Cross-cultural Adaptation and Integration Experiences of Indian Migrant Workers in the UK

Newcastle University Business School

University of Groningen

Advanced International Business and Management

Dissertation Dual Award

NBS8199

Cross-cultural Adaptation and Integration

Experiences of Indian Migrant Workers in the UK

:

Coping with Barriers

Supervisors:

Dr. J. K. Rodriguez

Dr. A.A.J. van Hoorn

Parul Munakhya

100632969

S2669102

Newcastle: 22.06.15

Abstract  

As immigration is currently on the rise in the UK (and across the world), it has become

increasingly important to understand what barriers occur for immigrants. Therefore,

understanding how these individuals cope with the barriers in order to adapt to a new

culture is vital, in addition to their ability to integrate within their new

organisations/workplaces.

The current issue has been considered over many years from both business and

psychological perspectives. However, the gap in the literature has indicated that these

concepts (barriers, coping, and adaptation/integration) are treated separately, or only

two-dimensionally, i.e. all three are not analysed and explored simultaneously. By looking at

these concepts concurrently, we can learn how such barriers, can be overcome and lead to

adaptation to a new culture, and also integration into the workplace for immigrants.

This research explores personal and organisational environment barriers for Indian

immigrants living and working in the UK. This dissertation also uses data from 8

interviews with Indian immigrants from various regions in the UK working in a diverse

range of job roles (health care, IT, self-employed). With the information from these cases

the research question could be answered. The findings of this dissertation provide a

detailed view on each of these concepts, and how barriers and coping ultimately have an

effect on the adaptation process and integration in the workplace.

Keywords: Immigration, Cross-cultural Adaptation, Cross-cultural Integration, Personal

Acknowledgments  

I would like to particularly express my gratitude to my dissertation supervisors, Doctor

Jenny Rodriguez of Newcastle University, Doctor André van Hoorn of University of

Groningen, and also my course DPD, Doctor Stefanie Reissner, for all their guidance,

comments, suggestions and support throughout this work process.

I feel very much indebted to the staff and managers, which I interviewed during my

research, for their significant contribution to this study. Without their participation my

work would not have been possible.

I would like to thank a few select friends who have supported me through this process.

Without their help and support I would not have come so far. Finally, I would like to thank

my parents who have taught me to achieve my goals through knowledge and to strive for

success. I cannot express how much their endless encouragement means to me.

“

भारत, मानव जाती का पालना है , मानव वाणी का जन्मस्थान , इितहास की जननी , िकंवदंतीयों की

मातामही , और परंपरा की महा मातामही , मानवीय इितहास की सबसे मूल्यवान और िशक्षाप्रद वस्तुएं

भारत में ही िनिहत हैं “

-

माकर् ट्वेन

“India is, the cradle of the human race, the birthplace of human speech, the mother of

history, the grandmother of legend, and the great grand mother of tradition. Our most

valuable and most instructive materials in the history of man are treasured up in India

only.”

Table  of  Contents  

Abstract  ...  I  

Acknowledgments  ...  II  

List  of  Figures  ...  IV  

List  of  Tables  ...  IV  

List  of  Abbreviations  ...  IV  

1.  Introduction  ...  1  

1.1  Research  Aim  ...  3

1.2  Structure  of  Dissertation  ...  5

2.  Literature  Review  ...  6  

2.1  Cross  Cultural  Adaptation  ...  6

2.2  Cross  Cultural  Integration  ...  11

2.3  Barriers  for  Immigrants  ...  13

2.3.1  Personal  Barriers  for  Immigrants  ...  14

2.3.2  Organisational  Environment  Barriers  for  Immigrants  ...  15

2.4  Coping  ...  19

2.5  Conceptual  Model  ...  19

3.  Methodology  ...  21  

3.1  Research  Design  ...  21

3.2  Interview  Development  ...  22

3.3  Interview  Design  ...  22

3.4  Population  and  Sample  ...  23

3.5  Data  Collection  ...  24

3.6  Data  Analysis  ...  25

4.  Findings  and  Analysis  ...  27  

4.1  Barriers  ...  27

4.2  Coping  ...  31

4.3  CCA/Integration  ...  33

5.  Discussion  ...  37  

5.1  Barriers  ...  37

5.2  Coping  ...  39

5.3  CCA/Integration  ...  40

6.  Conclusion  ...  42  

6.1  Limitations  and  Future  Research  ...  43

References  ...  45  

Appendix  A:  Figures  in  the  UK  ...  54  

Appendix  B:  Interview  Guide  ...  55  

Appendix  C:  Overview  of  Interview  Answers  ...  58  

Appendix  D:  Interview  Transcripts  ...  67  

List  of  Figures  

Figure 1:The U-Curve of Cultural Adjustment

Figure 2: Conceptual Model

Figure 3: Research Design

Figure 4: Updated model – factors contributing to CCA/integration for Indian immigrants

Figure 5: Employment rate for UK and foreign national, 1997-2013

List  of  Tables  

Table 1: Participants’ Demographics

Table 2: Overview of CCA/integration in the workplace

Table 3: Overview of Barriers

Table 4: Overview of Coping

List  of  Abbreviations  

CCA: Cross-Cultural Adaptation

CCI: Cross-Cultural Integration

1.  Introduction    

We currently live in a world where many cultures are cooperating and interacting; yet also

conflicting, on a daily basis. As organisations and individuals look for new opportunities in

different areas of the world, connections between cultures are inevitable. However, while

many organisations around the world have embraced diversity, others still consider it

merely as an issue of compliance with legal requirements (Allen et al., 2004). This

suggests that many organisations and individuals do not fully understand or comply with

what it means to be diverse and equal. There is a delusion among organsiations to ‘appear’

diverse and multicultural in their workforce (Allen et al., 2004), rather than actually being

diverse (George, 2009). Therefore, the issue here is that there is an assumption that it is

satisfactory to be diverse without truly accepting or integrating, or even being a part of a

new culture. This kind of attitude in many organastions can bring forth barriers such as

racism/discrimination (George, 2009). There is considerable literature on the concepts of

equality and diversity, and much development in the practice towards improving these

concepts throughout organisations (e.g. Hyman, et al., 2012; Goggings, 2006; Teague,

