Cleo van Bosstraten 10723226 Master’s Thesis
Graduate School of Communication Entertainment Communication Supervisor: mw. dr. M.E. (Marlies) Klijn
28 June 2019
Telling your offline backpacker stories in the online world:
Understanding social media use among emerging adults
Abstract
Backpacking is a dynamic phenomenon within the Western culture. The aim of the current study was to provide insights into the meaning emerging adult backpackers attach to social media during their travels. For this research a qualitative study was conducted with in-depth interviews, face-to-face and via video calling, with Dutch backpackers between the ages of 20 and 25 years old (N = 10). The interviews with backpackers that were still travelling and who had already returned showed multiple meanings for social media use among emerging adult backpackers. Within this data three dimensions of the meaning of social media usage were found: social interaction, usage and identity formation. Participants gave a practical meaning to social media regarding social interaction on short and long-term. Furthermore, the
interviews portrayed a functional meaning when discussing social media usage. Participants explained that they were aware of their usage of social media when it was described
positively as a convenient tool. However, when social media was used unaware, it could be seen as a need or habit. Participants gave positive connotations to this type of usage, but also experienced it as negative in context of their travel and their home situation. Regarding identity formation on social media, this study found that backpackers use it social media create the (ideal)self, identify themselves in regard to others and to experience group membership. These results are discussed in light of recent literature on emerging adults, identity exploration and backpacking in relation to social media use. These results are discussed considering recent literature on emerging adults, identity exploration, and backpacking in relation to social media use.
Key words: emerging adults, backpacker, social media use, social interaction, identity formation, self, self-categorization, qualitative study, interview
Table of contents
Introduction………. 4
Theoretical framework………... 6
Emerging adults and their social media use….………... 7
Identity forming.……….………... 8
Social media use among backpackers………...… 10
Research design………... 11 Design………... 11 Sample………... 12 Data collection………... 14 Analysis……… 17 Results………. 18 Social interaction……….……… 19 Usage……… 22 Identity formation………...………. 26 Discussion………... 31
Main findings and conclusion………. 31
Theoretical and practical implications………...……….… 33
Limitations and suggestions……….……… 35
Reference list………... 36
Appendices………. 42
Appendix 1 – Interview guide and adjustments.………. 42
Appendix 2 – Informed consent form (Dutch)……….…… 50
Appendix 5 – Example memo writing (during coding).……… 73 Appendix 6 – Original Dutch quotes……… 74
Introduction
From the sixties onwards, backpackers have been travelling to South East Asia, South America, Central America, Australia and New Zealand (Cohen, 2003). Pearce defined backpackers as follows:
“a group of predominantly young travelers who are more likely to stay in budget accommodation, have an emphasis on meeting other travelers, are independent and have a flexible travel schedule, stay for a longer rather than a brief holiday, and focus on informal and participatory holiday activities” (1990, p.1)
However, this is not a fixed description of ‘backpackers’, because it has altered throughout the years. Researchers have claimed that backpackers have become less distinct from mainstream tourists (e.g. Reichel, Fuchs & Uriely, 2007). Larsen, Øgaard and Brun found only a few motivational differences between backpackers and mainstream tourists. They found that backpackers were less motivated to seek luxury and relaxation, and perceived travel hazards to be less risky (2011). Nonetheless, the term is still relevant nowadays, because it is used as an expression of identity. These young travelers perceive themselves as less typical tourists and identify themselves as a ‘backpacker’ (O’Reilly, 2005). O’Reilly explained: “The cultural and symbolic capital that travel affords can be used to enhance position and status” (2005). Also, travelling provides backpackers a process in which they can re-invent themselves and communicate their identities.
Moreover, the digital landscape has altered backpacking and the ‘backpacker’ identity. Due to the emergence of social media these backpacker identities have been virtualized (Paris,
domains as well. Some researchers have argued that social media provides a way for
individuals and especially young people to experiment with their identity. Adolescents do this by altering their self-presentation through Direct Messaging or WhatsApping (Valkenburg, Schouten & Peter, 2005). Moreover, research has found that social media allows youth to receive feedback and integrate this in their own sense of identity. This can be explained by the controllability of their online identity and the accessibility to share (Valkenburg & Peter, 2011). Social media can have positive meanings regarding identity formation. However, other studies also highlight the negative meanings. For example, Gardner and Davis have argued that social media reduces the adolescents’ ability to form an autonomous sense of self, because it allows them to be constantly connected to others and in particular their parents (2013).
The young people that are mainly using social media can be conceptualized as
emerging adults. Emerging adulthood is a phase in life in which individuals test their identity (Arnett, 2004). The current study will contribute to the already existing research, by providing insights on meanings which emerging adults ascribe to social media in relation to their
identity formation. Specifically, this qualitative study connects emerging adults’ social media use to backpacking, because backpacking is a way to explore one’s identity and in itself can be defined as an identity. Therefore, the aim of this study is to research what meaning emerging adult backpackers attach to social media. This is formulated in the following research question:
“What meaning do emerging adults give to social media when they are backpacking?”
This study is both practically and theoretically relevant. Firstly, previous research has
Paris, 2015; Paris, 2012). However, these studies have focused barely on the meaning emerging adults attach to social media. By conducting qualitative individual interviews, this study will highlight meanings of social media use regarding identity forming for emerging adults and backpacking. In doing so, insights can be given on the developmental
characteristics of this age group and how backpacking fits within this age group. On a broader level, an understanding of these needs is crucial in expanding the knowledge of emerging adults’ identity formation on social media. Not only because it can explain emerging adults’ behaviors and decisions, but also since it can elaborate on the way in which these needs can be fulfilled. Furthermore, studying the phenomena of social media allows for a more
comprehensive image of the social media needs of emerging adults. By not focusing on a particular social media platform, this study can highlight areas which can cater to these needs for social media developers. This allows the findings of this study to be applicable for a longer period, because specific social media applications have very dynamic characteristics and fluctuant popularity.
To answer the question of this study, individual face-to-face and video calling interviews will be conducted to understand the meanings emerging adult backpackers attach to social media during their travels. To lay a foundation for this study, the theoretical
framework will be established first. Then the methodology will be explained using the
research design, the sample, the data collection and the analysis. Subsequently, the results will be presented by means of a Concept Indicator, which incites the discussion.
Theoretical framework
Before analyzing what meaning emerging adults attach to social media use during backpacking, a theoretical framework must be outlined. The following section will first
adults. Next, identity forming will be discussed more precisely. Finally, the need for studying social media use among backpackers will be demonstrated through existing studies.
