011).    

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advertising.  It  can  be  categorized  in  three  groups.  First,  ambiguity  regarding  statements  that  are   too  broad  to  have  a  clear  meaning.  Second,  exclusion  of  important  information  and  therefore  no   proper  evaluation  can  be  made.  Third,  communicating  misleading  or  untrue  claims  (Leonidou  et   al.,  2011).  Therefore,  the  credibility  of  the  message  is  controlled  in  this  research.  

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2.4. Customer  Engagement  Behavior  

Customer   engagement   behavior   (CEB)   differs   from   consumer   behavior   and   has   some   comparisons   with   brand   engagement.   CEB   is   different   from   consumer   behavior   because   it   reflects  the  totality  of  consumers’  decisions  with  respect  to  the  acquisition,  consumption,  and   disposition  of  products,  services,  activities  and  ideas  by  human  decision-­‐making  units  over  time   (Hoyer  &  MacInnis,  2007).  Consumer  behavior  is  product-­‐related,  whereas  CEB  is  non-­‐product-­‐ related.  CEB  involves  expressions  initiated  by  consumers  because  of  their  experiences  towards   the   different   consumer   behavior   stages.   This   could   result   in   non-­‐product-­‐related   actions   like   WOM,  providing  ratings,  blogging,  etc.  Customer  brand  engagement  involves  immersion  (being   focused   on),   passion   (being   fanatic   about),   and   being   active   (willing   to   spend   time   and   effort   interacting   with   the   brand)   (Hollebeek,   2011).   These   components   are   comparable   with   the   customer  consequences  in  the  CEB-­‐model  presented  by  Van  Doorn  et  al.  (2010).    

Engagement   is   currently   seen   as   a   driving   force   behind   postmodern   consumer   behavior   (Gambetti   &   Graffigna,   2010).   It   is   an   ongoing   emotional,   cognitive   and   behavioral   activation   state  of  individuals  (Wefald  &  Downey,  2009).  In  academic  marketing,  engagement  is  defined  to   be  related  to  involvement  (Sawhney  et  al.,  2005),  commitment  (Alloza,  2008)  and  loyalty  (Kerr,   2009).   Engaged   consumers   exhibit   enhanced   consumer   loyalty,   satisfaction,   empowerment,   connection,  emotional  bonding,  trust  and  commitment  (Brodie  et  al.,  2011).  Especially  Wefald   and   Downey   (2009)   point   out   the   strong   relation   between   engagement   and   satisfaction.   According   to   Van   Doorn   et   al.   (2010),   customer   engagement   behavior   (CEB)   is   “customers  

behavioral   manifestation   toward   a   brand   or   business,   beyond   purchase,   resulting   from   motivational   drivers   such   as   word-­‐of-­‐mouth   (WOM),   recommendations,   willing   to   help   other   customers,  writing  a  blog,  co-­‐creation,  and  providing  customer  ratings”.  Positive  CEB  is  seen  as  a  

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the  service  at  every  opportunity.  Levels  three  to  five  are  identified  as  being  engaged  customers   (Roberts  and  Alpert,  2010).    