2000; Kim, 2006). It has become almost like a mantra to embrace the idea of equality and

diversity by using various practices. However, we may ask ourselves, is it enough to

merely ‘embrace the idea’? Although diversity and equality are seen as positive features, it

is possible that they are being looked at one dimensionally. Take for example, the UK,

which is now perceived as a multicultural country and appears to have also embraced the

idea of multiculturalism (Manning, 2011), due to a culturally diverse population. But the

evidence suggests otherwise; Muslim communities are one of the most socially

disadvantaged of the South Asians in the UK (Modood et al., 1997). Furthermore, current

media and political movements highlight how multiculturalism (and immigration) are

perceived in a negative light (Malik, 2015). Therefore, there is a need for further research

into barriers faced by immigrants, as the issue with equality and diversity is not fully

resolved.

barriers. From a legal perspective, how borders and laws affect the immigrant (Abrego,

2011; Moua et al., 2002; McKenzie, 2005) to how education difficulties can affect the

immigrant (Baum and Flores, 2011; Erisman and Looney, 2007). For this dissertation, a

relevant branch of academic literature studies different barriers for immigrants’

cross-cultural adaptation (CCA)

and Cross-cultural Integration (CCI)

into the workplace.

In order to evaluate the above, firstly it is important to understand what a barrier is. For

instance, a barrier can be a circumstance or an obstacle that keeps people or things apart or

prevents communication or progress (Oxford Dictionary, 2015). Additionally, researchers

understand that barriers can be in the form of language/communication, and cultural

differences, which in turn become obstacles for immigrants when adapting or integrating

into new cultures and environments (He and Liu, 2010; Scheppers et al., 2005). However,

language barriers and cultural differences are not the only factors that can be present when

adapting to a new culture and integrating into a new work environment. There are other

issues such as culture shock

_{, verbal and nonverbal communication barriers, and emotional}

difficulties (Kim, 2012). In reality there are an infinite number of barriers that can affect

CCA and integration. For instance, personality traits, communication, legal circumstances,

education, or even stress can have a strong impact on a person’s ability to adapt and

integrate. This dissertation does not attempt to cover all barriers; instead it focuses on the

personal barriers, which affect the immigrant at an individual level, and also organisational

environment barriers, which occur in the workplace. This way, a range of barriers can be

explored in both the personal and working lives of immigrants. Furthermore, coping

mechanisms are explored in order to gain insight on how immigrants deal with such

barriers. This can be in a subjective sense where the immigrant feels they have overcome a

barrier, and that it either no longer affects them, or only affects them to a minimal extent.

1 _{“The entirety of the phenomenon of individuals who, upon relocating to an unfamiliar sociocultural}

environment, strive to establish and maintain a relatively stable, reciprocal, and functional relationship with the environment” (Kim, 2001 p. 31).

2 _{“Being engaged in both their heritage culture and in the larger society” (Sam and Berry, 2010).}

3 _{Culture shock can mean depression, serious physical reactions, anger and also aggression towards the new}

1.1  Research  Aim  

This dissertation aims to understand how some particular barriers for immigrants can affect

their CCA process and integration in the workplace, and how they cope with such barriers.

The barriers considered in this study are of two natures: personal and environmental (in the

organisation). This is illustrated in Chapter 2 with the Literature Review, but the common

approach of the literature is to either identify the process of CCA for individuals

(sojourners, immigrants, expatriates etc.), or to identify how barriers (e.g. culture shock or

communication/language etc.) can have an impact on immigrants’ education outcomes,

labour market outcomes etc. This dissertation explores the personal and organisational

environment barriers for immigrants, and how these barriers can have an effect on the

CCA process and integration in the workplace, and how the immigrants cope with the

barriers. By combining the aspects and looking at them simultaneously, the study

investigates how barriers can affect the individual in terms of their overall CCA and CCI.

This dissertation provides a combination of these key concepts within the literature

concerning migrants and how they cope with different experiences in their host countries.

These issues have been investigated separately, but not together. Additionally, given that

discrimination is on the rise, it becomes increasingly vital that we do explore these three

issues simultaneously. CCA and CCI are usually measured in terms of labour market

outcomes, education outcomes and social-economic status (Cohen and Huffman, 2007;

Pager and Shepard, 2008). Provided there is a significant distinction in these outcomes

between the natives and migrants, it can indicate that the migrant has not fully adapted to

the host country culture. However, this study will investigate these concepts as subjective

outcomes that originate from the individual themselves, and use this method to analyse

how well they have adapted to the new culture and integrated into their working

environment. This method demonstrates how the barriers and coping mechanisms that

have an effect on CCA and CCI for the immigrant can be explored deeper, rather than just

numbers indicating differences between the native and immigrant. Both the aim and the

approach of this research differ from current literature.

accurate understanding of how the different barriers affect the CCA process and CCI into

the workplace, and also how the individual copes with such barriers in order to integrate

and adapt. The qualitative method approach is followed: after reviewing the extant relevant

literature in the topic, sub-questions are formulated and these are answered using the

analysis of primary interview data. A conceptual model is formed using the relevant

information from the literature review.

there are serious problems in the UK for immigrants in terms of equality and diversity, and

how they integrate within society and the workplace. Therefore this dissertation looks at

how Indian immigrants face barriers in their organisations in the UK, and explores how

they can cope with such barriers in order to adapt to the culture and integrate into the

workplace.

Now that the problem is presented, the main research question that this dissertation aims to

answer is the following:

What barriers affect the process of CCA and integration into the workplace for Indian

immigrants in the UK, and how do they cope with them?