Emerging adults and their social media use
The current study focuses on backpackers. Most backpackers are of the age group which can be defined as “emerging adults”. This age group covers the ages 18 to 25. Emerging
adulthood is not a universal phase within life, but only applicable to cultures in which entry into adult roles and responsibilities is postponed well past late teens (Arnett, 2000). Arnett has identified emerging adulthood as the age of identity exploration, the age of instability, being self-focused, the age of feeling in-between and the age of possibilities (Arnett, 2004).
Due to the delay of responsibilities, individuals become more independent and individual in their thoughts, decisions and actions. This is not apparent only in the real-life off-line world, but also in the digital sphere of social media. When discussing emerging adults in light of their media use, it appears that for most emerging adults this usage facilitates real-world offline relationships and compliments communication (Kujath, 2011). Social media sites are mainly used by emerging adults to fulfil their social needs (Wang, Tchemev & Solloway, 2012). Herein, different steps of intimacy are provided by social media, from impersonal forms such as becoming Facebook friends to intimate forms such as video calling each other on the phone (Yang, Brown & Braun, 2014).
A relationship which becomes less present during emerging adulthood is the parent-child relationship. When emerging adults gain autonomy, they disconnect from their parents (Hoffman, 1984). This can be explained by the demographical distance between emerging adults and their parents when emerging adults leave the parental home (Hamilton & Hamilton, 2006). Social media then may provide a way for emerging adults to move away from media regulation or supervision by their parents (Coyne, Padilla-Walker & Howard,
2013). However, social media can also foster this relationship by the possibilities to keep in touch via social network sites and the possibilities to video call (Smith, 2015).
Moreover, social media causes not only potential supervision by parents, but also by the remainder of the digital network of emerging adults. While emerging adulthood is characterized by trying out various things (Arnett, 2004), social media may discourage emerging adults to explore these new things when they are aware that they are being monitored by their online social network (Bennett & Regan, 2004).
Social media also may prevent emerging adults from trying out different things, because it is a way to relieve boredom and pass time (Lampe, Ellison & Steinfield, 2008). This leads to an increased habit in the use of their smartphone (Oulasvirta, Rattenburry, Ma & Raita, 2012). It could also cause ‘Fear of Missing out’ (FOMO; Przybylski, Murayama, DeHaan & Gladwell, 2013). Emerging adults can continuously see what their online network is doing offline and when they are absent this could lead to feelings of anxiety, loneliness and depression (Vaugn, 2012).
Identity forming
An important feature of emerging adulthood is “identity exploration” (Arnett, 2004).
Emerging adults are distancing themselves from their parents and in a stage prior to making life decisions such as career and relationships. This allows individuals to explore new life experiences. By making independent decisions, emerging adults can develop their identity and figure out who they are and what they want to do (Arnett, 2004). According to concept theory, people behave in ways that maintain and enhance their sense of self. The self-concept is an individual’s perception of him or herself. This self is something that is
In exploring their identity, emerging adults also test who they are regarding others. This can be described as “social identity”. According to the social identity theory, a social identity is constructed through a process of self-categorization in which individuals label themselves in relation to a particular social group or category (Tajfel, 1982). This process can be explained through three components: cognitive, evaluative and affective. The cognitive component exists out of the self-categorizations by individuals. The evaluative component involves assessing the community and someone’s membership by giving positive and negative connotations. The final component, affective, includes positive emotions that individuals experience based on their perceived belonging to the group and towards other group members (Ellemers, Kortekaas & Ouwekerk, 1999). Groups can be family, nationality, backpacker community et cetera. One individual can be part of different groups and therefore act differently per group or category due to social context (Tajfel & Turner, 2004).
Social media can be considered as a form of a body where emerging adults create themselves into being. Kaplan and Haenlein defined social media as “a group of internet-based applications that build on the ideological and technical foundations of Web 2.0, and that allow the created and exchange of user generated content” (2010). By deciding what and how they want to create their identity, emerging adults can create an online identity that others need to interpret (boyd, 2007). When using social media, individuals intentionally or automatically create a sense of past by depicting their actual selves and events in their lives (Belk, 1991).
The social media profiles of emerging adults allow them to try out possible forms of their selves by posting content, photos and information (Manago, Taylor & Greenfield, 2012). In creating their selves, emerging adults can provide an idealized version of the self by
showing a version of how they would want to be remembered by one-way social media use such as posting photos and text. This ideal self can be divided in an expansion of self (Belk,
1988) or a limitation of self (Leary & Kowalski, 1990). Expansion of the actual self is when the actual self is enhanced. With self-enhancement people tend to exaggerate their virtues. A limitation of self is when the actual self is protected. With self-protection people tend to minimize their shortcomings (Alicke & Sedikides, 2009). This can be explained by reports on the effects of negative feedback. For example, in a study of Pempek, Yermolayeva and Calvert (2009), they found that negative feedback posted on Facebook can lead to lower self-esteem.
Social media use among backpackers
While backpacking, emerging adults are separated from people by time and/or space. However, research has shown that social media ensures that backpackers are always connected during their travels (Molz & Paris, 2015). Social media provides new ways to exchange travel information, facilitate social networks and interact with others (Molz, 2012). This online connectedness allows backpackers to stay connected with their networks back home (e.g. Molz & Paris, 2015; Paris, 2012).
The relationships with people backpackers encounter during their travels also can be altered by social media. Social media enhances connectedness with the backpack culture, because it makes it easier to stay in contact (Paris, 2011). Most of the relationships made during travelling are rarely continued when backpackers return home. This was explained by O’Reilly: “These ‘single-serving friendships’ are important for testing out new identities, because there are no long-term ramifications unless both parties actively pursue the
relationships beyond the trip (2005). Thus, these relationships can facilitate the recreation of self and the way in which backpackers decide to form their identity regarding others on social media.
Another way in which identity formation for backpackers manifests itself, is by sharing travel experiences. How someone makes sense of these experiences is by narrating them. Narrating travel experiences can be seen as what Giddens (1991) explained as reflexive project of modernity, which is the ongoing development of self-identity. Competitive storytelling of travel experiences also allows backpackers to test out narratives of the self, identity and personal history (O’Reilly, 2005). In narrating these backpack experiences, self-change, seeking adventure and seeking authenticity are important characteristics which backpackers present positively. In doing so they serve the ideal self-image of the backpacker (Noy, 2004). A way in which these travel experiences can be narrated, is through social media platforms. Here, backpackers can share their experiences with pictures, texts and videos (Molz & Paris, 2015).
Sharing experiences and interacting online also allows backpackers to become part of the backpack community (Adkins & Grant, 2007). However, the connectedness provided by social media also is influenced by the reduction of their anonymity. Social media functions as an open network that enables close and distant social interactions in order to monitor behavior and social interactions (Molz, 2006).
