Master Thesis
Person-group fit and turnover intention: the moderating role of managers’
communication and employees’ met expectations
Author : Jiraprapa Srijarupruk Student number : 11175710
Final version : 30th June, 2017
Executive Programme in Management Studies – Leadership and Management Track University of Amsterdam
Statement of Originality
This document is written by Jiraprapa Srijarupruk who declares to take full responsibility for the contents of this document.
I declare that the text and the work presented in this document is original and that no sources other than those mentioned in the text and its references have been used in creating it. The Faculty of Economics and Business is responsible solely for the supervision of completion of the work, not for the contents.
Jiraprapa Srijarupruk 11175710
Abstract
Work teams have become more important as collaboration in the team helped firms increase the ability to compete, innovate which led to increase in overall performance. Individuals who joined the team haves important roles and responsibilities, therefore, fitting in the team is important. Person-Group fit (PG fit) has been found to have significant implication for employees’ behaviors. This study examined the relationship between PG fit and turnover intention, and how this relation moderated by manager communication and employees’ met expectations. A conceptual model was developed based on the literature. A questionnaire was distributed and data were collected from 163 employees of a large Telecom operator in The Netherlands. The response rate was 77%. As predicted, PG fit showed a negative relationship with turnover intention. However, there was no moderating effect of manager communication and employee met expectations on this relation. The study concludes with directions for future research and implications for management practice.
Table of contents
Abstract ... 3
1. Introduction ... 5
2. Theoretical Background and Hypotheses ... 7
2.1 Person-Group fit (PG fit) and turnover intention ... 7
2.2 The moderating role of line manager communication... 10
2.3 The moderating role of met expectations ... 11
3. Research Design ... 13
3.1 Method ... 13
3.2 Measures ... 15
4. Results ... 19
4.1 Means, Standard deviations, correlations ... 20
4.2 Regression Analysis ... 22
4.3 Additional Analysis ... 26
4.3.1 The effect of job satisfaction ... 26
4.3.2 The effect of other types of fit ... 27
5. Discussion ... 28
6. Limitations and suggestion for future research ... 34
7. Conclusion ... 35
References ... 36
Appendices ... 40
1. Research questionnaire ... 40
1. Introduction
Person-group fit (PG fit) is defined as “the compatibility between individuals and their work groups” (Kristof, 1996, p. 7). As organizations increasingly structure work around teams, the concept of perceived fit in team contexts has become especially important.
Focusing on PG fit is relevant, as the fit of a person to the team is positively and significantly related to individual performance (Elfenbein & O’Reilly, 2007). PG fit also emerges as a relevant predictor of contextual performance. Empirical findings confirmed that values-based and abilities-based fit perceptions in teams showed positive relationships with team cohesion, team efficacy, and team performance (Kristof-Brown et al, 2014). As organizations continue to ask employees to do more with less, using PG to hire and retain individuals who contribute beyond job requirements may provide a competitive advantage to the firm (Kristof-Brown, Zimmerman, & Johnson, 2005).
Research suggests that employees’ decision to quit their job is influenced by fit perceptions, with the lack of fit seriously undermining employees’ intentions to retain their membership with the organization (Boon & Biron, 2016). The concept of PG fit based on the degree of congruence or similarity between individuals’ values and those of their coworkers (Seong & Kristof-Brown, 2012), individuals who do not have abilities to meet situation demands, overall and task performance are likely to suffer which leads to declining
performance, high strain under such conditions, and may result in turnover. Contrary, when individuals’ needs are being met at work, the resulting positive attitudes may mitigate strain, facilitate higher performance, and reduce turnover (Kristof-Brown, Zimmerman, & Johnson, 2005). Therefore, PG fit at work is an important factor for individuals to consider remaining or quitting an organization.
This study aims to examine PG fit at the individual level. More specially I focus on the “person” as the reference for comparison, focusing on fit of the person with the team and
taking into account two types of fits: Value-based fit reflects supplementary fit, which emphasizes matching commensurate individual and team characteristics (Kristof, 1996). Complementary fit refers to a person possessing the requisite knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs) to meet job demands (Soeng et al., 2014). Studying fit at the individual level is important as it allows to draw conclusions about the impact of fit on individual behaviors, in this specific study to examine the effect on turnover intention.
Based on research findings regarding the relation of fit and turnover, most research referred to other types of fit. Person-group (PG) fit is one of the most under-researched areas of PE fit (Kristof-Brown et al., 2005). There are studies which link PG fit to performance (Seong & Kristof-Brown, 2012), and PG fit as a moderator to the relation with other types of fit and outcome (Vogel & Feldman, 2009). However, there is no reported study on the relation of PG fit and turnover intention. As fitting in the team is important and employees’ turnover would cost the firms in term of time, money and resources, this studied could help to identify what is the effect of PG fit on turnover intention. I argued that there is a relationship between PG fit and turnover intention. There is a gap in the study of PG fit and the relation to turnover intention, especially having manager communication and employees’ met expectation as moderators. This leads to the main question to this study, “when individuals experience less PG fit at work, how do PG fit relate to turnover intention and how do manager
communication and met expectation moderate this relationship?”.
This study could contribute, first to PG fit literature as I find it surprising that the results of PG fit studies do not have strong correlations in many reported studies (Kristof-Brown, Zimmerman, & Johnson, 2005; Vogel & Feldman, 2009; Seong et al, 2005). The studied of fits provided a meaningful way of assessing how fit with various aspects of the work
environment influences individuals’ attitudes and behaviors (Kristof-Brown, Zimmerman, & Johnson, 2005). Kristof-Brown et al. (2005) reported that PG fit has a moderate true score
correlation with the intention to quit with weak results findings. Seong et al. (2015) reported that individuals PG fit have minimal impact on individuals’ task performance. These results finding raised the questions and explanations on limited PG fit research. Second, to this point in the study of PG fit, it is commonly associated with positive outcomes (job satisfaction, team level performance, etc.), scant research addresses what individuals will do in the event of low PG fit, such that the result of this study can be used as a predictor of intention to quit. Furthermore, it could help to develop a pattern to influence this relationship by using manager communication or lower employee expectations which would increase job satisfaction and organizational commitment. While high manager communication may not compensate for low PG fit, it might extenuate the negative effects of PG fit on turnover intention.