This dissertation adds to literature on CCA and CCI into the workplace, because it explores

the relationship between culture and the individual more deeply, and how they cope with

barriers in order to adapt and integrate. This research will formulate a model using the

literature review that is concurrent with the existing barriers affecting immigrants. This

model can be used as a lens to describe the various personal and organisational

environment barriers and working lives of Indian immigrants living in the UK. Finally, this

research will help multinational corporations and governments by providing insights into

the experiences for immigrants, and how they are affected when working in a different

country.

1.2  Structure  of  Dissertation  

2.  Literature  Review  

In this chapter, relevant research on the concepts of CCA, CCI, personal barriers,

organisational environement barriers and coping mechanisms will be discussed to show

how these factors ultimately effect CCA and CCI into the workplace.

Discrimination/racism, segregation and lack of opportunity, and alternative frameworks

and models of CCA/CCI will also be discussed. Research on immigration will highlight

issues within the media and organisations, and why this can result in such barriers for

Indian immigrants working in the UK. Relevant sub-questions are derived from the

literature, and using these, the dissertation aims to answer the main research question. The

conceptual model is set up at the end of the section, bringing all of these concepts together.

2.1  Cross  Cultural  Adaptation  

As this dissertation is about cross-cultural adaptation and integration into the workplace,

and the barriers surrounding these concepts, it is important to begin with the definition of

culture for this study. The concept of culture is very broad in terms of definition and

understanding; therefore it can be a difficult notion to grasp (Spencer-Oatey, 2012).

Culture is a term with many different meanings (Hogan, 2005) that can refer to particular

values that individuals share with one another. For example, this can include a number of

different things such as; the way people interact with one another, make decisions, act,

think, and it can also define the ways in which they eat, dress, and what they believe is

right or wrong (morals), to name a few (Bannon and Mattock, 2003). Culture is passed

down from one generation to another; it is the values, beliefs, and norms that are learnt

from parents (primary socialisation) and the environment around a person, such as

education and the work environment (secondary socialisation).

The process of CCA is by no means an easy journey for the individual. Scholars have

studied the processes for various individuals such as immigrants, expatriates and students

who travel to new countries. However, there is still a need to see the vastness of the subject

in terms of its complexity, and what it means for the individual to adapt to a new and

unfamiliar culture (Kim, 2001). The process of adaptation can differ for every individual

depending on their own circumstances and the length of time they choose to stay in the

new country.

outcomes that are associated with immigration and settlement in unfamiliar environments

(e. g. Berry, 1997; Birman, 1994; Furnham & Bochner, 1986; Segall, et al. 1999).

Although the process of migration-adaptation is a challenging experience, it can also lead

to hope for a better future, safety, and security for many individuals and groups.

Cross-cultural contact usually requires migrants to compromise group boundaries and identities

and make adaptations to meet the demands and challenges of the new context. In these

contexts migrant groups often find themselves in a minority position, and this has

implications for the way in which they can adapt and negotiate their ethnic and cultural

identities (Fisher, et al. 2002).

There has been a lot of research done in the realm of cultural adjustment for living and

working in new countries. There are many studies focusing on expatriates, their training

and selection. However not a lot on their processes and mechanisms of what is most useful

when it comes to adjusting to living and working in new foreign environments (Tung,

1998). There is a large focus on expatriate workers and managers from developed

countries going to work in developing countries, and models have been created to show

their adaptation, and ‘cultural shock’ developments.

One of the most powerful and practical concepts in the field of international culture is that

of ‘culture shock’. This is described as the physical, psychological, and behavioural

reactions that occur when individuals are attempting to live, work, or study in unfamiliar

cultural contexts (Brack, 2015). Culture shock still remains a core concept within the fields

of psychology and intercultural communication. It is almost universally referenced in this

positioning in terms of training (Church, 1982) and corporate contexts (Black and

Mendenhall, 1991).

The ‘U-’ and ‘W- curves’ of adjustment models emerged and evolved alongside the

‘culture shock’ concept. The models are used to describe and even predict a ‘typical’

course or path that such stressful encounters would produce (Brack, 2015). Lysgaard

originally made one of the most popular and well-known theories of CCA. According to

Lysgaard (1955, p. 50):

again, becoming more integrated into the foreign community”.

Figure 1: The U-Curve of Cultural Adjustment

‘onion’, at the core/deepest level of culture because they are intimately connected to

morality and ethical codes (Brown, 1998). According to Fang (2006), although the ‘onion’

has many layers and each one may be important for different reasons, the outer layers are

most likely to change, whilst the core of the ‘onion’ will remain firm and untouchable. In

other words, the behavioural part of culture is subject to change, but the most important

part, values, i.e. the ‘software’ of culture, is very deep rooted and the values will always

remain stable. This suggests that when a person has moved to another country and began

the adaptation process, there will always be some part of them (their values) that will

remain true to their original culture. This shows the importance of an initial culture and the

significance it has on an individual’s identity. The notion of culture can help us understand

how individuals stand apart from others in a collective group, even when they have

adapted to the host culture.

In addition to this model, the ‘W-Curve’ was also created to show additional stages. This

model, presented by Hoffenburger et al. (1999) is similar in some aspects to the ‘U-Curve’.

It shows a series of stages that a person experiences when they are adapting culturally. The

W-Curve has a series of five main stages unlike the U-Curve model, which only has four.

The W-Curve presents eight main stages of adaptation beginning with the Honeymoon

stage again, as shown in the U-Curve model. The U-Curve model does not display another

curve in the adjustment process, but this is present in the W-Curve because it shows the

individual may be having doubts or negative feelings once again; they cannot immediately

obtain the stage of ‘Mastery’, as displayed in the U-Curve. It is a gradual feeling, which

ends in the ‘Acceptance and Integration’ stage. This is more realistic than the ‘Mastery’

stage in the U-Curve because it considers time as an influential factor. From the literary

research presented earlier, it is clear that culture cannot be ‘mastered’. It is a process that

can take many years and experiences.

model of sojourner adjustment should be rejected” (Ward 1998, p. 290). Therefore this

demonstrates the limitations of the models as being neither descriptive nor applicable to

every individual.