This   engagement   behavior   is   different   from   attitudes.   In   research   this   is   a   widely   acknowledged  gap  between  articulated  positive  attitudes  toward  sustainability  and  consumers’   actual  (mostly  unsustainable)  behavior  (Gupta  &  Ogden,  2009;  Prothero,  et  al.  2011;  White  et   al.,   2012).   Consumers   often   engage   in   activities   like   WOM   and   giving   recommendations,   because  they  desire  social  interaction,  earn  something  with  it,  concern  for  other  consumers,  and   enhancing   their   self-­‐esteem.   Kumar   et   al.   (2010)   find   the   definition   of   customer   engagement   incomplete  without  the  inclusion  of  purchases,  because  a  purchase  is  a  behavioral  manifestation   that   can   result   from   similar   motivational   drivers.   There   is   some   disagreement,   what   CEB   involves.  The  line  of  arguments  by  Van  Doorn  et  al.  (2010)  is  followed.  They  argue  that  customer   engagement  involves  behavior  that  goes  beyond  transactions.  One  reason  for  this  is  that  many   researchers   have   focused   on   actual   buying   behavior   instead   of   engagement   behavior.   CEB   is   therefore   underexposed   in   current   literature.   Another   reason   is   that   CEB   is   a   necessity   to   stimulate   buying   behavior   (Kumar   et   al.,   2010;   Verhoef   et   al.,   2010).   Customer   engagement   includes   behavioral   manifestations   of   a   customer   with   a   rather   indirect   impact   on   business   performance  (Bijmolt  et  al.,  2010).  When  the  expression  of  positive  WOM  is  taken  into  account,   customers  are  almost  always  more  valuable  to  a  business  (Kumar  et  al.,  2010).  CEB  positively  or   negatively   influence   future   purchase   intentions   (Kumar   et   al.,   2010;   Verhoef   et   al.,   2010;   Ahearne,  2005).  For  a  business,  it  has  financial  consequences  because  of  referral  behaviors,  and   also   reputational   consequences,   like   participation   in   brand   communities,   supporting   events   related  to  the  brand  and  providing  feedback  (Van  Doorn  et  al.,  2010).  

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2.5. Conclusion    

Conclusively,   this   chapter   started   explaining   the   role   of   environmental   sustainability   as   a   prerequisite   for   green   marketing   and   advertising.   There   is   a   significant   main   effect   of   green   marketing   concepts   (like   green   requests,   green   tourism   and   green   advertising)   on   consumer   behavior   (e.g.   willingness-­‐to-­‐pay,   purchase   intentions,   buying   behavior,   brand   attitude).   It   is   assumed  to  be  the  same  for  customer  engagement  behavior,  which  is  seen  as  a  necessity  for  

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3. Impact  of  Green  Advertising  on  Customer  Engagement  Behavior  

This   chapter   gives   an   overview   of   the   conceptual   model   in   section   3.1   and   describes   the   variables.   Section   3.2   underpins   the   effect   of   green   advertisements   on   customer   engagement   behavior  (CEB),  followed  by  explaining  the  effect  of  the  moderators  –  perceived  service  quality,   pro-­‐social  benefits  and  environmental  involvement  –  on  the  main  relation  in  section  3.3.    

3.1. Conceptual  Model  

To   the   best   of   the   authors’   knowledge,   the   link   between   green   advertising   and   CEB   has   never  been  investigated.  Recent  studies  primarily  investigated  the  effect  of  green  marketing  and   advertising   on   consumer   behavior   (Gupta   &   Ogden,   2009;   Luchs   et   al.,   2010;   Picket-­‐Baker   &   Ozaki,  2008;  White  et  al.,  2012).  Green  advertising  does  affect  consumer  behavior  in  multiple   ways.  Research  focused  on  the  effect  of  green  ads  on  (brand)  attitudes  (Hartman  &  Apoalaza-­‐ Ibanez,  2009;  Montoro-­‐Rios  et  al.,  2006;  Haytko  &  Matulich,  2008),  and  involvement  (Chan  et   al.,   2006).   But   the   relation   between   green   advertising   and   CEB   should   be   further   clarified.   Is   green  advertising  an  antecedent  of  CEB?  The  conceptual  model  incorporating  the  independent,   dependent,   moderating   and   control   variables   is   presented   in   figure   1   and   subsequently   described  in  more  detail.    