With the current study research is extended by focusing on the identity formation of emerging adults on social media, and by studying how specifically emerging adult backpackers attach meaning to social media.
Research design Design
To gain insights in the meaning that emerging adult backpackers attach to using social media, qualitative research was conducted in this thesis. The results of this research will allow an
understanding of the thought processes and perceptions of backpackers. Qualitative research is appropriate for this thesis, because meanings cannot be measured or tested. Moreover, qualitative research links versions of the reality to the context they occur in (Braun & Clarke, 2013). The specific method that was used for this research is individual interviews. Herein the emphasis lies on what is said by participants. The primary advantage of this method is that it provides detailed information of the participants’ opinions and thoughts. This is useful for this thesis, because this study is about the individual experiences of emerging adult backpackers. By using open ended questions participants are encouraged to discuss what is important to them in their social media use while backpacking. Moreover, it allows the researcher to probe and ask unplanned questions which can result in in-depth data. For example, during the interviews the researcher could ask about and use examples of different social media
applications the participants were using (Bryman, 2016). This is important for this research, because it is about the individual use of social media of emerging adult backpackers. A topic within this study is identity forming. Interviewing the participants individually is also suitable for this research, because it allows participants to discuss their selves and their position regarding others (Braun & Clarke, 2013).
Sample
For this thesis purposive sampling was used. This technique allows the researcher to select cases considering the research aim. Selecting participants based on different criteria provides rich data to analyze (Bryman, 2016).
The main selection criteria of this sample were: age (18-25 age), ‘(being) a
backpacker’, ‘social media user’, gender (male/female), location (travelling/at home), and ‘(having) the Dutch nationality’. The first three criteria were chosen, because this research
still are backpacking outside of Europe and use social media. Gender and location were used as selection criteria to ensure variation. The aim of this research was to have a sample with both women and men, because this could alter their identity and the way they interact on different social media (e.g. Stern, 2004). The way participants narrate their experiences could also differ for people who are travelling and people who have already returned home from travelling. Once returned home, backpackers have had time to make sense of their
experiences and translate their value into different contexts (O’Reilly, 2005). Finally, participants were only selected for this research if they have a Dutch nationality. This decision was made because of feasibility, but more importantly because the concept of “emerging adulthood” is culturally bound to the Western society and fits within the Dutch culture context. Subsequently, studying Dutch backpackers allows for transferability to backpacker groups in Europe.
The participants were recruited through the social network of the author. By snowball sampling within this social network, participants were recruited. The author also used virtual snowball sampling, by finding participants through Facebook posts. The aim of this research was to have a total of ten to fifteen interviews. The sample of participants consisted of ten participants. The details of these participants can be found in Figure 1. In this figure their anonymized and fictional names, gender, age and location can be found. ‘Home’ refers to the participants who had already returned from backpacking and were interviewed face-to-face. ‘Travel’ refers to the participants who were still travelling and were interviewed via video calling applications, such as Facetime and Facebook Messenger.
Data collection
The interviews consisted of face-to-face and video calling interviews. This combination of methods was chosen because video calling only provides headshots. This could hinder observing the overall body language (Cater, 2011). In the end, ten interviews were conducted
of which six were face-to-face interviews and four were video calling interviews. This non-even divide between the face-to-face interviews and Skype interviews can be explained by time differences and functioning WIFI connections of the backpackers. This triangulation of interview methods enhances the validity, because the research relies on multiple forms of evidence rather than a single form of data collection (Creswell & Miller, 2000). The precise number of interviews was decided during the data collection to assure saturation (Braun & Clarke, 2013). After the eight interviews no new subjects were mentioned. However, at that point of the data collection only two video calling interviews had been conducted with
backpackers who were still travelling. Therefore, two more interviews were conducted. These Respondent Gender Age Location
1. Daan Male 20 Home
2. Amy Female 21 Home
3. Sara Female 21 Home
4. Lara Female 23 Home
5. Kim Female 24 Home
6. Chris Male 25 Home
7. Tim Male 20 Travel
8. Lotte Female 21 Travel
9. Max Male 23 Travel
10. Sam Male 24 Travel
The interviews were conducted by the author of this research. The ecological validity was enhanced in this study by conducting the interviews at the homes of the participants or a location that was known to them. This location makes it truer to their daily lives. For the interviews conducted with backpackers while they were travelling this situation was even more true to their ‘backpack’ life, because they were in that environment. For these interviews, the location of the participants was usually in or next to their hostel while the researcher was in the Netherlands at her own home.
For the interviews an interview guide was formulated. This guide changed during data collection. At first the interview was more focused on Facebook. However, during data collection the importance of other social media applications was recognized. It became apparent that participants do not just think in terms of Facebook use, but social media use in general. This can be explained by their dynamic character. The final interview guide and the adjustments made can be found in Appendix 1.
The first topic in the interview guide is ‘Motivations to backpack’. This topic helped to answer the research question by giving a general idea of the reasons why backpackers travel. Within the context of this topic participants were also asked about their goals and their definition(s) of backpacking and other backpackers. By establishing the reasons for
participants to go backpacking, this could be connected to the development of emerging adults and later be compared to their social media usage.
The second topic of the interview guide, ‘Description of social media usage during backpacking’, aimed to understand which activities backpackers are undertaking with social media and how they narrate these experiences. The research probed to learn about the reasons why and how participants use social media. On one hand this topic aimed to emphasize social media usage to their age. On the other hand, the emphasis was also put on the difference between one-way social media use (such as posting photos) and two-way social media use
(such as Direct Messaging). Moreover, their usage of several social media applications was compared with each other and with their usage at home and during travelling. The researcher asked when, why and with whom backpackers would interact during their travels.
The final topic ‘Motivations for using social media during backpacking’ was chosen to understand why backpackers use social media during their travels. By using the initial
question and corresponding probes, the researcher was able to gain information about participants perceptions on their own social media use and the social media usage of others. By uncovering these comparisons, the cognitive, evaluative and affective component of social identity formation could be found. Additionally, the participants could reveal how they view themselves on social media during travelling. Herein, notions of the participants’ selves could be detected.
The interviews took place in the homes of the interviewees or via video calling and lasted for a minimum of 30 minutes and a maximum of one hour. Due to a technical error the recording of one interview failed. Therefore, this participant was interviewed for 30 minutes to ask the main questions based on the interview guide and the notes of the researcher (see Appendix 3). To prevent any misunderstanding between the researcher and the participants, all the interviews were held in Dutch. With the agreement of the participants the interviews were audiotaped and transcribed. To transcribe these recording an automatic transcribing program was used first. Hereafter, these automatic and rough texts were checked and adjusted by the researcher or a research assistant. The transcripts that were not made by the researcher, were all checked by the researcher afterwards. Within these transcripts and in the final
document the participants were anonymized by using fictitious names. To enhance validity member checking was used by letting interviewees themselves check the transcripts
errors were corrected. In one case, a concept used by a participant was member checked during coding (see Appendix 5).