A recent study by Shi and Wang (2014) looked at culture shock and the experiences of

CCA for Chinese expatriates in international business contexts. They found that while

there were instances of culture shock, this was not the main issue; they were greatly

affected by communication, language, religious and traditional issues. The findings

showed that these were the main factors that caused difficulties in adaptation. When

applying the U-Curve model to this example, it does not consider such aspects. Bennett

(1977) proposed that culture shock is but a variation and subset of reactions that are caused

by significant changes across a broad spectrum of circumstances. The models do not cover

a broad spectrum of circumstances, hence why it is often described as ‘general’. The

models are neither accurately descriptive nor particularly predictive, and so they do not

capture the apparent difficulties or unpredictability of the process. Nor do they account for

cases where it appeared that the stages did not occur in the order as stated. Some stages

were frequently repeated, constricted, or absent altogether (Brack, 2015). The ‘curves’ do

not reflect a universal reality; there is a high degree of variability among individual

responses that are exhibited by any group of sojourners (i.e., they cannot be predicted or

generalised for any one individual) (Brack, 2015). However, its simplicity is the reason

why it became the dominant model for training related to culture shock for the last quarter

of a century (Brack, 2015).

Additionally CCA can be viewed as a learning process (e.g., Byrnes, 1965; Ezekiel, 1968;

Guthrie, 1975; Lee, 1979). Sojourners and migrants can experience a set of perceptual and

behavioral anomalies. To adapt, they must learn the constraints of the new sociocultural

system and acquire the skills necessary for participating in it. Rather than following a

U-Curve as in the previous formulations, adaptation here is plotted as the classic incline of

the learning curve.

focus on a range of factors that can have an affect on adaptation for immigrants. Culture

shock is presented as a main barrier for any individual in a host country. However the

general models show that over a number of months individuals can adapt, yet these models

do not consider how they overcome such barriers. Therefore, this dissertation aims to

explore how barriers can be overcome, and ultimately how this affects the adaption

process. Consequently, the first sub-question could be set up as follows:

1. Would adaptation to the new culture occur for the immigrants due to coping with

the barriers?

Sub sections 2.3 and 2.4 will look closer at barriers and coping mechanisms.

2.2  Cross  Cultural  Integration  

Cultural integration has become a highly important central aspect of organisational ethos in

recent times due to the increase of immigration and globalisation (Sharma, 2010). Many

organisations are working across borders and also creating a culturally diverse workforce

within. This brings the challenge of having amalgamated mind-sets. Organisations, which

are able to cope with these challenges and integrate the workforce culturally are those that

can minimise the threats and maximise the opportunities (Sharma, 2010). This section

looks at literature on how integration can take place.

The concept of integration of individuals in a host country proposes many different

theories and strategies that explain how their integration process takes place. According to

Berry et al. (1992), individuals generally behave in ways that reflect cultural influences

and expectations. Berry (1980, 1997) provides encompassing strategies of acculturation,

which highlight different outcomes for the individual.

Berry (1997) goes on to state that

the concept of acculturation is employed in order to understand the cultural stages or

changes resulting from cross-cultural encounters. The concepts of adaptation are employed

to refer to psychological changes and the eventual outcomes that occur as a result of the

individual experiencing acculturation.

to have as much or as little to do with the host culture and society (intercultural contact

dimension). By using these two dimensions in amalgamation, four potential acculturation

strategies are developed: integration, assimilation, separation, and marginalisation. The

dimensions refer to different routes where the individual tries to integrate themselves into

the new culture and environment. However, these dimensions depend on the extent to

which the individual wishes to balance the two issues of culture maintenance and contact.

According to Berry (2003), integration is the most preferred strategy, and marginalisation

is the least. For example when there is little or no interest in cultural maintenance, this is

often for reasons of enforced cultural loss, e.g. Muslim’s had to renegotiate their identities

after the wake of 9/11 (Sirin and Fine, 2007), and this created much difficulty for them as a

cultural group. Therefore, often integration is not always a simple choice.

it can produce substantial economic and social conflicts as well as adversative

labour-market outcomes (Algan et al., 2012). However, this kind of research mainly looks at the

differences between natives and the immigrants and compares these outcomes to show

whether integration has occurred. It does not represent real-life experiences of the

individuals because trends may show that integration barriers exist; yet the emotions and

feelings of the individual could reveal new insights into how barriers and coping affect

adaptation and integration.

Although these models have been useful in understanding the acculturation and adaptation

processes and outcomes for individuals and groups, they are problematic, and usually over

simplified and do not fully examine the dynamics of integration from the perspective of the

individual within certain communities (Bhatia and Ram, 2001). For the purpose of this

dissertation, CCA and integration into the workplace will be viewed as an outcome. This is

because in the DMIS model, U and W-Curve models, and even Berry’s Acculturation

cluster, individuals are required to overcome certain factors (e.g. culture shock) and

barriers in order to adapt and integrate. Although it is presented as a process in the models,

the end result is always a way of adapting to the new culture, and integrating; that is the

‘final stage’. The exception is Berry’s Acculturation cluster, which shows a range of

‘outcomes’ for the individual. Therefore, the second sub-question could be set up as

follows:

2. Would integration into the workplace occur for the immigrants due to coping

with the barriers?

Barriers and coping are discussed in more detail in the next sections.

2.3  Barriers  for  Immigrants  

economic opportunities and employment, or even to trade and to travel to new places

(Striking Women, 2015).