2. Theoretical Background and Hypotheses
2.1 Person-Group fit (PG fit) and turnover intention
PG fit is based on the idea that many employment positions require interpersonal interactions with team members. PG fit is conceptualized as either supplementary or complementary. Supplementary fit occurs when “a person supplements, embellishes, or possesses characteristics which are similar to other individuals in the environment”
(Muchinsky & Monahan, 1987, p. 269). Complementary fit starts from a “weakness or need of the environment if offset by the strength of the individuals, and vice versa” (Muchinsky & Monahan, 1987, p. 271). Thus, PG fit can exist when a person shares values or traits with team members (supplementary), or when the person possesses a set of abilities that help the team perform its task (complementary) (Seong & Kristof-Brown, 2012). Similarity leads to attraction and higher degrees of interpersonal liking, such that when individuals believe that their values are congruent with team members, they should be more attracted to the team and committed to its success (Seong & Kristof-Brown, 2012).
PG fit, or the compatibility between a person and a team, has been linked to important organizational outcomes, including team cohesion and team efficacy (Kristof-Brown et al., 2014), organizational commitment (Kristof-Brown et al., 2014) and team performance (Seong et al, 2012). In addition, PG fit has an important role for individual outcomes, including job satisfaction (Kristof-Brown et al., 2005), individual performance (Seong & Kristof-Brown, 2012), citizenship behavior (Vogel & Feldman, 2009) and intention to quit (Kristof-Brown et al., 2005). An individual outcome such as turnover intention has long been a critical
organizational issue. Turnover intention has been emphasized as an important factor for the financial performance of organizations (Joo & Park, 2009). Therefore, this study focused on the relation of PG fit to turnover intention.
Turnover intention is “a conscious and deliberate willfulness to leave the organization” (Tett & Meyer, 1993, p. 262) and has been described as the last in a sequence of withdrawal cognitions (Mobley et al, 1978). The process for individuals’ intention to quit the
organization developed over time in several steps, take place between the experience of job dissatisfaction and a decision to quit (Miller et al., 1979). Tett and Meyer (1993) presented several conclusions regarding the role of work attitudes in predicting withdrawal intentions that job satisfaction and organizational commitment each contribute uniquely to turnover intention. Miller et al. (1979) described his research findings that job satisfaction and career mobility influence turnover only through their influence on withdrawal cognition. Similar to the meta-analysis of Griffeth et al. (2000) confirmed research findings that proximal
precursors in the withdrawal process, include job satisfaction, organizational commitment, job search, comparison of alternatives, withdrawal cognitions, and quit intentions were shown to the predictors of turnover. Thus, there is evidence of commonalities such as job satisfaction and organizational commitment which related PG fit and turnover intention, which may reflect the relationship.
Survival analysis by O'Reilly et al. (1991) indicated that value congruence was a
significant determinant of actual employee turnover within 2 years of the initial assessment of fit. Similarly, Chatman (2003) reported that levels of value congruence measured both at entry (initial) and after 1 year of employment and socialization (resulting) significantly predicted turnover (Kristof, 1996). According to research findings, there are relations of turnover intention and types of fit. PO fit provides meaningful insights into individual adjustments to organizations, thus associations between PO fit and turnover almost 24 months later can be predicted (O’Reilly et al., 1991). Seeing overqualified employees as indicative of poor PJ fit, Liu et al. (2015) suggested that “in processing their PJ misfit, overqualified employees might cognitively appraise themselves as less worthy organizational member” (p. 250). This
qualification makes them more confident in their ability to seek other job opportunities outside the organization, resulting in a higher turnover (Boon & Biron, 2016).
Organizational identification is a negative predictor of turnover intentions as employee persistence should be a function of the extent to which employees feel they belong and have a bond with coworkers (having strong in-group ties). In other words, individuals who feel good about their membership within the team (in-group affect) tend to say that they would remain there in the future (Harris & Cameron, 2005). Individuals who do not feel fit in the team will tend to leave the organization. Despite the recognition that the association of fit with turnover intention is important, there is no research conducted to establish this relation between PG fit and turnover intention. Concluding, theories and empirical research findings suggest that there is a relation between PG fit and turnover intention, Therefore, I propose:
Hypothesis 1: There is a negative relationship between person-group fit and turnover intention.
2.2 The moderating role of line manager communication
Line managers have a crucial role in people management, enacting HR practices and engaging in leadership behavior. This means that line managers have to be included in any causal chain seeking to explain and measure the relationship between HRM and
organizational performance (Purcell & Hutchinson, 2007). Line managers are often primarily responsible for communicating with the employee about their work and on organizational information such as decisions, procedures, and policies (Den Hartog et al, 2012). Manager communication influences teams by increases trust (Mackenzie, 2010), helps increase interaction in the team (Griffin & Hauser, 1992), reduce conflict (Lovelace et al, 2001) and helps direct the teams to achieve their goals and objectives (Grojean et al., 2004). Such that, I can conclude that manager communication helps increase team cohesion and that cohesion, in turn, affects performance and organization outcomes (Smith et al., 2017).
When manager communication is high, the negative relationship between PG fit and turnover intention should be stronger, as employees with high PG fit share common values (Seong & Kristof-Brown, 2012), are likely to understand each other and collaborate well with colleagues and are expected to possess a set of abilities that help the team perform its task (Seong & Kristof-Brown, 2012), which are likely to share responsibilities better among each other, all of which are likely to decrease intention to leave the organization. Having a high manager communication, characterized by high level of interactions (Griffin & Hauser, 1992), reduces conflict and increases team cohesion (Smith et al., 2017), may further strengthen the understanding of team’s values and expectations, as well as further increases team
performance. Thus, high manager communication may contribute to more benefits of PG fit to have a better fit with the team which individuals belong to and easier fulfill team’s goals and objectives.
Another reason to believe that manager communication influences the relation of PG fit with turnover intention is explained by a study on the role of social integration and
communication. Fishbein and Ajzen (1975) conceptualize subjective norms as a social
influence process whereby people bring their behavior in line with the behavioral expectations of others to the extent that those specific others are valued and important (Terry & Hogg, 1996). Manager communication influences pattern of communication (Griffin & Hauser, 1992), helps create team heterogeneity and team cohesion (Smith et al., 1994), which leads to performance. As a result, manager communication may have a role to accelerate and
strengthen fit in the teams which may affect lower turnover intention. Based on theories and empirical research findings suggest that there is a moderation effect on the relation between PG fit and turnover intention, I propose:
Hypothesis 2: The negative relationship between person-group fit (PG fit) and turnover intention is moderated by manager communication such that the relation is stronger when communication of line manager is high rather than low.