Moreover, the researcher enhanced validity by acknowledging her own role during the research process. During data collection the researcher was aware of her own knowledge of the topic. In some interviews, this led the participants to ask the researcher about her
experiences. The researcher tried to avoid such questions. When this did occur, the researcher stayed aware of her role and tried to avoid answers that would influence the following
answers of the participants (Braun & Clarke, 2013). Furthermore, credibility was improved by keeping records of the whole research process (Bryman, 2016). This includes memo writing during the data collection and coding, the interview transcripts and data analysis decisions. In Appendix 3 excerpts of the transcripts can be found. An example of a memo during coding is attached in Appendix 5.
Analysis
For the analysis of this research, the first step was open coding of the data in Atlas.ti. Interviews were read line-by-line and anything of relevance or interest was coded. Open coding is achieved when data is divided and labelled with single words or short descriptions (Strauss, 1987). These codes were both researcher-derived and data-derived to prevent exclusion of data. Therefore, this first phase of the analysis was the process of complete coding. After complete coding the open code list was cleaned, by merging codes that were overlapping with other codes and removing spelling and grammatical errors. The cleaned list of codes after open coding can be found in the Appendix 4.
The second step of the analysis was selective coding (Charmaz, 2006). Here the focus was on selecting fragments of the interviews where respondents mention characteristics of emerging adulthood. The researcher also focused on coding identity forming on social media
and the meanings of these identity formation (if any). To do so, the emphasis was put on the way in which backpackers narrated their experiences and interactions. Here every experience or relationship was taken into consideration, whether they were perceived as very significant or relatively minor. For example, this was done by dividing the way in which participants were talking about the self and when they were talking about their identity regarding others. For the creation of the self, the researcher focused on the labels that backpackers used to identify themselves on social media platforms. For the formation of the social identity, the emphasis was put on the ‘backpacker’ identity, the social identity in connection to other backpackers and the social identity regarding the home base. Herein, the researcher also focused on the way in which participants defined backpacking and backpackers. Within this phase the researcher looked for possible categorization of the codes.
The third phase of the analysis was specifying relationships between the codes (Corbin & Strauss, 2015). To understand the relation between social media and identity formation for backpackers during their travels, a Concept Indicator Model was created. Herein, the
researcher focused on the process of describing one’s own identity, his or her position within the backpack community and how this was experienced. The dimensions and concepts of this model were used as a basis to show the results and answer the research question of this thesis.
Results
When the participants within this study explained their reasoning for going backpacking, they gave reasons such as exploring new countries, seeking new experiences and the exploration of their selves by, for example, becoming more independent. But does this correspond with their social media usage? To understand how social media use while backpacking fits within emerging adulthood and the developmental stage of emerging adults, a Concept Indicator
while backpacking’. The process of open coding led to the dimensions ‘Social interaction’, ‘Usage’ and ‘Identity formation’. In the following section each of these three dimensions will be explained based on its indicators (and sub-indicators). The original Dutch quotes used can be found in Appendix 6.
Social interaction
Participants of this study reported that social media provided them with the possibility to interact. The meaning of these mediated interactions depended on the type of relation which would be facilitated.
The first indicator of ‘Social interaction’ is ‘Long-term relationships’. These types of relationships can be divided into family and peers. Despite being separated by time and place, social media ensures backpackers to always be able to interact. For some this was emphasized by the function to be able to hear each other’s voice during WhatsApp calling or even seeing each other with video calling such as Skype and Facetime. Sam explained his preference for Facetime as followed: “I just want to see someone. What they look like. Of course, I also
Meanings of social media use for emerging adults
while backpacking Social interaction Long-term relationships Family Parent(s) Sibling(s) / Partner Peers Friends made before backpacking Friends made during backpacking Short-term relationships Backpackers Locals Usage Aware Convenience Unaware Need Habit Identity formation Cognitive Evaluative Affective
Figure 2: Concept Indicator Model:
change every day while traveling. Then Facetime is the victor”. Some participants did not personally use video calling with family back home but did acknowledge that it is common among backpackers.
Next to the type of interaction, participants described that they interacted more frequently and longer with family than with others. Chris explained the difference between interacting with his parents and with his friends as follows: “They [parents] are just more curious to know how it’s going and eh where I’m going and what my plan is. While I don't know that myself either, of course. Ha ha ha. And with friends it is eh.. yes a lot shorter.” Kim also described a difference between interacting with her friends and interacting with her parents, brother and boyfriend. She gave the following explanations:
[…] my parents and especially my mother, she of course was more concerned and interested in how I was doing. Look, my friends, they all believed that. Uhm but my mother thought in advance, she thought it was very exciting that I was going to do it on my own. Uhm so I especially spoke a lot with her and my brother. Uhm… And yes, my boyfriend really often, because I missed him the most of them all.
As mentioned by Kim above, participants who were in a relationship stressed the importance of the possibility to interact with their partner daily.
Besides from participants’ long-term relationships with their parents, siblings and partners, relationships with other peers could also be categorized as long-term relationships. As previously mentioned by Chris and Kim, participants within this study emphasized that peers are less interested. They explained that peers already know more about backpacking and
parents ‘just’ want to know everything. Due to age similarities peers can relate better with the phenomenon of backpacking.
Within the interactions with peers two types of relationships were discussed. The first is interacting with friends made before travelling. Most of the participants explained that for these friendships, only interactions with their closest friends from home remained due to social media. The interactions with friends were described as less frequent than when participants were at home. Amy explained this as follows:
And for me a lot has changed, but for friends their life just goes on there. [...] Because we are a bit out of each other's life pattern for a certain time, eh you also have less to tell each other uhm what really concerns the other, because you are no longer in each other's lives at that moment of time.
Social media also facilitates interacting with friends made during travelling. Participants explained that these interactions on social media was used for maintaining relationships after travelling. When Sara described her interactions on WhatsApp, she explained her mediated social interaction with friends from her travels as follows: “[…] that are people with whom I really wanted to stay in contact also after my travels. So that was convenient to make a groups app, also because we would probably meet up later on.”
The second indicator of ‘Social interaction’ is ‘Short-term relationships’. These types of relationships were described as term relationships with other backpackers and short-term relationships with locals. When Tim discussed the interactions with backpackers, he described it as follows:
[…] it is mainly eh or: "Where are you?". You know? Such kind of things. "Where are we going tonight?". Or "Are you awake yet?". Those kinds of things. So not very deep. But that's more for the time being, when you're together. The moment you leave, you no longer WhatsApp each other.