A study by Berkeley et al. (2006) shows how immigration in the UK has changed over the

last 30 years. They found that there is an increase in migration from Eastern Europe and

Asia. But there was also greater skepticism about the legitimacy of many migrants today,

as they are often viewed as mere economic migrants, or, even worse, ‘bogus’ or fake

asylum seekers. It is for these reasons that politicians are speaking out about the failure of

multiculturalism, because they can be perceived as an economic drain on the country

(Kauff et al., 2013). It is for these reasons that there is certain stigmatisms or stereotypes

surrounding immigrants today, and what causes many barriers for them both personally

and in their work environments.

There are many restrictions for immigrant workers in terms of inequality, gender issues,

language difficulties, immigration policies, cultural assimilation and employment

legislation, that it is a real struggle rather than a simple ‘opportunity’ (Peixoto, 2001;

Raghuram and Kofman, 2004; Kofman and Raghuram, 2006; Moorhouse and

Cunningham, 2010; Brücker and Jahn, 2011; Lendaro and Imdorf, 2012). Hence why this

dissertation first explores the possible personal barriers, followed by organisational

environment barriers that can occur in the workplace.

2.3.1  Personal  Barriers  for  Immigrants  

immigrants (Holeywell, 2012). It can be assumed from these studies that language and

communication can act as a barrier firstly for adapting to the new culture, but then also

further for education and work, which can hinder the process of adaptation to a new

culture, and also the integration in the workplace.

Culture shock can also play as a major personal barrier for individuals. According to Black

and Gregersen (1999) one of the main challenges faced by individuals (immigrants,

expatriates, sojourners) is that those who are not properly aware of the host country’s

culture, or unaware of the cultural differences are most likely to feel out of place.

Furthermore, research suggests that one of the main barriers for individuals is the inability

to adapt to a new culture (Shi and Wang, 2014). Feichtinger and Fink (1998) found that the

CCA process would delay for a long period of time if the individual could not properly

deal with the causes of culture shock. Furthermore, Xia (2009) stated the essential need for

understanding cultural diversity and cross-cultural communication as a global issue in the

CCA process. In the recent decades, it has been found that the issue of culture shock has

become dominant in CCA studies and has been integrated into many pre-departure training

programs for expatriates (Murdon and Kaciak, 2011).

Bunmi (2011) points out how missing family members back home can also act as a barrier

for the cultural adaptation process. Coupled with other barriers mentioned previously,

missing family members can be one of the most difficult factors to deal with.

Taking these factors into account, the third sub-question could be set up as follows:

3. Would personal factors be the barriers to CCA for immigrants?

2.3.2  Organisational  Environment  Barriers  for  Immigrants

countries such as the UK have had this notion or belief that they are ‘culturally’ superior;

therefore there is a need for other cultures to adapt into their ways of life, and not the

reverse, or even as a ‘give and take’ aspect.

A study by Heilbrunn et al. (2010) looked at barriers for immigrants in the labour market

and how they can also cope. They found that racial prejudice, or racial discrimination was

also a main barrier for immigrants. This can be an issue when integrating both in society

and the workplace because it creates a divide between two cultures or races. This study is

limited to immigrants in Israel but it is possible that there are similarities in other countries

also. It highlights the ways in which immigrants are labeled for being able to face barriers,

and this can shed light into the ways in which immigrants choose to adapt. However it is

limited in the sense that it does not show how barriers can affect their adaption process in

terms of integrating within society and their possible workplaces.

Light et al. (2011) found that employers tend to justify their actions for discriminatory

behaviours using fair employment policies or employment deficiencies. The study shows

that this pattern occurs whenever racist actions happen in the workplace, showing again

that racism and discrimination can act as a barrier for integration in the workplace.

Additionally, Dronkers (2010) found that immigrants tend to experience discrimination

within their new society, either for their language, race, nationality, ethnicity or religion.

Furthermore, a recent study by Naughton (2013) looked into the barriers that NHS workers

face in the UK. It was found that race discrimination in recruitment remains high, and there

is also an unfair disciplinary rate compared to white counterparts. It shows that even in

established organisations, there is a high level of inequality and this can have a significant

effect on integration in the workplace for immigrants. A study by Gervais (2008) looked at

perceptions of discrimination in the public and nonpublic services, as well as

recommendations for improvements in fairness from the respondents, using data from the

British Citizenship Survey. It was found that these experiences of discrimination were

much higher for the minority immigrants in the public services.

jobs and can block upward success (Jones et al., 1992; Ram, 1994, cited in Basu and

Altinay, 2002, p.373). This is considered as a ‘push factor’. According to Portes and

Rumbaut (1996), push factors are those that hinder the entry or block opportunities to

follow the regular way of employment in the job market, which makes new immigrants,

choose the self-employment option. Immigrants are pushed into self-employment because

of discrimination, language barriers, and incompatible education systems or training which

can block the promotional routes (Bates, 1997). Another main reason for the majority of

immigrant entrepreneurs starting up their own businesses is the level of independence and

fulfillment of one’s ambition (Dalhammar, 2004). This is considered to be a ‘pull factor’.

‘Pull’ factors are those that focus on the positive qualities of self-employment making it an

attractive initiative that can be wholly influenced by the choice (de Freitas, 1991). This is

an interesting concept because ultimately it suggests that immigrants can avoid such

barriers by setting up their own businesses, and effectively have their own ‘rules’.

Professor Yaron Zelekha, found that “successful immigrant entrepreneurs mostly became

that way to overcome exclusion and other obstacles” (Emigrate2, 2013). Therefore, it

suggests that becoming entrepreneurial is actually much more beneficial for immigrants

because it can avoid certain barriers related to racial discrimination.

A study by Abbas (2015) looked specifically at Muslim immigrants living in the UK. The

study explores experiences of education, labour market, health and housing for the Muslim

ethnic minority in the UK, specifically from the Birmingham area. It was found that there

were concerns relating to the differences in these factors for Muslim and British people,

indicating high levels of discrimination in these areas. Furthermore, this can relate to the

realities of deprivation, and also concerns about cultural and religious discrimination

(Abbas, 2015).

rights accordingly (i.e. segregation). Unfortunately, such policies have helped create the

very divisions they were designed to avoid or manage (Malik, 2015). The potential for

problems in cross-cultural relationships is greater since cross-culturally there are often

major differences in values, attitudes, and beliefs (Stening, 1979). These studies outline

how discrimination and segregation can be barriers for integration in the workplace and

adaptation for immigrants.