2.3 The moderating role of met expectations
From the theoretical perspective of met expectations, the patterns of correlation have shown the strongest results are found for job satisfaction and organizational commitment (Wanous et al., 1992). Met expectations denote a discrepancy between what a person
encounters on a given job in the way of positive and negative experiences and what he or she expected to encounter (Porter & Steers, 1973, p. 152). Individuals may differ in what they expect to find, e.g. pay, reward, teams, etc. which would have an impact on withdrawal decision if expectations are not substantially met. When newcomers enter an organization, they have already formed expectations regarding job role, responsibility and team role. As
individuals gain experience across different task domains, they tend to feel more efficacious in general and expect to be successful in various tasks (Chen & Klimoski, 2003) which mean met expectations influence an increase or decrease in job satisfaction and commitment.
When employees’ met expectations are high, the relationship between PG fit and turnover intention should be stronger, as employees with high met expectations have a high job survival rate than those whose expectations are not met (Wanous et al., 1992), have a higher degrees of work adjustment (Irving & Meyer, 1994) and are likely to achieve the positive outcome (Irving & Meyer, 1994). As mentioned above, high PG fit is characterized by sharing similar values, goals and possessing the skills, knowledge, and abilities to meet job demand (Seong et al., 2015). Individuals who have high met expectations are likely to set higher goals (Wotruba & Tyagi, 1991), more willing and helping team members (Gould et al., 1999), are having more job satisfaction and organizational commitment as a result. The benefits associated with high met expectations are likely to strengthen the relationship between PG fit and turnover intention because individuals who expectations are being met, are likely to feel more fits with the team and are likely to decrease intention to quit the organization.
Interestingly, when individuals feel less fit with the team and tend to leave the
organization, how met expectations influence this relationship? PG fit has a strong correlation with job satisfaction and organizational commitment (Christof-Brown et al, 2005). Individuals who feel less fit the team, dissatisfied, are likely to have higher intention to quit. In this
respect, there are commonalities, which are job satisfaction and organizational commitment as a basic outcome of met expectations and they are likely to influence the relationship between PG fit and turnover intention. Wanous et al. (1992) suggested that confirmed expectations are related to positive work attitudes. When individuals lower their expectation, they would be easily pleased, which in turn makes the relationship between PG fit and turnover intention
less strong. I argue that met expectations moderate the relationship between PG fit and turnover intention. Thus, I hypothesize:
Hypothesis 3: The negative relationship between person-group fit (PG fit) and turnover intention is moderated by met expectations of employee such that the relation is stronger when met expectations are high rather than low.
3. Research Design
3.1 Method
To test these hypotheses, employees from 32 teams (163 employees) of a large telecom operator in The Netherlands were invited to participate in the present study. Many telecom operators are facing increasing challenges in the digital era. Mobile internet and big data created tremendous opportunities for new startups and influenced on operating model of tradition telecom operators. They have to adapt to survive which forced them to be more efficient, lower cost and lead to strategic and organizational changes. Collaboration and working in the team become very important to help speed up the process to be able to compete. The majority of participants are working in the engineering and IT teams as work team are one of the most critical working criteria which is the major subject in this study.
Team members individually completed questions on PG fit, turnover intention, manager communication and met expectations within their teams. The definition of “team” was an official working team which individuals belong to. However, the members of each specific team were not revealed to participants, only the team code is given. When referring to “manager” in the study, I meant direct supervisor of the official team.
In addition, to be able to eliminate the relation of other types of fit and employee behavior, I also asked participants to answer questions on PJ fit, PO fit, and job satisfaction.
The organization was identified with personal contacts of the researcher. Data were collected by means of a web-based questionnaire, which took approximately 15 minutes to complete. The questionnaire was administered in English. In this company, English is one of the standard and commonly used language in meetings and written documentations. The email was sent out to the participants by a researcher, first to ask for their permission. Second, after the permission was granted, the email contained the link to the secure data collection site. As the purpose of the research was to draw conclusions on teamwork, the survey data was collected by the team, a team code was provided in the emails. Results contained aggregated information over a number of teams so survey information was kept strictly confidential and anonymous. Results were not allowed any conclusions regarding the answers of individuals, singular teams or team managers.
The study used quantitative research method. The response rate was 77percent (125 participants). The teams ranged in size from 4 to 9 members. The mean average age of the members of the 32 teams was 43.1 years. Of all participants, 84% were men and 16% were women. The mean average team tenure was 54months. Fifty-eight percent of all participants had at least a bachelordegree and had average 3.85 times changed jobs outside current organization. More details of demographic of the samples were presented below in table 1. Table 1. Demographic overview
Age <30 year old 30-40 year old 41-50 year old > 50 year old
3% 29% 50% 18%
Gender Male Female
84% 16%
Team Tenure < 12 months 12-24 months 25-48 months >48 months
(month) 3% 42% 18% 35%
Education High school University PhD Others
42% 42% 1% 15%
Change jobs 0 time 1-5 times > 5 times
3.2 Measures
Employees responded to questionnaire using a seven-point Likert-type scale, or five-point Likert-type scale as state below.
PG fit was assessed using Cable and DeRue (2002). PG fit was based on deep-level characteristic including values, personality, and abilities (Seong & Kristof-Brown, 2012). PG fit wasconceptualized as either internal (supplementary) or external (complementary), the distinction between types of characteristics depends on these two concepts. Questions were rated on a seven-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 7 (Strongly agree) with 4 being neutral. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was 0.86.
PG fit as Value-based fit reflected supplementary fit, which emphasized matching commensurate individuals and organizational characteristics (Kristof, 1996). The three-item scale of values-based fit, questions were “The things that I value in life are very similar to the things that my team members value.”, “My personal values match my team's values and culture.”, and “My team's values and culture provide a good fit with the things that I value in life.”