Interactions with backpackers were again facilitated by social media. However, participants explained that the purpose of interacting with most of the backpackers were on a short-term basis and only for the period they were travelling.
Participants also described mediated social interactions with locals during their travels. These interactions were described even more short term based than interactions with
backpackers. When Kim explained her interactions with locals on social media platforms, she gave the following reason:
[…] and with that [short conversations with locals] I also noticed that it also was very annoying. Uhm if you… eh had added some guys on Facebook, and that were mainly people that lived there, that they even when you were back in the Netherlands or totally somewhere else, that they still messaged you with: “How are you? But really went in on that, while I had something like: “It is nice for there and then it’s done”. […] So, at some point I did unfollow them. I didn’t really need that anymore afterwards.
Usage
The second dimension of meanings of social media use is ‘Usage’. This functional usage can be divided in two indicators: ‘Aware’ and ‘Unaware’.
The first indicator is ‘Aware’. This type of usage was described by participants when they considered social media as a convenience. Participants expressed how social media enabled interactions and made finding and sharing information easier. For example, Sara explained the ease of interacting online as follows:
And also, with WhatsApp it’s more like you’re meeting so many people and especially when I think back on it now, I really do not know what everyone is called anymore. I really don't know anymore which face belongs to who, which name belongs to who and so on. So, with Instagram I really appreciate you see photos, you see the name. […] You know exactly who it is and then you can remember again where I met that person.
In addition to the benefits of social media usage in context of their travels, the ease of use was also connected to the home situation of the participants. Social media provided information about how people are doing at home, but it also allowed participants to keep themselves informed with the Dutch news and other interests. For example, Daan explained how social media allowed him to stay up-to-date with his favorite football club. Next to information from home, social media also provided participants with information about their travels. Some participants even explained they preferred looking up backpacker information via social media than local information in the offline world.
Another practical advantage assigned to social media use, was perseverance of travel experiences through pictures, videos and text. When discussing the usage of Polarsteps, Max expressed that he also used it so he himself could memorize her travel experiences. He said: “A bit of keeping my ehm adventures here so to speak together and that I can look back on it myself later on […]. I really use that [Polarsteps] as a kind of online journal”.
The second indicator of ‘Usage’ is ‘Unaware’. This mainly became apparent when
backpackers recognized they would use social media as a habit. This was explained by Sam as followed:
I think the problem is this generation or, yes, social media backpackers are: you don't dare to be bored in one way or another. So, if you just, why is it that bad to sit still for five minutes. You have to grab something because of dependence, I believe, and that is quite annoying, that you have to do that all the time.
As explained by Sam, the habit of using social media can become a burden for backpackers. Participants expressed how the presence of social media had negative consequences during their travels, but also in their daily life at home. They assigned it as a problem for their generation. Another negative consequence of social media usage was explained by Lara.
[…] for example, when my study association went on a study trip for example, I find it very difficult to see other people on Snapchat or Instagram. Then you get FOMO [Fear of Missing Out]. And I think I deliberately avoided that. I also know that I was very happy that my mobile was gone during a festival, so I didn't have to see all day how nice everyone had it at that festival, even though I wasn't there.
Most of the participants expressed how they had to develop a way of dealing with negatives of social media such as FOMO. The possibility to stay up-to-date with home via social media
became something participants actively choose to watch or purposively avoided. Max also experienced that social media was holding him back from experiencing his travels. He said:
[…] I have gone through a period that I was really super focused on "I want to capture everything" and things like that. Then at a certain moment I got the feeling that I was experiencing everything through my camera. And then in the end I just distanced myself from it […] I did it more like: "Okay, I take a moment to take a picture, then I put everything away and I enjoy the moment itself". Then I have just found a kind of in between way.
As with experiencing FOMO, some participants also expressed how they would actively alter their social media usage during their travels to get the travel experience they initially wanted. Other participants also explained that this habit of social media usage became less, but this was not caused by changing it themselves but due to their travel surroundings. Kim said:
Here I also do it from time to time to kill time eh .. Yes your goal for social media is a bit different and that is better I think [...] When you are just at home. Then you occasionally really just are ... mindlessly scrolling through your timeline without something very interesting happening and on a trip yes if you didn't see anything interesting then you went and came up with something nice.
While statements of the participants suggest they were less involved with social media and they still would have gone backpacking without social media, participants showed a need of social media use during their travels. This became apparent when Daan explained that he attached much value to his friendships back home. He said: “And I would have found it
difficult if I had to completely distance myself from it. I think then I would rather travel for a month, then go back and then a month again or something like that”. When asked if she would travel without social media, Lotte explained:
Yes, only in a less fun way, because you are already going alone. And sometimes you are in very nice places, alone. And if you can't share that, that makes the experience a bit less for me, but that is really because I really want to always share everything and things like that.
Social media was needed to connect to home, but also in contexts of social media. This became apparent when Daan and Lara explained the period when they lost their smartphones. During this time, Daan expressed it was inconvenient, because social media would have made it easier for him to meet up with other backpackers during his travels. Lara also expressed that she was not able to keep in touch with other backpackers. To get access to the advantages of social media’s convenience, such as information seeking, interaction and storage of
memories, Lara and Daan both expressed they would use smartphones of other people.
Identity formation
The final dimension of ‘Meanings of social media use for emerging adults while
backpacking’ is ‘Identity formation’. This dimension can be explained by the indicators ‘Cognitive’, ‘Evaluative’ and ‘Affective’.
When discussing the first indicator ‘Cognitive’, participants explained they use social media to describe their own identity. All the participants expressed how they use social media to show several versions of the self. Max said: “Uhm it is .., I have to say Instagram I am a bit
sets of current photos that go mainly through WhatsApp”. The beautiful pictures are used to enhance their self. Amy gave the next reasoning for this self-enhancement:
[…] just the beautiful pictures. Really things the things that make people jealous like: "Look at me being nice in another country”. Ha ha ha. Yes, there were some filtered things of course, because I’m not going to post any ugly pictures of me on Instagram.
Participants explained they used pretty pictures and beautiful videos to make other people jealous. In the construction of the ideal self, participants also explained they would be self-focused in regard to other backpackers with other backpackers. This became when Sam said the following on a sarcastic tone: “Now I think: “Ooh you have seen a Buddha. I also saw 36.” Ha ha ha”. Backpackers use social media to share stories of themselves.