 

Figure  1  –  Conceptual  Model  

 

Customer  Engagement  Behavior  

CEB  consists  of  WOM,  co-­‐creation,  blogging  and  providing  customer  ratings.  First,  WOM  is  a   key   behavioral   outcome   of   an   individuals’   identification   with   an   organization   (Bhattacharya   &   Sen,   2004).   WOM   is   one   of   the   most   powerful   forces   in   the   marketplace   because   consumers   primarily   rely   on   informal   and   personal   communication   sources.   Respondents   have   expressed   the  intentions  to  encourage  friends,  to  suggest  a  service,  etc.  (Maxham  &  Netemeyer,  2002;  Lee   et   al.,   2011).   Second,   co-­‐creation   happens   when   customers   are   willing   to   share,   combine   and   renew   information   about   services   and   products   in   order   to   create   more   value.   Respondents  

Green  advertisement   CEB-­‐intentions  

Perceived  quality   Perceived  pro-­‐social  benefits  

Environmental-­‐involvement  

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have   expressed   the   willingness   to   get   involved   with   marketing,   service   care   and   new   service   development   (Zhang   &   Chen,   2008).   Third,   intrinsic   motivations   drive   the   intention   to   blog.   Bloggers  who  voluntary  blog,  like  to  use  it  to  present  themselves,  to  manage  relationships,  keep   up  with  trends,  share  expertise,  for  entertainment  and  to  show  off  (Lee  et  al.,  2008).  The  blog   intention  is  investigated  by  the  extent  to  which  a  user  is  willing  to  blog  about  the  subject  that  is   under  investigation  (Hsu  &  Lin,  2008).  Lastly,  the  willingness  to  provide  feedback  on  websites   like  ‘hostelworld’  is  an  example  of  CEB.  Consumers  especially  focus  on  ratings  provided  by  other   consumers.  Respondents  have  expressed  their  willingness  to  provide  feedback  (Paine,  2007).    

 

Control  Variables  

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3.2. Hypotheses  

Roberts  and  Alpert  (2010)  linked  the  consumer  loyalty  ladder  (Das  Narayandas,  2005)  with   marketing   actions   like   advertising.   They   indicate   that   advertising   is   mediated   by   customer   experience   that   eventually   leads   to   advocacy.   Advocacy   aims   to   influence   the   public   and   corresponds  with  the  engagement  in  CEB  elements  like  WOM.  By  consistently  communicating  a   value  proposition  in  advertisements,  customers  can  become  engaged  (Roberts  &  Alpert,  2010).   Indeed,   products   and   services   that   receive   more   publicity   and   are   top   of   mind,   receive   more   attention  and  consumers  talk  more  about  them  (Berger  &  Schwartz,  2011).  So,  ads  can  help  to   increase  WOM  (Mangold  et  al.,  1999;  Graham  &  Havlena,  2007)  because  being  visible  for  the   public  shapes  immediate  and  ongoing  WOM  (Berger  &  Schwartz,  2011).  Additionally,  ads  affect   the   valence   and   helpfulness   of   WOM,   by   influencing   consumers’   attitudes   (Mangold   et   al.,   1999).   Keller   and   Fay   (2009)   found   that   at   least   twenty   percent   of   WOM   occurs   because   of   advertising.  The  ones  that  are  influenced  by  advertisements  are  more  likely  to  perform  WOM-­‐ recommendations   to   buy   or   try   a   product   when   compared   with   other   WOM   discussions.   Another   component   of   CEB,   blogging,   has   been   emphasized   as   a   critical   tool   to   initiate   and   manage   engagement   behavior   in   corporate   communications   (Paine,   2007).   It   gives   the   impression  that  a  business  is  not  avoiding  the  discussion  of  an  incident  in  question.  Kozinets  et   al.  (2010)  researched  83  blogs  for  six  months  and  identified  the  linear  marketer  influence  model.   Because  of  the  use  of  traditional  advertising  and  promotion  methods,  this  stage  is  referred  to  as   a   model   of   linear   influence.   According   to   this   model,   marketers   actively   try   to   influence   consumers  by  using  advertising  and  promotions  in  order  to  stimulate  them  to  talk  with  other   consumers  on  blogs  or  through  WOM.  When  consumers  are  enthusiastic  and  motivated  about   an   advertisement,   the   willingness   to   engage   in   CEB   is   likely   to   increase,   especially   when   the   product  or  service  can  easily  be  distinguished  from  others.    