PG fit as Personality-based fit also reflected supplementary fit and abilities-based fit reflected complementary fit. The three-item scale of personality-based fit, questions were “I feel that my personality matches my team's image.”, “My personality matches my teams's personality.”, and “My personality provides a good fit with my team's personality.”
PG fit as Abilities-based fit referred to “the match between the environmental demands and a person’s abilities” (Edwards, 1996, p. 296). The demands could be either objective or the length of work day, or socially constructed such as group norms or role expectations (Seong & Kristof-Brown, 2012). The three-item scale of abilities-based fit, questions were “The match is very good between the demands of my team's task and my personal skills.”, “My abilities and training are a good fit with the requirements of the team's tasks.”, and “My
abilities and education provide a good match with the demands that my team tasks place on me.”
PJ fit was accessed using Cable and DeRue (2002). PJ fit was based on demands-abilities fit and needs-supplies fit. First, demands-demands-abilities fit referred to the degree to which an employee’s knowledge, skills, and abilities match the requirements of the job. Second, needs-supplies fit referred to the degree to which the employee’s needs were addressed by the supplies that emanate from his or her job (Boon & Biron, 2016). Questions were rated on a seven-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 7 (Strongly agree) with 4 being neutral. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was 0.92.
PJ fit as demands-abilities fit, the three-item scale for demands-abilities fit, questions were “The match is very good between the demands of my job and my personal skills.”, “My abilities and training are a good fit with the requirements of my job.”, and “My personal abilities and education provide a good match with the demands that my job places on me.”
PJ fit as needs-supplies fit, the three-item scale for needs-supplies fit, questions were “There is a good fit between what my job offers me and what I am looking for in a job.”, “The attributes that I look for in a job are fulfilled very well by my present job.”, and “The job that I currently hold gives me just about everything that I want from a job.”
PO fit was accessed using Cable and DeRue (2002). The three-item scale, questions were “To what degree do you feel your values match or fit this organization and the current employees in this organization?”, “My values match those of current employees in
organization.”, and “Do you think the values and personality of this organization reflect your own values and personality?”. Questions were rated on a seven-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 7 (Strongly agree) with 4 being neutral. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was 0.86.
Managers communication was accessed using Kerman and Hanges (2002), the items asked employees to rate whether their managers provided them sufficient work and
organization related information, whether they understood the communicated information, and whether it was useful to them. The four-item scale, questions were “My managers provide a sufficient amount of information to me.”, “My managers provide a sufficient amount of information to me.”, “The information provided by my managers is useful.”, and “I understand the information communicated by my managers.” Questions were rated on a seven-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 7 (Strongly agree) with 4 being neutral. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was 0.85.
Turnover intention was assessed using a three-item scale developed by Irving, Coleman, and Cooper (1997). Questions were “I intend to stay in this job for the foreseeable future.”, “I will probably look for a new job within the next year.”, and “I do not intend to pursue
alternate employment in the foreseeable future.” Questions were rated on a seven-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 7 (Strongly agree) with 4 being neutral. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was 0.85.
Met expectation was accessed using the nine-item scale developed by Lee and Mowday (1987). Example questions were “My immediate supervision have been…”, “The kind of work that I do have been…”, and “The amount of work that I do have been…”. Questions were rated on a five-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (Less than expected) to 5 (Much more than expected) with 3 being neutral. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was 0.73.
Job satisfaction was assessed using a three-item scale developed by Zhou and George (2001). Questions were “In general, I like working at my organization.”, “In general, I don't like my job.”, and “All in all, I am satisfied with my job.” Questions were rated on a seven-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 7 (Strongly agree) with 4 being neutral. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was 0.77.
Control variables were age (in years), gender (1 = male, 2 = female), group size and tenure (in months). They were used as common control variables in the studies of fit as they can strongly influence testing results (Griffeth et al., 2000; Boon & Biron, 2016). Griffeth et al. (2000) reported that age and gender were related to turnover. Group size and group tenure of members may affect the interpersonal dynamics among members because groups with different sizes and history may engender different levels of close interaction among members, which may change the role of group affect, fit perceptions, and conflict with regard to group performance (Seong & Choi, 2014). In addition, task interdependence and task complexity were added as control variables. Task interdependence at an individual level referred to the extent to which they depended on others for completion of their work (Liden et al., 2006). Task complexity referred to the extent to which the tasks on a job were complex and difficult to perform (Morgeson & Humphrey, 2006). Task interdependence and task complexity were found to influence team processes and performance because the nature of the team’s task may influence their interaction (Seong et al., 2015).
Task interdependence was assessed using a five-item scale developed by Van der Vegt and Janssen (2003). Example questions were “I need information and advice from my fellow team members to perform my job well.”, “I need to collaborate with fellow team members about work related issues.”, and “My fellow team members need information and advice to perform their jobs well.” Questions were rated on a five-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 5 (Strongly agree) with 3 being neutral. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was 0.77.
Task Complexity was assessed using a five-item scale developed by Morgeson and Humphrey (2006). Questions were “The job requires that I only do one task or activity at a time.”, “The tasks of the job are simple and uncomplicated.”, and “The jobs involves
from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 5 (Strongly agree) with 3 being neutral. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was 0.82.
4. Results
This section of the thesis described the steps throughout the analysis and the results. The first step after collecting the data, I analyzed and computed counter-indicative items. Then, I checked all data for reliability test and correlation with all related variables. Finally, linear regression analysis was done to check the hypotheses. To analyze the relation between PG fit and turnover intention, SPSS is used.
First of all, in the process of preparing data for analysis, data screening, normality check and handling missing data were performed. For missing data, values were read with fields left blank, filled with fixed input. Values were automatically recognized as missing by SPSS, using Listwise deletion. For frequencies checked, there were no errors found. There were counter-Indicative items, items that were phrased so that an agreement with the item represented a low level of the construct being measured. These items, rTI1 (Turnover
Intention) and rTI3, rTAINT2 (Task Intensity), rTSCP2 (Task Complexity) and rTSCP3 have been recorded and then represented TI1, TI3, TAINT2, TSCP2 and TSCP3.