The fact that these mediated stories were an expansion of the self and not the actual was confirmed by Lotte. She said: “I do post like: “Oh, I still like this photo from the Philippines" or "Oh, I still like this from there" and then I just throw it on there [Instagram] while I'm in Australia now”. Thus, her ideal self on Instagram would be depicted on a different location, while she would actually be somewhere else.
Although participants explained they would also enclose ‘ugly’ or ‘real’ pictures of themselves on second accounts or via private messaging, expanding the actual self was important for the participants. This became apparent when Tim explained why he had deleted all of his selfies. He said that showing beautiful pictures, and thus an enhanced self on social media, was not important. However, during the video call interview he kept on checking within his front camera whether his hair was in the right position.
Participants also explained they did not enclose everything on social media. They protect the actual self, by limiting it. Max explained this as follows:
It can sometimes be, for example, if I have been drinking or something, that I am drunk or something that makes it easier for me to make an Insta story at a party or things like that. Uhm that’s is something I’ll do. But otherwise I think because I also know, my family also follows me on Instagram, so I know that I have to remain a little politically correct on everything.
As described by Max, participants expressed they were aware of potential supervision of their online social network, such as their family and their parents. This caused them to present a limitation of their selves on social media. However, they did enclose that in the offline world travelling provided them with the possibility to do things they might not have done at home. The second indicator is ‘Evaluative’. This component of identity formation was used by participants to depict their own place regarding their home situation. As explained, in the dimensions ‘Social interaction’, social media provides emerging adults to stay connected with the home basis by interacting, informing and getting informed. For example, Lara explained that she needed this connection to maintain her identity at home.
Say at the beginning, I was perhaps a bit scared before I went on my journey. Like: “Oh. Uhm. All people continue their lives and I leave. They’ll soon forget me or something like that”. Ha ha ha. But that is not true at all, because that is not how it works. Ha ha ha. Uhm. But it is not because of that, that I deliberately had something like: "Oh now I have to keep talking to them so that
Lara explained that she thought she would be present online to be remembered, but that this was not the case during travelling. Nevertheless, excerpt of the interview was followed by her saying that she spoke with her best friend and her parents daily to weekly. The interaction facilitated by social media shows that emerging adults backpackers stay connected with their parents, while emerging adults seek disconnection from their parents and the supervision of their parents. For example, Amy explained that the interaction with her parents became less, but she was aware that she had to stay in contact. Participants’ stayed aware of their
relationship with their parents.
Participants also categorized themselves within the backpacker community. According to Sara ‘being a backpacker’ was something she only identified while travelling: “Of course being a backpacker is a snapshot […] I was a backpacker while travelling”. This was
emphasized when the researcher asked how she identified herself now. Sara answered: “Now not anymore. Now I'm just a student again”.
Participants also described how they themselves and others would or would not identify with being a backpacker. For example, Daan explained that he found himself to be less a backpacker and more a flashpacker when he would spend more money to travel more luxurious. Lotte also ascribed the characteristic of travelling on a cheaper budget to
backpackers, when she described older travelers.
Lotte: […] they really have a bigger budget and they can really sleep in more luxurious places and do more luxurious things and I only really cross paths with them at the end of their trip when they have less money and they almost go home to go.
During travelling, social media provides participants a way to be included within the backpacker community. For example, Sam said:
So, there is also on on a medium like as Instagram, you suddenly have a kind of backpackers community. Which I found very relaxed, because […] in the past you would have exchanged numbers or maybe addresses to send cards, but nowadays it is always each other’s Instagram. So, stories tell you where people are traveling, so you can meet again at another place.
Within this excerpt Sam explains how social media positioned himself within the backpacker community. How the membership of the backpacker community is experienced initiates the final indicator ‘Affective’. While Sam was positive about being part of the backpacker community on social media, participants also attached negative connotations to the group backpackers. For example, Lotte described backpackers to be into spiritual garbage. The group of backpackers that was mostly described by the participants with negative
connotations was described by Sam as ‘Instagram slut’ (Dutch: Instagram sloeries).
Participants explained there is a group of people (mainly younger), that will not experience ‘real’ backpacker things and are only excessively involved with their social media and their followers. Amy compared herself to these type of backpackers as followed:
I think it's a bit unnecessary. It seems to me you do it more for yourself and me I of course I posted myself sometimes on Facebook but that was more because I really liked to show it and people at home thought it was really nice, but I sometimes find it more … I really see a lot of those Instagram Stories, that
you would show all your food every day, for example. That I really think of: "Yes, I have now seen what you are doing there every day." Then I think: "Yes, is that really necessary?". Ha ha ha.
Although none of the participants said they identified with this type of backpackers, they sometimes would admit they enjoyed the use of social media in this form. This can be explained by the negative connotations attached to this social media usage.
Discussion Main findings and conclusion
The aim of this thesis was to find which meaning emerging adult backpackers attach to their social media use during travelling. This can be answered in threefold.
Firstly, social media may provide emerging adult backpackers with the means to interact within long- and short-term relationships. For the long-term relationships, social media preserves relationships with family members such as parents, siblings and partners. This is done by providing an option to connect by chatting, calling and video calling. Moreover, relationships with peers are facilitated. Herein, social media allows participants to have
different types of relationships with peers from home and peers from travels. This may consist of long-term relationships, such as parents or partners, but can also result in a short-term relationship that would only have maintained because of social media. The meaning of social media regarding social interaction can be seen as practical usage.
Secondly, the meaning backpackers ascribe to social media is functional. When participants explained social media usage during their travels, they described this usage as a convenience. Participants were aware of its benefits such as the exchange of information, facilitation of contact and storage of their travel experiences. Moreover, using social media
can also be seen as unaware usage, when it is used as a need or habit. Participants explained that social media provided them with functions they needed during their travels, such as looking for information and recommendations about hostels or sights. When they explained it as a habit, negative connotations were given to this usage while travelling. These negative feelings were mainly given because it distracted them from their main goals during
backpacking, such as experiencing adventures and exploring new things. Furthermore, participants also expressed that it would contribute to FOMO, because social media allowed them to see what they were missing back home.
Finally, social media may enable the identity forming of emerging adult backpackers. Backpackers can create their self on social media platforms through self-categorization. Herein, they create an ideal self by narrating their travel experiences. On social media this is done by telling stories through texts, photos and videos. When backpackers tell these travel stories online, they make decisions in expanding or limiting the self. Within identity
formation social media also provides participants with the means to form their own identity regarding their life at home, backpackers and the backpack community. Next to this cognitive process of identity formation, identity forming on social media also entails the evaluative content. Using social media provides emerging adults the means to identify with backpackers and their lives at home. Within the affective construction of social identity, they attach positive and negative connotations to the backpacker identity in relation to social media. Being part of an online backpacker community was experienced by participants as positive. However, when backpackers used social media excessive, this was seen as a negative aspect within the current backpacker community.