There has been a significant increase in Indian graduates and professionals with training

and experience, especially in the information technology industry (Khadria, 2005). A study

by Khadria (2005) shows that there is a motivation for the professional classes to come the

UK to increase their career prospects. However, in recent years highly skilled Indian

immigrants are favouring countries such as the US and Canada to settle in (Khadria, 2005).

The reason being is the return of international students to their home countries at the end of

their studies, rather than any plan to integrate their skills within the UK economy. It shows

that because this was not the case in the US, it caused a lack of opportunity within the UK,

therefore higher skilled students and professionals looked for opportunities in the US and

Canada. Despite this, Indian immigrants still remain as one of the top foreign-born peoples

living and working in the UK (Rienzo and Vargas-Silva, 2014). A study by Cambell et al.

(2014) found that over the last decade, the employment levels in the UK have rose faster

among foreign nationals than among UK nationals. This indicates a particularly high

employment rate among the immigrants from particular countries. Figure 5 (Appendix A)

shows how the employment rate for foreign nationals has risen from 1997-2013, and has

begun to close the gap between the employment rates of UK nationals. This indicates that

there is much opportunity for immigrants in the UK, hence why they are attracted to the

country for work purposes. However, research relating to hiring and promotion (Reskin

and McBrier 2000), and employment exits (Reid and Padavic 2005), for instance, suggests

that racial discrimination is playing a part in lack of opportunity for individuals, resulting

in barriers for integration in the workplace. Thus, the fourth sub-question could be set up at

follows:

2.4  Coping  

It has already been established that barriers cause many problems for immigrants, but then

it is also important to consider how they can cope in relation to these barriers in new

countries also. There have been many studies showing how individuals can cope in various

ways. Some studies suggest that if the individual has more support in terms of family and

from their organisations, there are higher chances of adaptation since the individual is

more likely to feel comfortable in their new surroundings (Greenhaus, 2003; Sullivan,

1999, Greenhaus et al., 1990). They are able to cope much better when adapting and

integrating. This kind of coping would be related to overcoming personal barriers.

A study by Bunmi (2011) found that moral support from faculty at different intervals was

also very beneficial to individuals. This was mainly for the beginning, mid-way, and

towards the end of their process. It showed that support that is evenly spaced out could

help the individual feel more integrated. However, this study focused on postgraduate

students, and an educational environment can be somewhat different to a work

environment, especially when the individual has moved to a new country permanently.

Therefore, these factors or coping mechanisms could be beneficial for immigrants in aiding

their CCA process and integration into the workplace (by reducing stress), and this type of

coping would be beneficial to overcoming organisational environment barriers. Thus, the

following sub-question can be set up as:

5. Would coping mechanisms help to overcome the personal and organisational

environment barriers?

2.5  Conceptual  Model  

conceptual model outlines the main focus of this study. It also presents the foundations of

the research and their causal relationship with one another. The conceptual model begins

with immigrants because they are the particular individuals being investigated. This

dissertation will look at adaptation in a systematic view and explore barriers that occur in

the workplace (organisational environment), and also personal barriers, and assess how

they can have an effect on CCA and integration into the workplace. The dissertation will

explore the different experiences and barriers that the individuals face and discover how

the individuals cope with them. This builds upon previous research in a more systematic

way and helps provide some insight into how Indian immigrants cope with the current

difficulties in their social and working lives. The combination of personal barriers,

organisational environment barriers and coping mechanisms and CCA/integration into the

workplace are the theoretical foundation for this dissertation and the selected main factors

from these theories will be built up as a preliminary conceptual model.

3.  Methodology  

3.1  Research  Design  

In order to explore the barriers that occur for Indian immigrants and how they cope with

them in order to adapt and integrate, the dissertation uses the existing literature to set up a

conceptual model. This includes personal barriers, organisational environment barriers,

coping mechanisms, and lastly CCA and integration into the workplace. The model will be

explored by means of qualitative research, for which the data collected are interviews with

selected Indian immigrants.

Figure 3: Research Design

showing a trend of barriers in comparison to the white population. Therefore, a qualitative

method is more suitable, its advantage being that it enables an in-depth understanding of

the participants feelings and experiences, and develops symbolic meanings, which would

be too complex for survey research.

3.2  Interview  Development  

In this research, primary data is collected through a semi-structured interview, since one of

the most important advantages of interviews is the possibility to acquire rich and

explanatory data, which is fundamental in this type of research. Further advantages include

generating new conceptualisations and interpretations of culture that will help make sense

of increasingly complex cultural phenomena (Birkinshaw et al., 2011). Disadvantages of

interviews include the difficulties of large-scale, cross-sectional studies, and are also

time-consuming (Birkshinshaw et al., 2011). Furthermore, decisions need to be made when

selecting certain pieces of information from the interviews, which is based on what you are

willing to give up or trade off (Berg, 2001).

Three aspects have been essential in the design of the interview. Firstly, due to the

multicultural aspect of this research, the language chosen for the questionnaire is English.

English is the official language in the UK and one of the official languages in India,

therefore in order to avoid misunderstanding; the questions have been formulated and

structured as simple, clear and neutral as possible. Secondly, a special focus has been

drawn to making the interview semi-structured with open-ended questions. Therefore,

necessary information from the participants can be obtained in a more detailed manner and

participants can openly express their opinions and feelings. Thirdly, the questionnaire is

clearly structured in order to ensure the participant is not repeating or overlapping previous

answers.

3.3  Interview  Design  

coping is explored so participants can think about how they coped in light of these barriers,

and how ultimately it affected their CCA process and integration in the workplace.