In the next step of the analysis, reliability testing was performed to examine the consistency of measurements. Reliability checks were run for PG fit, turnover intention, manager communication, met expectation, PJ fit, PO fit, job satisfaction, task
interdependence, and task complexity. Cronbach’s alpha of all variables had the values more than 0.7 which consider as reliable. Except for task complexity which has originally lower score of Cronbach’s alpha less than 0.7, as a result, the first question and answer are removed from the analysis so that the correlation coefficient data was more reliable.
4.1 Means, Standard deviations, correlations
Table 2 presented means, standard deviations, correlations, and internal reliability (Cronbach’s alpha) estimates for main variables collected in the present study. Of the main study variables, there were significant and positive correlations between PG fit (r = -.244, p<0.05), manager communication (r = -.252, p<0.05), met expectations (r = -.395, p<0.01) and turnover intention. When examined the control variables, only age (r = -.268, p<0.01) has a significant negative relationship with turnover intention. Team tenure had a significant positive relationship with PG fit (r = .286, p<0.01), manager communication (r = .264, p<0.05) and met expectations (r = .330, p<0.05).
10 (.8 4 8 ) 9 (. 7 2 5 ) -. 3 9 5 * * 8 (.8 4 9 ) .3 7 8 * * -. 2 5 2 * 7 (.8 6 8 ) .5 5 1 * * .4 7 7 * * -. 2 4 4 * 6 (-) .16 7 .1 1 1 -. 0 3 1 -. 1 9 0 5 (-) .2 5 7 * -. 0 5 2 -. 0 7 0 -. 0 4 7 .0 3 5 4 (-) -.1 2 8 -. 0 9 3 -. 0 0 1 .0 6 9 -. 0 9 3 -. 0 6 7 3 (-) .00 2 -. 1 3 2 -. 0 2 0 .2 8 6 * * .2 6 4 * .3 3 0 * * -. 0 7 0 2 (-) .14 5 -. 2 2 5 * -. 1 8 1 -. 1 9 3 -. 0 6 2 -. 0 3 0 .1 9 1 -. 0 4 8 1 (-) -. 1 7 1 .0 5 3 .0 7 7 .0 2 6 .1 8 9 .1 3 4 .1 6 8 -. 0 2 8 -. 2 6 8 * * SD 7.0 1 0 .4 2 5 6 .6 6 1 .4 8 0 .7 1 0 .9 5 0 .8 5 1 .2 3 0 .4 9 1 .5 2 M 43 .5 1 1 .1 7 5 3 .9 5 5 .6 0 3 .8 9 3 .9 5 5 .3 3 5 .3 0 2 .9 6 3 .5 0 Va ria bles 1 .Ag e 2 .Gen d er 3 .T ea m .T en u re 4 .Gr o u p s ize 5 .T ask I n ter d ep en d en ce 6 .T ask C o m p lex ity 7 .PG f it 8 .Ma n ag er C o m m u n icatio n 9 .Me t E x p ec tatio n s 1 0 .T u rn o v er I n te n tio n T able 2 . Me ans, S tand ar d dev iat ions, Co rr el at ions an d C ronba ch a lpha ** Co rr elatio n is s ig n if ica n t a t th e 0 .0 1 lev el (2 -tailed ). * C o rr elatio n is s ig n if ica n t a t th e 0 .0 5 lev el (2 -tailed ).
4.2 Regression Analysis
To test our hypotheses, the moderating effects of manager communication and met expectations on the PG fit and turnover intention link, I conducted linear regression and displayed the results from this analysis in Table 3. Before computing product terms, I
standardized all independent variables. Following Aiken and West (1991), we entered control variables (age, gender, tenure, group size, task interdependence and task complexity) in the first step, the main variables (PG fit, manager communication and met expectations) in the second step and the interaction variables between PG fit and turnover intention in the third step.
In step 1, testing Hypothesis 1 on the relation of PG fit and turnover intention, the result indicated significant negative relationship (β = -.225, p = .04) such that as the level of PG fit increase, lower the intention to leave the organization. Hypothesis 1 was supported. In step 2 of the analysis, I examined the moderated relationship with manager communication. There was no evidence of moderation effect (β = .21, p = 0.13), thus Hypothesis 2 was rejected. Consistent with analysis of Hypothesis 3, I moderated the relationship between PG fit and turnover intention with met expectations, the result indicated no moderation effect (β = -.14, p = 0.31), these findings provided no support for Hypothesis 3. Thus, Hypothesis 3 is rejected. However, results showed that met expectations had a significant negative relationship with turnover intention (β = -.436, p = 0.00). Figure 1 displayed research model and regression results.
Figure 1. Research model and regression results
* p<0.05 (The significance threshold was set at .05 in this study analysis.)
Table 3. Results of linear regressions and testing moderation effects
Variables Turnover Intention
Step 1 Model 2 Model 3
β β β Control Age -.269 (.015) -.238 (.030) -.243 (.021) Gender -.092 (.414) -.100 (.368) .005 (.962) Tenure -.075 (.501) -.019 (.868) -.015 (.886) Group size -.095 (.391) -.101 (.351) -.133 (.198) Task Interdependence .058 (.605) .017 (.878) .079 (.470) Task Complexity -.164 (.153) -.117 (.310) -.212 (.057)
Step 2: Main effects
PG fit -.225 (.047) .011 (.939) Manager communication .014 (.939) .079 (.538) Met expectations -.639 (.000) -.436 (.000) Step 3: Interactions PG fit x Manager communication .208 (.130)
PG fit x Met expectations -.135 (.312)
In the step of normality of distribution, skewness and kurtosis checked, the items of PG fit and manager communication had no normally distributed items. For turnover intention, skewness is between 0 and 1and met expectation, skewness is between -0.5 and 1 which indicated normal distribution. Both PG fit and manager communication, skewness is between -2 and -0.5 which indicated substantial negative skewness. In this case, bootstrapping was used to first check correlations and after that run linear regression again using bootstrap. Table 4 reported the results.