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branch  indicated  that  without  prior  experience  of  staying  at  green  hotels,  consumers  still  form  a   willingness  to  visit  green  hotels  and  engage  in  WOM  (Lee,  2011).  This  willingness,  in  the  absence   of   experience,   may   be   the   result   of   increased   awareness   because   of   green   ads.   Lee   (2011)   stresses   the   importance   of   increasing   engagement   by   conducting   ongoing   green   campaigns   highlighting   environmental   protection.   If   the   customer’s   goals   are   aligned   with   the   advertisement   goals,   then   CEB   should   have   positive   overall   impact.   The   CEB-­‐intentions   is   hypothesized  to  be  stronger  for  a  green  ad  compared  to  a  non-­‐green  advertisement.  Based  on   these  findings,  the  main  relation  between  green  advertisements  and  CEB  per  se  is  hypothesized   to  be  positive.  Thus,  

H1   Green  advertising  positively  affects  customer  engagement  behavior.  

 

It   is   assumed   that   the   strength   of   the   relationship   between   green   advertising   and   CEB   is   moderated   by   three   variables:   perceived   service   quality,   perceived   pro-­‐social   benefits   and   environmental  involvement.    

 

Perceived  Service  Quality  

Behavioral   researchers   argue   that   consumers   often   rely   on   extrinsic   cues   to   evaluate   products  and  services  with  which  they  are  not  familiar  (Chan  et  al.,  2006).  Extrinsic  cues  are  for   example  quality,  price  and  performance.  Quality  (61  percent)  and  price  (52  percent)  are  the  two   main   factors   impacting   managers   in   their   actions   or   lack   of   improving   the   environment   (Mandese,   2010).   Consumers’   attitudes   are   less   likely   to   compromise   on   quality   than   on   somewhat  higher  prices  of  green  products  (Sen  &  Bhattacharya  2001).  

Perceived  quality  is  the  opinion  of  consumers  regarding  the  ability  to  fulfill  in  the  consumers’   expectations.   It   is   based   on   a   business’   public   image   and   consumers’   experience,   influence   of   opinion  leaders  and  pear  groups  (Dale  et  al.,  2010).  In  a  service  context,  perceived  quality  drives   WOM  (Hartline  &  Jones,  1996).  This  can  be  explained  by  the  fact  that  high  service  quality  builds   up  trust,  which  is  important  to  differentiate  from  competitors,  and  eventually  lead  to  increased   commitment  (Chenet  et  al.,  2010).    

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quality  standards,  such  as  convenience,  availability,  price  and  performance.  Green  products  and   services  must  match  up  with  those  quality  standards  in  order  to  be  considered  by  the  majority   of   consumers.   However,   recent   endeavors   have   not   really   succeeded.   Green   substitutes   are   often  perceived  to  suffer  from  poor  quality  and  to  be  more  expensive  (Ottman,  1998;  Teisl  et  al.,   2009).   When   quality   is   perceived   to   be   high,   positive   environmental-­‐   and   social   responsibility   can   even   lower   purchase   intentions   (Sen   &   Bhattacharya   2001).   When   a   positive   ad   is   incongruent  with  prior  perceptions  and  experience,  the  strength  of  the  positive  appeal  can  even   lead   to   larger   declines   in   perceptions   (Teisl   et   al.,   2009).   Van   Doorn   and   Verhoef   (2011)   indicated  the  moderating  effect  of  perceived  quality,  on  the  effect  of  organic  food  claims  on  the   willingness-­‐to-­‐pay.   They   found   that   organic   food   claims   are   associated   with   lower   perceived   quality.   In   a   service   context,   a   customer   might   want   to   warn   another   customer   because   it   perceives   an   insufficient   quality   level.   For   example   the   holiday   is   centered   on   ‘saving   energy’   instead  of  pleasing  the  customers’  desires.  When  consumers  believe  green  services  suffer  from   poor  perceived  quality,  it  is  likely  that  they  are  less  willing  to  engage  in  CEB.  Therefore,  

H2   The  effect  of  green  advertising  on  positive  customer  engagement  behavior  is  weakened  

when  the  perceived  quality  of  the  advertised  service  is  low.    