In the literature, it has often been stated that a main limitation of CCA for individuals

(immigrants or expatriates) is the missing knowledge of how they understand the concept

in different countries to avoid conflicts and failures (Berry, 2005). In order to be able to

assess the different descriptions and experiences of CCA and integration into the

workplace that the participants have encountered, open-ended question were included

throughout the interview, asking the participants to describe their own views on how they

must act in order to adapt to the new country and workplace. Closed questions have been

asked after the open-ended ones to discover exactly what kinds of barriers they have

encountered. This covers questions about their experiences with any barriers within their

workplaces, and also how being from a different culture can affect their opportunities

when working in the UK. Additionally, questions about how they coped with such barriers

were asked in order to gain insight into the types of support available. Lastly, the

participants were asked how well they think they had adapted to the British culture. For

this question, a Likert scale was used. This is a 1-10 category scale, ranging from 1

meaning ‘no adaptation and integration’, to 10, meaning ‘fully adapted/integrated’. This

question was asked at the end of the interview so the participant was able to reflect on the

previous questions and give an answer based on the thoughts that they had during the

interview.

3.4  Population  and  Sample

issue that it can sometimes be unclear if the wider population will be fully represented by

the smaller sample (Oisín, 2007). However, the participants were not selected from just

one area of the UK, they were from the North, Midlands and also the Southern areas;

which gives a range of representation. According to Thomas (2004), this kind of sampling

is usually necessary for exploratory studies in research for business and management.

Since the nature of this research is exploratory, purposive sampling can be used. The

participants from this study were mostly from a higher-skilled background. All participants

were married and had been living in the UK for at least eight years. Table 1 show the

demographic details of the participants used in this study.

Table 1: Participants’ Demographics

3.5  Data  Collection  

Participants for the study were obtained through mutual connections and relatives. The

interviews took place at either their workplace, or over a Skype call if the participant was

further in distance. The purpose of the research was explained to all of the participants and

all signed a consent form allowing for their interviews to be audio recorded. The type of

interview carried out in this research is a focused interview - this enables the interviews to

remain open-ended and assume a conversational manner, but it also follows a certain set of

questions (Yin, 2009). The purpose of the interviews is to collect certain facts and

information that will contribute to the research. The specific questions are carefully

worded to allow the interviewee to provide fresh commentary on it. Questions were

formed based on the literature review, sub-questions and the proposed theoretical

framework. Participants had the option to end the interview at any time in case of any

emotional stress caused from any questions. However, all participants completed the

interviews fully.

3.6  Data  Analysis  

In order to examine the open-ended questions regarding the different themes within the

study, the coding technique has been applied. According to Thomas (2004), the method of

coding is very distinct in open-ended questions and has the aim of reducing the data by

summarising it under a category, label or code. In this case, the three different themes have

been used as different categories. These interviews were recorded and transcribed

‘verbatim’ (to maintain originality) (See Appendix D for full transcripts). One of the first

steps of data analysis is characterising the data. Coding involves similar segments of data

being marked with the same label (Savin- Baden and Major, 2013). Description coding

was used, which is a process of summarising or describing the text and also involves

deriving codes from the actual language of the text (Savin-Baden and Major, 2013). The

printed transcripts were used in order to highlight each examined area and theme, and

therefore code each of the answers.

4.  Findings  and  Analysis  

This chapter presents the findings of the primary research carried out for this dissertation.

It looks at each of the three themes and presents the findings from each of the interviews

and derives understandings for the objectives using the information. A comparative

analysis between the participant’s answers will be drawn to bring forth conclusions for this

study. An overview of each of the themes interview answers can be found in Appendix C

and full transcripts of the interviews in Appendix D. Barriers are analysed first, followed

by coping mechanisms, and then lastly CCA and integration.

4.1  Barriers    

The purpose of theme B of the interview was to understand how the barriers have an effect

on the adaptation process and integration into the workplace for the immigrants. Personal

barriers were explored first and it was found that most participants answered very

similarly. In a general trend the participants stated that ‘missing family’ and ‘culture

shock’ were the main barriers for adapting and integrating in the beginning. These barriers

were considered to be difficult to cope with, and still affect all the participants. Second,

language factors and communication were considered as barriers. Most of the participants’

English was not so good in the beginning (P1, P3, P4, P6, P7, P8) and they felt that it

caused some problems for them when they were unable to converse effectively. Although

gradually over time it improved for them. Communication was also a barrier, because

when the participants first arrived it was sometimes difficult to understand accents. Also,

communication was difficult in terms of contacting family back home in India.

culture.

For the organisational environment barriers, it was found that there were many barriers for

integration happening in the workplace, such as subtle racism and discrimination; ‘I felt a

little bit singled out. No one would make plans with me. At least none of the English people

really’ (P6) and ‘there was a time when I first arrived and a colleague, who was a

manager, he kept asking me to make him tea. At first I thought it was because he was being

friendly. It was subtle. He was degrading me. But my colleague explained to me that he

was using me’ (P3). It appeared that subtle racism and discrimination was fairly common

for these participants in their workplaces, and it was considered to be a barrier for them. It

seems that because the participants were not entirely sure whether racism or discrimination

was occurring, they were unsure how to go forward with the situation and confront it.

What is also quite disturbing is the fact that most participants stated that it was a regular

occurrence, and they are in fact used to it happening in their daily lives so it no longer

affected them anymore.

There were also acts of racism and discrimination happening towards colleagues and

friends within the workplace. P4 stated ‘an English woman at work was kind of calling out

another colleague about her skin colour. Giving suggestions of what kinds of creams to use

and such. It is not even appropriate to do things like that as appearance is quite a sensitive

thing. But she was suggesting that the woman appeared dirty.’ Again, this was quite a

subtle act of racism according to P4. The ways in which they dealt with their situations was

in a reserved manner. When asked how the participants think organisations should deal

with these kinds of issues, they stated that they would expect some kind of disciplinary

action to take place. P7 stated ‘well I am part of the Unison now. It is an organisation that

helps people of colour, and we do protests and things like that help improve equality

within workplaces. For organisations such as the NHS would be to integrate these kinds

things into the workplace.’ P7 was also the only participant to stand up and address the

issue of racism when he believed it had happened.