Theoretical and practical implications
When discussing the results of this study in relation to the literature and practice, several implications can be related to these findings.
As mentioned in the discussion of the literature, a main feature of this age group is identity exploration (Arnett, 2004). The participants within this study connected this phase of identity forming to their decision to go backpacking. When discussing identity formation on social media, the discussed literature pose that emerging adults use social media to form their identity (e.g. boyd, 2007). The current study connects the social media usage in identity formation to backpackers’ social media usage. A way in which participants created the self in this study, was by sharing photos, blogs and videos. As explained in the discussed literature, stories of backpack experiences served the self-image (Noy, 2004). Participants explained that they would mainly portray their ideal self by sharing the prettiest pictures and the most
positive and adventurous stories. Some participants did nuance this by explaining that they used a second ‘private’ account to show their ‘real’ and authentic self. This correlates with a recent article, where Safronova explained that these fake Instagram accounts, also defined as ‘Finstagram’ accounts, allow users to share pictures they would never share with their wider circle (2015). Future research could elaborate on the meaning of this social media usage to project the ‘actual’ self.
Moreover, emerging adulthood is a period in which individuals seek autonomy
(Arnett, 2004). The results of this study showed that backpacking fits within this development of independence, because they are separated from their home situation by time and place. As discussed within the literature, emerging adults gain autonomy partly by disconnecting from their parents (Hoffman, 1984). However, for backpackers in this study the connection with parents was facilitated by social media and in some instances this relationship even
smartphones as a parental monitoring, but as a potential connection to communicate (Ribak, 2009). Smartphones and social media could be seen as a safety net for emerging adults, which might lower the threshold to go backpacking on the other side of the world. For example, within this study participants described that they would contact their parents in emergency cases. Moreover, participants expressed that they would travel for a shorter period of time if they would not have the possibility to connect with home via social media.
Furthermore, participants within this study emphasized the social element of
backpacking. This suits the social needs of emerging adults that are satisfied by social media (Wang, Tchemey & Solloway, 2012). As discussed in the literature, this connectedness might cause the participants to be aware of being monitored by their social network (Molz, 2006). Participants nuanced this when they explained that their online identity is a limited version of their actual self and actual experiences.
However, the ‘actual’ backpacking experience could also be negatively altered due to social media usage. Participants explained that social media usage becomes a habit, which could hinder the actual backpack experience. Furthermore, they explained that they not only had to actively tackle the burden of social media usage while they were backpacking, but participants also expressed that this is a problem for themselves and other emerging adults in their daily lives back home. This correlates with recent research that studies the influence of social media usage within the daily lives of emerging adults (e.g. Goel, Subramanyam & Kamath, 2013; Vannucci, Flannery & Ohannessian, 2017).
Thus, the decision to go backpacking fits within the developmental stage emerging adults can find themselves in. Herein, social media can be seen as both a facilitator and a hindrance. The meaning of social media use during backpacking found in this research showed a glimpse into identity formation on social media by backpackers but can also be
emerging adults due to social media, a shift relevant to the academic field and within societal contexts.
Limitations and suggestions
The current study has some limitations. First, in-depth interviews cause participants to have more control during the interviews. During data collection some of the participants indicated that they were not sure whether their answer was beneficial for the current study. Therefore, the method of focus groups could be suggested for future research. By using focus groups, researchers could shed light on social interaction between participants and social identity forming during data collection. Moreover, focus groups may provide more rich and detailed data, because participants can continue on each other ideas (Morley, 1980).
Another limitation is the researcher’s presence during data gathering. This became apparent during data collection when participants suggested that the researcher understood what they were saying without elaborating on it. To make the researcher’s presence less noticeable for the participants another suggestion for future research could be using participant observation as a method.
The sample of the current study consisted of ten Dutch backpackers. However, during data collection of the current study it became apparent that participants described groups of backpackers that were not part of this sample. These types of backpackers were described as people that did not use social media at all and people that in the perspective of the participants used social media excessively. Within these definitions, socially desirable answers given within the interviews should be taken into consideration. For example, participant observation could avoid these answers and disclose these groups. Therefore, this method would also improve ecological validity.
Moreover, to achieve more transferability to more backpackers a bigger sample could be included within future research. Herein, a decision could also be made to add backpackers with other nationalities. This would not only provide more transferability to backpackers but would also allow for comparisons between certain nationalities. By comparing certain
nationalities and cultures, backpackers might be connected more to emerging adulthood since this age group is only applicable for cultures in which entry into adult roles and
responsibilities is postponed.
Finally, the current study discussed the altering parent-child relation during emerging adulthood and how social media fits within this research. Therefore, future research could also expand the sample by including parents of emerging adult backpackers.
Reference list
Adkins, B.A., & Grant, E.L. (2007). Backpackers as a community of strangers: The
interaction order of an online backpacker notice board. Qualitative Sociology Review, 3(2), 118-201.
Alicke, M., & Sedikides, C. (2009). Self-enhancement and self-protection: What they are and what they do. European Review of Social Psychology, 20(1), 1-48.
Arnett, J. (2000). Emerging adulthood: A theory of development from the late teens through the twenties. American Psychologist, 55(5), 469–480.
Arnett, J. (2004): A longer road to adulthood. In: Emerging adulthood: The winding road from late teens through the twenties (chapter 1). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Bennett, C.J., & Regan, P.M. (2004). Editorial: Surveillance and mobilities. Surveillance and
Society, 1(4), 449-455.
Belk, R.W. (1991). Possessions and sense of past. In Russell W. Belk (Ed.), Highways and buyways: Naturalistic research from the consumer behavior Odyssey (pp. 114 – 130). Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research.
boyd, d. (2007). Why youth (heart) social network sites: The role of networked publics in teenage social life. MacArthur Foundation Series on Digital Learning–Youth, Identity, and Digital Media Volume, 119, 142.
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2013). Successful qualitative research : A practical guide for beginners. London: SAGE.
Bryman, A. (2016). Social research methods (Fifth edition.). New York: Oxford University Press.
Cater, J.K. (2011). Skype a cost-effective method for qualitative research. Rehabilitation Counselors & Educators Journal, 4(2), 10-17.
Charmaz, K. (2006). Constructing grounded theory: A practical guide through qualitative analysis. London: SAGE Publications.
Cohen, E. (2003). Backpacking: Diversity and change. Journal of Tourism and Cultural Change, 1(2), 95-110.
Corbin, J., & Strauss, A. (2015). Basics of qualitative research: Techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory (Fourth edition.). Los Angeles: SAGE.