Perceived  Pro-­‐Social  Benefits  

Ethical   motives   of   consumers,   like   contributing   to   a   better   environment,   are   the   main   reasons  to  choose  for  environmental  sustainable  products  or  services.  Consumers  often  weigh   their   own   benefits   compared   to   social   importance.   This   social   dilemma   between   individual   motives  (e.g.  quality  and  price)  and  social  interests  (e.g.  a  better  environment)  often  occurs  (Van   Doorn   &   Verhoef,   2011).   Pro-­‐social   benefits   reflect   consumers’   perceptions   that   a   product   or   service   help   the   society   and   thus   capture   the   social   dimension   of   a   consumers’   choice.   Van   Doorn  and  Verhoef  (2011)  executed  a  research  in  the  organic  food  market  and  found  that  green   claims  have  a  positive  effect  on  pro-­‐social  benefits  when  it  concerns  vice  condition  (i.e.  more   enjoyable   on   the   short   term,   but   detrimental   effects   on   the   long   term).   They   did   not   found   evidence  regarding  virtue  condition  (less  enjoyable  on  the  short  term,  but  better  effects  on  the   long  term).    

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act   more   pro-­‐socially,   even   when   it   is   unrelated   to   the   conservation   of   the   environment.   Environmentally  responsible  consumers  are  also  more  likely  to  cooperate  for  the  collective  good   (Kaiser  &  Byrka,  2011).  Such  commitment  also  strengthens  WOM  (Brown  et  al.,  2005).  When  a   business  claims  that  their  product  or  service  is  environmentally  sustainable,  consumers  might  be   persuaded   to   spend   money   because   they   can   reduce   guilt   and   justify   a   purchase   and   even   strengthen  this  justification  by  letting  other  people  know  how  environmentally  sustainable  they   are  (through  CEB).  In  addition,  consumers  communicate  when  they  have  a  helpful  personality   and   achieve   social   status   (Cheema   &   Kaikati,   2010).   Pro-­‐social   benefits   can   induce   individual   consumers   to   engage   in   extra   role   behavior.   Even   when   customers   are   not   engaged   with   a   service  yet,  in  a  shared  service  experience  they  may  engage  in  activities  like  WOM,  blogging  and   providing   ratings   if   they   perceive   that   other   consumers   in   a   group   are   performing   this   engagement  behavior  (Pervan  &  Bove,  2011).  Thus,  

H3   The  effect  of  green  advertising  on  positive  customer  engagement  behavior  is  stronger  

when  the  perceived  pro-­‐social  benefits  are  high.    

Environmental  Involvement  

Involvement   is   a   motivational   state   that   is   influenced   by   someone’s   perception   of   the   objects’  relevance  based  on  inherent  needs,  values  and  interests  (Day  et  al.,  1995).  Involvement   is   affected   by   the   characteristics   of   a   consumer,   stimulus   and   situation   (Zaichkowsky,   1994).   When  involvement  is  high,  consumers  devote  more  attention  to  advertisements,  exert  greater   cognitive  effort  to  comprehend  ads,  focus  attention  on  product  and  service  related  information   in  ads,  and  elaborate  more  on  the  product  and  service  information  in  ads  (Petty  et  al.,  1983).    

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information   processing   (Montoro-­‐Rios   et   al.,   2008).   This   deep   information   processing   is   determined   to   be   the   central   route   to   persuasion.   In   the   central   route,   qualitative   arguments   have   a   greater   impact   on   attitudes   (Petty   et   al.,   1983)   and   ads   increase   the   likelihood   of   behavioral  intentions  (Kim  et  al.,  2009).  Consumers  who  are  highly  environmentally  involved  are   intrinsically  motivated  to  process  the  information  towards  green  ads.  When  this  environmental   information  is  present,  highly  environmental  involved  consumers  are  more  likely  to  be  triggered   by  the  information.  Environmental  involvement  also  strengthens  a  consumers’  green  behavior   (Lee,   2011).   Due   to   habits   and   norms,   it   requires   more   environmental   involvement   for   consumers  to  perform  green  behavior  (Jansson  et  al.,  2010).  Further,  high  involvement  drives   the   willingness   to   adopt   green   services   that   in   turn   affects   the   green   engagement   behavior   (Jansson  et  al.,  2010).    