Person-Group Fit Turnover Intention Manager Communication Met Expectations -.225* .208 -.135
Table 4. Results of regressions using bootstrap
Variables Turnover Intention
Step 1 Model 2 Model 3
β β β Control Age -.410 (.004) -.390 (.005) -.370 (.014) Gender -.345 (.336) -.109 (.758) .019 (.960) Tenure -.114 (.528) -.040 (.821) -.023 (.892) Group size -.140 (.348) -.186 (.203) -.197 (.196) Task Interdependence .087 (.643) .051 (.761) .117 (.523) Task Complexity -.275 (.192) -.309 (.128) -.355 (.857)
Step 2: Main effects
PG fit -.333 (.040) .016 (.949) Manager communication .014 (.950) .117 (.568) Met expectations -.639 (.001) -.647 (.001) Step 3: Interactions PG fit x Manager communication .226 (.156)
PG fit x Met expectations -.168 (.239)
The regressions using bootstrapping revealed similar results as previous linear
regressions. Hypothesis 1 was supported as I found a significant negative relation of PG fit to turnover intention (β = -.33, p = 0.04). Hypothesis 2 was rejected as there was no moderation effect of manager communication (β = .23, p = .16) on the relation of PG fit and turnover intention. Hypothesis 3 was also rejected. There was no moderation effect of met expectations (β = -.17, p = 0.24), on the relation of PG fit and turnover intention.
With respect to the hypothesized moderation effect of both manager communication and met expectations on the relation of PG fit to turnover intention, I found it surprising that there were no effects on this relationship. To test further interaction effects which might not reveal in the previous regression, I chose SPSS process macro (Hayes, 2012) model 3 to test the interaction moderation effects. Figure 2 presented the model and table 5 presented the results.
Figure 2. Research model and regression results using process macro model 3
Table 5. Results of process macro model 3 testing moderation effects Model summary : Turnover intention
R R2 MSE F df1 df2 p
0.5834 0.3404 1.8135 2.8974 13.0000 73.000 .0020
coeff se t p LLCI ULCI
constant 3.3702 .5002 6.7380 .0000 2.3734 4.3671 Met expectations -.7352 .1934 -3.8012 .0003 -1.1207 -.3497 PG fit -.0544 .2311 -.2353 .8146 -.5149 .4062 int_1 -.0171 .1933 -.0883 .9298 -.4023 .3682 Manager communication -.0048 .2070 -.0233 .9815 .-4175 .4078 int_2 .3082 .1544 1.9963 .0496 .0005 .6158 int_3 -.1443 .1983 -.7278 .4691 -.5394 .2508 int_4 .2176 .1450 1.5007 .1378 -.0714 .5067 Age -.3379 .1569 -2.1533 .0346 -.6506 -.0251 Gender .0108 .3956 .0274 .9782 -.7776 .7993 Tenure -.0760 .1639 -.4635 .6444 -.4027 .2507 Task Interdependent .1370 .1694 .8087 .4213 -.2006 .4747 Task complexity -.2605 .1906 -1.3665 .1760 -.6404 .1194 group size -.2006 .1533 -1.3090 .1947 -.5061 .1048
int_1 PG fit x Met expectations
int_2 PG fit x Manager communication
int_3 Met expectations x Manager communication
int_4 PG fit x Met expectations x Manager communication
The results indicated no moderation effect of both direct and indirect on the relation of PG fit and turnover intention.
Person-Group Fit Turnover Intention Manager Communication Met Expectations -.054 -.144 .017
4.3 Additional Analysis
4.3.1 The effect of job satisfaction
PG fit was based on the compatibility of value congruence between a person and a team. Regarding work attitudes, affected by value congruence include motivation, feeling of work group cohesion as well as a feeling of personal success, researchers have reported the strong impact of goal congruence, at both the individual and group level effect job satisfaction and organizational commitment (Kristof, 1996). And also job satisfaction influenced turnover through its influence on withdrawal cognition (Miller et al., 1979). Although job satisfaction was not part of our theorizing, there were reasons to believe that job satisfaction played a role to mediate the relationship between PG fit and turnover intention. Therefore, I explored how job satisfaction related to this study and purposed additional analysis.
Additional analysis was conducted based on empirical findings that PG fit associated with job satisfaction and turnover intention (Kristof-Brown et al, 2005) and later testing the effect of other types of fit. To examine how job satisfaction affected the relationship between PG fit and turnover intention, I chose process macro (Hayes, 2012) model 4 to run mediation analysis. All control variables (age, gender, team tenure, group size, task interdependence and task complexity) were used in this analysis the same as in the linear regression analysis. Table 6 and figure 3 in the appendices displayed the analysis model and results.
The results indicated that PG fit had a significant positive relationship with job satisfaction (β = .291, p = .008) and job satisfaction had a significant negative relationship with turnover intention (β = -.749, p = .000). Thus, there was a positive relation of PG fit and job satisfaction and there was a negative relation of job satisfaction and turnover intention.
Further to analyze the moderation roles of manager communication and met
expectations, I analyzed by choosing process macro model 58. When manager communication is high, it is likely to influence the interaction effect of job satisfaction on PG fit and turnover
intention as manager communication helps create team cohesion (Smith et al., 2017) and is likely to influence relation of PG fit and job satisfaction as individuals may feel better fit with the team and have more job satisfaction. Manager communication may influence relation of job satisfaction and turnover intention as high manager communication is likely to help employees more satisfied with their job and decrease intention to quit. First I examined moderating role of manager communication and I presented the result in figure 4 and more details result in table 7 in the appendices. The results represented that manager
communication had no significant moderation role for the relation between PG fit and job satisfaction (β = .005, p = .958). Also manager communication has shown no significant moderation effect on the relation between job satisfaction and turnover intention (β = .006, p = .959).
Second, I examined moderating role of met expectations and I presented the result in figure 5 and more details result in table 8 in the appendices. Individuals who have high met expectations are likely to set higher goals (Wotruba & Tyagi, 1991), more willing and helping team members (Gould et al., 1999), are having more job satisfaction as a result. Thus met expectations is likely to influence the link between PG fit and job satisfaction, and job satisfaction and turnover intention by making the relations stronger. The results represented that met expectations had a significant moderation role for the relation of PG fit and job satisfaction (β = .230, p = .01) and also indicated a significant moderation effect on the relation of job satisfaction and turnover intention (β = .407, p = .02).