Coyne, S., Padilla-Walker, L., & Howard, E. (2013). Emerging in a digital world: A decade review of media use, effects, and gratifications in emerging adulthood. Emerging Adulthood, 1(2), 125-137.
Creswell, J., & Miller, D. (2000). Determining validity in qualitative inquiry. Theory into Practice, 39(3), 124-130.
group and group self‐esteem as related but distinct aspects of social identity. European Journal of Social Psychology, 29(2‐3), 371-389.
Gardner, H., & Davis, K. (2013). The app generation: How today’s youth navigate identity, intimacy, and imagination in a digital world. Yale University Press.
Goel, D., Subramanyam, A., & Kamath, R. (2013). A study on the prevalence of internet addiction and its association with psychopathology in Indian adolescents. Indian Journal of Psychiatry, 55(2), 140-143.
Giddens, A. (1991). Modernity and self-identity: Self and society in the late modern age. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Hamilton, S.F., & Hamilton, M.A. (2006). School, work, and emerging adulthood. In J. J. Arnett & J. L. Tanner (Eds.), Emerging adults in America: Coming of age in the 21 century (pp. 440-473). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Hoffman, J.A. (1984). Psychological separation of late adolescents from their parents.
Journal of Counseling Psychology, 31(2), 170-178.
Vaugn, J. (2015, September 04). Report, SXSW presentation spotlight how brands can leverage FOMO. Retrieved June 28, 2019, from
https://www.jwtintelligence.com/2012/03/report-sxsw-presentation-spotlight-how-brands-can-leverage-fomo/.
Kaplan, A., & Haenlein, M. (2010). Users of the world, unite! The challenges and opportunities of social media. Business Horizons, 53(1), 59-68.
Kinch, J.W. (1963). A formalized theory of the self-concept. American Journal of Sociology, 68(4), 481-486.
Kujath, C.L. (2011). Facebook and MySpace: Complement or substitute for face-to-face interaction? Cybersychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 14(1-2), 75-78.
In Proceedings of the 2008 ACM Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work (pp. 435–444). New York, NY: ACM.
Larsen, S., Øgaard, T., & Brun, W. (2011). Backpackers and mainstreamers: Realities and myths. Annals of Tourism Research, 38(2), 690-707.
Leary, M., & Kowalski, R. (1990). Impression management: A literature review and two- component model. Psychological Bulletin, 107(1), 34-47.
Manago, A., Taylor, T., & Greenfield, P. (2012). Me and my 400 friends: The anatomy of college students’ Facebook networks, their communication patterns, and well-being. Developmental Psychology, 48(2), 369-380.
Molz, J.G. (2006). “Watch us wander”: Mobile surveillance and the surveillance of mobility. Environment and Planning A, 38(2), 377-393.
Molz, J.G. (2012). Travel connections: Tourism, technology and togetherness in a mobile world. London: Routledge.
Molz, J.G., & Paris, C.M. (2015). The social affordances of flashpacking: Exploring the mobility nexus of travel and communication. Mobilities, 10(2), 173-192.
Morley, D. (1980). The nationwide audience: structure and decoding. London: British Film Institute.
Noy, C. (2004). This trip really changed me: Backpackers’ narratives of self- change. Annals of Tourism Research, 31(1), 78-102.
O’Reilly, C.C. (2005). Tourist or traveller? Narrating backpacker identity. In A. Jaworski & A. Pritchard (Eds.), Discourse, Communication and Tourism (pp. 150-169). Clevedon [etc.: Channel View Publications.
Oulasvirta, A., Rattenbury, T., Ma, L., & Raita, E. (2012). Habits make smartphone use more pervasive. Personal and Ubiquitous Computing, 16(1), 105-114.
interactions, and enhanced mobilities. In K. Hannam & A. Diekmann (Eds.) Backpacker Tourists: Experiences and Mobilities (pp. 40-63). Clevedon: Channel View Publications.
Paris, C.M. (2011). Backpacker activities and personal values: An SEM approach. Annals of Leisure Research, 13(1), 293-258.
Paris, C.M. (2012). Flashpackers: An emerging sub-culture? Annals of Tourism Research, 39(2), 1094-1115.
Pearce, P.L. (1990). The backpacker phenomenon: Preliminary answers to basic questions. Townsville: James Cook University of North Queensland.
Pempek, T., Yermolayeva, Y., & Calvert, S. (2009). College students’ social networking experiences on Facebook. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 30(3), 227-238.
Przybylski A.K., Murayama K., DeHaan C.R., & Gladwell V. (2013) Motivational, emotional and behavioral correlates of fear of missing out. Computers in Human Behavior 29(4), 1841-1848.
Reichel, A., Fuchs, G., & Uriely, N. (2007). Perceived risk and the non-institutionalised tourist role: The case of Israeli student ex-backpackers. Journal of
Travel Research, 46(2), 217-226.
Ribak, R. (2009). Remote control, umbilical cord and beyond: The mobile phone as a transitional object. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 27(1), 183-196. Safronova, V. (2015, November 18). On fake Instagram, a chance to be real. New York
Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2015/11/19/fashion/instagram-finstagram-fake-account.html.
transition. In Carol J. Bruess (Ed.), Family Communication in the Age of Digital and Social Media (pp. 184-205). New York: Peter Lang Publishers.
Stern, S. (2004). Expressions of identity online: Prominent features and gender differences in adolescents’ world wide web home pages. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 48(2), 218-243.
Strauss, A. (1987). Qualitative analysis for social scientists. Cambridge [etc: Cambridge University Press.
Tajfel, H. (1982). Social identity and intergroup relations. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Tajfel, H., & Turner, J.C. (2004). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In M.J. Hatz & M. Schultz (Eds.), Organizational identity: A reader (pp. 55-65). New York: Oxford University Press.
Valkenburg, P.M., & Peter, S. (2011). Online communication among adolescents: An integrated model of its attraction, opportunities, and risks. Journal of Adolescent Health, 48(2), 121-127.
Valkenburg, P., Schouten, A., & Peter, J. (2005). Adolescents’ identity experiments on the internet. New Media & Society, 7(3), 383-402.
Vannucci, A., Flannery, K., & Ohannessian, C. (2017). Social media use and anxiety in emerging adults. Journal of Affective Disorders, 207, 163-166.
Wang, Z., Tchernev, J., & Solloway, T. (2012). A dynamic longitudinal examination of social media use, needs, and gratifications among college students. Computers in Human Behavior, 28(5), 1829-1839.
Yang, C., Brown, B., & Braun, M. (2014). From Facebook to cell calls: Layers of electronic intimacy in college students’ interpersonal relationships. New Media & Society, 16(1), 5-23.