Samson   (2010)   emphasized   that   under   high   involvement,   it   is   more   likely   that   someone   engages  in  WOM.  Both  situational  involvement  (i.e.  being  a  recent  customer)  and  marketplace   involvement  (i.e.  providing  information  about  the  market)  affect  WOM  (Samson,  2010).  When  a   consumer  perceive  that  an  issue  (e.g.  environmental  concern)  is  relevant  to  their  personal  life,   they  are  involved  to  personally  contextualize  their  own  interests  and  values  and  this  motivates   them   to   engage   in   more   consumer   behavior   (Lee,   2011).   So   it   is   assumed   that   high   environmentally   involved   consumers   are   more   likely   to   engage   in   CEB   when   confronted   with   green  ads.  Thus,  

H4   The  effect  of  green  advertising  on  positive  customer  engagement  behavior  is  stronger  

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4. Research  Design  

This  chapter  first  describes  the  sampling  technique  and  response  in  section  4.1,  and  then  the   structure  of  the  experiment  and  data  collection  method  is  addressed  in  section  4.2.  Section  4.3   describes  the  performed  manipulation  of  the  non-­‐green-­‐  and  green  advertisement.  Section  4.4   gives  an  overview  of  the  performed  field  experiment.  Section  4.5  describes  the  reliability  of  the   factors,   validity,   the   intercorrelation   between   the   factors   and   the   appropriate   regression   models.    

4.1. Sample  and  Sampling  Technique  

A  field  experiment  applies  the  scientific  method  to  experimentally  examine  an  intervention   in  an  actual  market  condition  (Malhotra,  2007).  This  study  conducts  a  field  experiment  in  the   Dutch   consumer   market   to   identify   the   CEB-­‐intentions   when   confronted   with   non-­‐green-­‐   compared  to  green  ads  to  quantify  the  conceptual  model  (fig.  1).  A  field  experiment  has  several   advantages  (Malhotra,  2007).  First,  a  realistic  surrounding  can  be  simulated.  Second,  it  is  easily   distributable.   Third,   the   experiment   is   conducted   in   a   domestic   context,   which   makes   the   respondent  more  likely  to  act  realistic  regarding  the  experiment  rather  than  act  to  the  situation,   which  can  be  the  case  in  laboratorial  design.  Fourth,  the  external  validity  is  high,  which  makes   the   field   experiment   better   generalizable   to   the   real   world   compared   to   laboratorial   design.   However,  the  limitations  of  the  field  experiment  are  a  lack  of  control,  low  internal  validity  and   reactive  error  where  the  respondent  can  act  in  response  to  some  outside  stimulus.  

This  study  focuses  on  positive  CEB  only.  The  respondents  have  never  seen  the  presented  ad   before   and   will   only   respond   according   to   the   presented   ad.   The   lack   of   previous   experience,   together   with   the   positive   intentions   of   the   ads   message   and   picture   to   get   the   consumer   involved,   makes   the   CEB-­‐intentions   likely   to   be   positive.   Therefore,   only   the   positive   CEB-­‐ intention  is  tested.  Further,  the  study  of  Van  Doorn  et  al.  (2010)  conceptualized  CEB.  One  of  the   main  reasons  to  take  the  components  of  CEB  together  is  to  test  the  conceptualization  of  Van   Doorn  et  al.  (2010).  This  study  aims  to  come  up  with  one  scale  for  CEB.  Therefore,  no  analysis  is   performed  on  for  example  WOM,  co-­‐creation  or  blogging  individually.    

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