However they all also stated that they understood these things happen and are quite regular

occurrences for some people so they do not consider it a serious issue anymore. However,

again, this indicates that the problem is not being appropriately addressed.

The participants were then asked a series of questions relating to the reasons for coming to

the UK, and also if they thought whether being of a different culture hindered their

opportunities in the UK in any way. The participants did agree that the reason they came to

the UK was because they saw a potential opportunity to further their careers. They wished

to grow their financial income and also get some exposure in their various fields. Those

who became self-employed in the UK (P1, P5 and P8) also agreed their main reasons were

due to the possible opportunities of growing their business and also increasing their

income. They all stated that this was the better route for them, and when asked why, they

gave answers along the lines that having an authentic Indian restaurant, run by ‘proper’

Indians created a better market opportunity for them. P8 also stated that her South-Asian

cooking is a niche market, so for her this was one of the main reasons of becoming

self-employed.

Because these participants are of an older generation, i.e. they arrived in the UK longer

than ten years ago (apart from P3), it suggests that in those times it was still considered to

be a good opportunity to come to the UK to work, as there was plenty of jobs available.

However, P3 who has been in the UK the shortest amount of time (8 years) also stated that

‘I have not been here very long compared to some people but I think the UK is always

looking for new talents and especially in the medical field this was an advantage for me.’

This suggests that there are still opportunities for higher-skilled immigrants in certain

fields. Some participants did consider going to places such as America and Canada

(‘although people say America and Canada are great places for Asians because it’s very

multicultural. I just thought England was better suited to us. To my family. Because I have

found now that the system here is much better’ - P5), however there were better

connections available to them in the UK in the form of friends, relatives, therefore more

support. Consequently along with career enhancement, there was also the additional

benefit for some being closer to family and friends. It suggests that this was a way in

which they felt more comfortable about the prospect of coming to a new country, and also

helped their integration and adaptation process as it relieved stress.

in the workplace. Most of the participants stated that this was in not an issue for them.

However, P7 stated that ‘I have noticed that my managers always give the Band 7 position

to other applicants. I have never seen anyone of colour in that position. I feel like I am

adequate for the job and I put a lot of effort into the application and interview process.’

Also P3 stated that ‘they form a group almost. And I have also noticed there is no one

Indian in the band 8 position. At least not in my hospital’, and P2 ‘you can say it was

racial segregation almost’. These participants indicated that it was almost like a divide

(segregation) within the workplace. However, other participants stated along the lines of ‘I

have also been given promotions of sorts. All based on merit. So I do not think I am

discriminated against for things like that’ (P4). Yet, earlier in the interview P4 stated that

he felt the British culture had a tendency to ‘just sit and not progress’, with their careers

and found that this was a general issue. Also, P8 stated; ‘I feel like people underestimate

me. They think I will be uneducated and just cooking. They sometimes give me a higher

price for the vegetables or meat that I need. And think I will not notice. It is probably not

because of my colour or anything. But I am not sure. So I feel like I am losing an

opportunity there.’ According to these participants, there is racial discrimination and

segregation, which hinder their integration within the workplace.

When asked what kinds of opportunities have been gained despite being an Indian

immigrant, most participants stated that it is generally helpful that they are of the Indian

culture. The reason was due to their expertise in their own fields; ‘I think that it helps in my

field of work if you are of a different culture because now there are so many different kinds

of people in the UK’ (P2) and ‘I think that being Indian helps in that sense. But many

people often say that my food is a lot more authentic’ (P8). P5 who also is a restaurant

owner stated that he ‘has more control’ because he is his own boss. He has fewer problems

with equality and such barriers because he can control the environment most of the time.

For the fourth sub-question, ‘would organisational environment factors be the barriers to

integration in the workplace for immigrants’ the results show that among all the factors,

was the fact that they saw being able to work in the UK was an opportunity in itself. This

suggests the participants were aware of these kinds of barriers occurring, despite this, they

tried to integrate into their workplaces slowly. They did this by using coping mechanisms,

which are analysed in the next section.

4.2  Coping  

The purpose of the Theme C was to understand how immigrants cope with the barriers,

and gain an insight as to whether or not immigrants receive any support in order to adapt to

the culture and integrate within the workplace. The participants stated that they received

much support from their families, and some support from their work companies. However,

P1, P5, and P8 did not receive support from their workplace as they intended to open their

own businesses upon arrival. For those participants who did receive support from their

organisations, they found that it was very beneficial when first arriving; ‘they give me the

inductions and things and they told me how the things worked over there. All of this was

new to me so they helped me understanding all of that yeah’ (P2), and ‘they offered me a

place to stay as well, in the erm hospital accommodation right by the hospital. And they

told me there were many other doctors who had come from India and various other

countries; they helped me to feel a little more comfortable’ (P3). In a general trend, all of

the participants who worked for larger organisations received this type of support in the

beginning. The participants who worked as part of a large organisation displayed

similarities in their answers; their companies provided accommodation, they were briefed

beforehand in their various job roles, and also received some advance salaries, which

helped them settle in the UK. This in turn motivated them more to think it was the right

decision to come to the UK and also helped them in their adaptation process.

Those who came to open their own businesses did not receive this kind of support as they

were self-employed, but found other ways in which to cope. It is evident throughout the

interviews that all of the participants received much support from their families; ‘I had lots

of family here. And family friends. And er, they welcomed me very well. And they looked

after me’ (P1), and ‘yes my family were very supportive. The fact that we came together as

a small family, my parents and my siblings, that was good. It really helped me to cope’