4.3.2 The effect of other types of fit
As the result of correlation effect indicated PJ fit had a strong relationship to turnover intention than PG fit, I examined PJ fit using linear regression and result indicated that PJ fit had a strong negative relation (β = -.728, p = .000) to turnover intention. Kristof-Brown,
Zimmerman, and Johnson (2005) reported that job satisfaction should be most strongly associated with PJ fit compared to other types of fit. I also examined how job satisfaction affects the relationship between PJ fit and turnover intention, I chose process macro model 4 to run mediation analysis. All control variables (age, gender, team tenure, group size, task interdependence and task complexity) were used in this analysis the same as in the linear regression analysis. Figure 6 and table 9 in the appendices reported the analysis results. The results indicated that PJ fit has a significant positive relationship with job satisfaction (β = .623, p = .000) and job satisfaction had a significant negative relationship with turnover intention (β = -.545, p = .003). And also, there was a significant relation of PJ fit on turnover intention (β = -.388, p = .035).
Among different types of fit, PO fit had been found to have relation with job satisfaction (Bretz & Judge, 1994) and turnover intention (Kritstof-Brown et al., 2005). I repeated the same process to analyze PO fit as well as PJ fit. By using linear regression, PO fit had a significant negative relationship with turnover intention (β = -.389, p < .05). Then I used process macro model 4 to examine how job satisfaction mediated the relation between PO fit and turnover intention. Figure 7 and table 10 in appendices reported the analysis results. The results indicated that PO fit had a significant positive relationship with job satisfaction (β = .301, p = .005) and job satisfaction had a significant negative relationship with turnover intention (β = -.730, p = .000). However, according to our data collection, there was no direct relation of PO fit and turnover intention when considered job satisfaction as a mediator.
5. Discussion
The present study examined the so far unexamined relationship between PG fit and turnover intention. The focus was on individuals and the impact especially the effect when they feel less fit with the team. The result supported the first hypothesis that there was a
team, resulted in decrease turnover intention. In addition, the results indicated that individuals who felt less fit with the team led to decrease in job satisfaction (β = -.478, p = 0.000), were more likely to result in increased in intention to quit if the individuals also perceived
alternative job opportunities. Furthermore, by adding several demographics as control variables to this study, results reported that age influence testing results and tenure had a strong correlation to all independent variables, PG fit, manager communication and met expectations. When considered, control variable and the effect to turnover intention, age indicated a potential role in this regard. The correlation results have shown a negative significant relation between age and turnover intention (r = -.268, p < 0.01). In general, age may play an important role regarding relation to turnover intention.
Since the basic demarcation of different types of fit provided a meaningful way of assessing how fit with various aspects of the work environment influences individuals’ attitudes and behaviors (Kristof-Brown et al., 2005), I analyzed the effect of PJ fit as well. The result indicated that PJ fit had a strong relationship to turnover intention(β = -.728, p = 0.000). The potential explanations for this result would be, first, individuals who felt fit with the job would be less influential by supervisors (Boon & Biron, 2016) and achieved
congruence with the specifications of the job, achieved the goals and performed better
outcome (Vogel & Feldman, 2009) and thus, were likely to leave the organization. Second, in the work teams with high interpersonal congruence, individuals may be able to redefine their roles to minimize their responsibilities which made them felt better fit with the job (Vogel & Feldman, 2009) and willing to stay.
The second hypothesis was not supported. The result indicated no moderation effect of manager communication on the relation of PG fit and turnover intention. PG fit is based on the idea that immediate work team attaining both supplementary and complementary PG fit. Supplementary fit occurs when team members shares similar qualities with other team
members (Muchinsky & Monahan, 1987), shares certain beliefs and values which become group norms. Individuals who accept group norms are likely to express more positive work attitudes than those who do not accept the group norms (Ostroff & Kozliwski, 1992).
Complementary fit is based on determining human resource deficiencies which are enhanced when the deficiencies of one team member are complemented by the strengths of another team member. Thus, this type of fit is directly related to the fit between environmental demands and personal abilities with the emphasis being on group productivity (Werbel & Johnson, 2001). Manager communication does not influence on neither group norm,
individuals acceptation nor matching between environmental demands and personal abilities directly. Therefore, it could be the reason of no significant influence in the relationship.
Another reason which could explain the lack of influence of manager communication in the relationship between team fit and turnover intention is individuals could belong to more than one team. Since the cooperation of the work team became important in the technology driven environment, employees were continuously assigned into project team or virtual team. As I made an assumption in the data collection for an individual to fill in the questionnaire by the official team they belong, but I did not reveal who were the members of that specific team so individuals might make an assumption regarding the current working team and the
manager communication might not play significant role in specific context at the point in time of the survey.
Testing the third hypothesis indicated no supported result as I could not find evidence of moderating effect of met expectations on the relation of PG fit and turnover intention. Porter and Steers (1973) reported overall job satisfaction break down as various factors in the work situation as they related to withdrawal behavior. One of the factors is immediate work environment factors, they reported that negative employee attitudes toward their job context and social work team were significantly related to absenteeism and, to a lesser extent, to
turnover. Therefore, met expectations might not influence directly on the relation of PG fit to turnover intention but might be a factor or step in between such as job satisfaction and
absenteeism which I did not study as variables. But the result suggested that met expectations had a significant negative relationship with turnover intention which in line with previous research. Wotruba and Tyagi (1991) suggested that individuals who left the organization had more negative scores on met expectations than the one who stayed. However, they also suggested that met expectations measured at a given point in time did not predict turnover at a later point in time.
Despite that, I could not find the moderating effect of manager communication and employees’ met expectations on the relation between PG fit and turnover intention. Based on theories and empirical finding, there were other factors which could be considered such as job satisfaction. So I purposed in the section of additional analysis to examine, first the effect of job satisfaction on the relation between PG fit and turnover intention as a mediator. PG fit refers to “the compatibility between individuals and their work groups” (Kristof, 1996, p. 7), thus, values, preference for working climates and preferred working pace and style have been shown to predict satisfaction with team members, feelings of cohesion, strain and individual performance (Seong et al., 2015). Adding to this, there was a significant and consistent of the relationship between job satisfaction and turnover (Mobley, 1977), Thus, I tested mediation effect of job satisfaction on the relation of PG fit and turnover intention.
The results of correlation analysis of job satisfaction on all independent variables, PG fit (r = .300, p = .008), manager communication (r = .439, p = .006), met expectations (r = .413, p = .004) have shown positive significant correlations. The result on dependent variable, turnover intention (r = -.545, p = .003) showed a negative significant correlation.
Furthermore, I explored how job satisfaction affected the relationship between PG fit and turnover intention as a mediator. The results indicated a significant mediation effect on this
relation of PG fit and turnover intention. One of the research questions was how the manager communication and met expectations moderated the relation between PG fit and turnover intention, even though I could not find a significant relation but when job satisfaction was added into consideration, met expectations has a significant moderator effect on both, PG fit and job satisfaction, and job satisfaction and turnover intention. However, manager
communication did not show significant moderation effect on any of the relations.
Adding the fact about job satisfaction mediated the relation between PG fit and turnover intention and met expectations influenced both relationships, by implication, they suggested that organizations might improve the likelihood of positive work adjustment by reducing initial expectations (Wanous et al., 1992). In contrast, Irving and Meyer (1994) finding suggested that meeting employees’ expectations concerning various aspects of the job may be less important than providing positive work experiences regardless of their expectations. Given that the basis for PG fit should be developed prior to the selection process, the process could be used to openly differing role perceptions. If the group is able to resolve these differences prior to the search process and to agree on shared role expectations: newcomers are less likely to experience role stress from conflicting role expectations (Werbel & Johnson, 2001). They will feel better fit with the team and in turn, increase job satisfaction and lower turnover intention.
Even though, this study did not focus to study on other types of fit but collected data to eliminate the influence effect. The result has shown that PJ fit (β = -.738, p = 0.000) has a strong relationship to turnover intention. When combined with job satisfaction as a mediation to the relation of PJ fit and turnover intention, the result showed even more significant in all relationships, PJ fit and job satisfaction (β = .623, p < .01), job satisfaction and turnover intention (β = -.545, p < .01), and PJ fit to turnover intention (β = -.388, p < .05). Explanation
of the empirical finding in the domain of fit stated that job satisfaction should be most strongly associated with PJ fit than other types of fit (Kristof-Brown et al., 2005).
Despite that, I could not find moderation effect of both manager communication and employee expectation on the relation between PG fit and turnover intention led to more questions on how to influence PG fit on individuals. By performed additional analysis, the results implied that there might be other factors which heavily influence this relationship, for example, job satisfaction. There might be more of these factors. As mentioned in many research on weak result finding on PG fit, more research is needed, to understand how PG fit affects employees’ behavior. From a theoretical point of view, this research contributes to the literature by, first offering a different perspective of PG fit on the relation to turnover
intention. Second, when added other factor into consideration such as job satisfaction, it indicated more significant of the relationship between PG fit and turnover intention. And third, reported results were in line with the meta-analysis of Kristof-Brown et al. (2005) that turnover is likely to be influenced by multiple types of fit because they represented attitudes or behaviors relevant to the total work experience.
These results also have implications for management practices. First, our study supports evidence that team fit matters and has an impact on employees’ behavior, job satisfaction and turnover intention specific. So adding PG fit as a selection criteria for a newcomer might help reduce future turnover intention. Second, despite that employees’ met expectations did not have direct moderation effect on the relation between PG fit and turnover intention, when added other component such as job satisfaction, the moderation effect became salient. To manage newcomer expectations in the selection process would help influence individuals to have better fit in the team and more satisfied with the job, led to lower turnover intention. However, our results also suggest that team fit is a complicated concept, and adding a little contribution to PG fit literature, which is the most scant among all types of fit.
6. Limitations and suggestion for future research
This study has several limitations. First, the fact that data was collected from different sources and tested the relationships, thus this study relied on correlation data. To some extents, other factors which are not considered here may exert an influence on our findings, and more research is needed to detect the causal linkages that our model implies. Moreover, collecting data from different sources circumvents the problem of common-method bias. Second, this study collected data at a given point in time which specific context of team fit might influence how individuals feel fit with the team. Suggestion for future research is to collect data over time and examine longitudinal effects as it is difficult to predict how individuals perceived levels of fit and when individuals will become more like their coworkers and organizations (Kristof-Brown, 2005). Third, I conducted the research in a Telecom industrial, specific context of fit might affect our results. For example maturity of individuals in the team might effect on how much support that person needs from the team and how fit they feel with the team. Most of the jobs require a high degree of cooperation and teamwork, therefore factor such as communication among each other might play an important role rather than communication from managers. Future research could replicate our study in other sectors to test the influence of manager communication with the relations of PG fit and turnover intention. And fourth, because of the time limit, this research was conducted only on a small size of participants who are working in the same organization. Thus, the study results might not reflect the true score of PG fit on turnover intention and the moderation effects. Therefore, future research with more participants from different organizations is suggested.
7. Conclusion
The present study addresses how important of PG fit as cooperation and teamwork become very important and helps firm increases ability to compete. The result identified some interesting patterns of relationships to turnover intention. I argue that there is a negative relation of PG fit to turnover intention as fits with the team may help to increase job satisfaction and in turn, decreases turnover intention. Despite that I could not find the
influence of manager communication and met expectations to this relationship, it is interesting to examine some other factors, such as job satisfaction and examined how met expectation could moderate these relationships. I hope, some interesting directions for future research in the area of PG fit.
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Appendices
1. Research questionnaire
PG fit : Cable and DeRue’s (2002)
Values-based fit (Supplementary fit)
1. The things that I value in life are very similar to the things that my team members value. 2. My personal values match my team's values and culture.
3. My team's values and culture provide a good fit with the things that I value in life.
Personality-based fit (Supplementary fit)
1. I feel that my personality matches my team's image. 2. My personality matches my teams's personality.
3. My personality provides a good fit with my team's personality.
Ability-based fit (Complementary fit)
1. The match is very good between the demands of my team's task and my personal skills. 2. My abilities and training are a good fit with the requirements of the team's tasks.
3. My abilities and education provide a good match with the demands that my team tasks place on me.
PJ fit : Cable and DeRue’s (2002)
Needs-supplies fit
1. There is a good fit between what my job offers me and what I am looking for in a job. 2. The attributes that I look for in a job are fulfilled very well by my present job.
3. The job that I currently hold gives me just about everything that I want from a job.
Demand-Abilities fit
1. The match is very good between the demands of my job and my personal skills. 2. My abilities and training are a good fit with the requirements of my job.
3. My personal abilities and education provide a good match with the demands that my job places on me.
