Master Thesis “The impact of leave time on adaptation, feelings and performance of an individual regarding (IT) changes”

Master Thesis

“The impact of leave time on adaptation, feelings and

performance of an individual regarding (IT) changes”

Student: Verena Katharina Beck

Email: verena.k.beck@gmail.com

Student number: S3300331

First assessor: dr. M.L. Hage

Second assessor: dr. B. Müller

Word count: 18414

MSc Business Administration – Change Management

University of Groningen

Faculty of Economics and Business

Abstract

Information and communication technologies could not be assumed away nowadays. Societies as well as organisations are forced to constantly focus on IT Innovation. As this constant focus could evoke problems within a workforce, if employees miss out on this development, it is interesting to ask which impact this leave time has on adaptation, feelings and performance of an individual regarding (IT) changes. For answering this question, 16 interviews were carried out within one public organisation based in Munich, Germany. These 16 interviews offered a big diversity of reintegration situations, as the interviewees differed in duration of leave time, age, gender, point in time of leave time, and job description. As it is challenging for employees coming back after a long leave and reintegrating themselves in the organisation, it is important for managers to wisely select reintegration strategies, such as mentoring programs, management support, training effectiveness and support through colleagues, for ensuring a good performance and goal attainment and for preventing avoidance of the changed (IT) situation. Therefore, this research is a first attempt to get a better understanding of the feeling of employees after a long leave time and to help managers to select good reintegration strategies for easing the reintegration.

Keywords: IT adaptation, leave time, reintegration, change, technological change, performance

Table of Content

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Theoretical Foundation

2.2 (Information Technology) Adaptation ... 8

2.2.1 Coping Model of User Adaptation (CMUA) ... 8

2.2.2 Adaptation Model by Bala and Venkatesh (2016) ... 10

2.4 Research Process Model ... 11

3. Research Methods

4. Findings

4.2 Perception of the Individual of Organisation at Leaving and Organisation at Reintegration ... 20

4.3 Perceived Opportunity and Perceived Threat ... 24

4.4 Reintegration strategies ... 27

4.4.1 Mentoring Programs ... 27

4.4.2 Workshops and Training ... 28

4.4.3 Support through Colleagues and Managers ... 28

4.5 (Technology) Adaptation and Performance ... 29

4.6 Towards a Conceptual Model ... 35

5. Discussion and Conclusion

5.1 Theoretical Discussion and Conclusion ... 37

5.2 Theoretical Implications... 39

5.3 Practical Implications ... 40

5.4 Limitations and Future Research ... 40

References

1. Introduction

the leave time, which varies from person to person. Economic costs arising from a pregnancy leave, can also be a challenge because the government, e.g. in Germany, has to pay 67 percent of the former salary up to an amount of 1800 euros (Bundeselterngeld- und Elternzeitgestz, §2). Former research focused on parental leave in general or on the impact of parental leave on children’s health or schooling outcomes (Danzer & Lavy, 2017; Gangl & Ziefle, 2015). However, no research could be found about the impact of parental or pregnancy leave on IT adaptation and IT performance. The research domain of this study is of a special nature, since the research is conducted within the public service sector where unpaid parental leaves with a duration of up to 14 years are provided by law. About this subject no former research is available.

Therefore, the following research question emerged: “What is the impact of leave time on adaptation, feelings and performance of an individual regarding (IT) changes?”

The aim of this study is to provide an understanding about the effect of a long term leave on the adaptation, feelings and performance of an individual regarding (IT) changes. The focus is on both general and IT specific changes because changes, the interviewees experienced, may be of both general and IT specific nature. It also should provide an understanding about the difference of how people with a shorter leave time react to general and IT specific changes compared to people with a longer or an extremely long leave time. It is intended to understand the feelings and actions of these people. For managers it is important to understand how people react to changed (IT) situations after a leave time. IT can help them to work out concepts to improve the IT performance of these people which can result in an improvement of the overall performance of their organisation. This can lead to a better reintegration and a better support of people after a leave time and can result in a better utilisation of a system. In the next section the concepts of the organisational “orchestra” in general, the information technology adaptation, two models about the adaptation process and a research process model are presented. This is followed by a methodological part which comprises the research approach, the case description, the data collection, and the data analysis. After this section the findings are presented. This is followed by a discussion about the findings and the linkage to literature. In conclusion theoretical and managerial implications as well as future research suggestions will be presented.

2. Theoretical Foundation

This section will give an overview of the existing literature about the interplay within an organisation, technology adaptation and avoidance, and the importance of the interaction between the social and the technical context.

2.1 Organisational “Orchestra”

The sound of a perfectly aligned “orchestra” has a magical effect on the audience. This effect can be ensured due to the fact that everybody has a specific role and task, which are perfectly coordinated and geared to each other. This good coordination and role allocation are the reason for satisfied and motivated musicians. Not only within a musical “orchestra”, but also in an organisational “orchestra” perfect coordination and accordance is key to a successful goal attainment. Social and technical subsystems are key for organisations, which are about to change their information system (IS) (Lyytinen & Newman, 2008), as technology only has a meaning if it is imbedded in a social practice (Suchman, 2007). According to Lyytinen & Newman (2008) an organisational “orchestra” or as the authors name it, a socio-technical system, is composed of the technology which is used by the organisation, its actors, the structure and the tasks, which can be defined as its goals and deliverables. All these components need to be in a balanced and gapless relation to ensure the achievement of goals (Lyytinen & Newman, 2008). Figure 1 shows the socio-technical model of a building system designed by Lyytinen and Newman (2008). Whereas the socio-technical model of a building system by Lyytinen and Newman (2008) is on organisational level, this research zooms into one part of their model, namely the actors part. As the actors part comprises users, manager and designer, it is more on an individual level, than on an organisational level. Therefore, this research is focused on the individual level.

As can be seen in Figure 1, employees play a significant role in ensuring the needed balance. This balance can be disturbed by different events, which Lyytinen and Newman (2008) call critical incident. Figure 2 shows how a critical incident could interfere with this needed balance, thus creating a gap.

Figure 2: An event model for socio-technical change (Lyytinen & Newman, 2008)

2.2 (Information Technology) Adaptation

User adaptation and also appropriation in information systems has been discussed broadly in former research (Beaudry & Pinsonnault, 2005). This research is focused on user adaptation, therefore all following explanations will focus on this term. The focus is on adaptation and not appropriation, because it is about finding out how the individuals react after their leave time while being confronted with changed (IT) situations and not about finding out how individuals appropriate the changed (IT) situation. Adaptation can be defined as efforts of cognitive or behavioural nature, which constitute a response to specific consequences caused by significant IT events, that users experience within their work environment (Beaudry & Pinsonnault, 2010). Adaptive usage is used by many authors such as Sun (2012), Beaudry & Pinsonnault (2005), and Bala & Venkatesh (2016). In the following section two models of user adaptation will be described, on which the elaboration of this thesis is based. The first model, which is called the Coping Model of User Adaptation (CMUA) (Beaudry & Pinsonnault, 2005), contains a cognitive appraisal process, adaptation strategies and different outcomes. As this model starts with the cognitive appraisal process, some implementation characteristics, which could be important for the user’s cognitive appraisal decision, are missing. Therefore, the second model, by Bala & Venkatesh (2016), is considered, to get a clear overview of technology adaptation process. This model is based on the first model by Beaudry & Pinsonnault (2005).

2.2.1 Coping Model of User Adaptation (CMUA)

The Coping Model of User Adaptation (figure 3) constitutes that individuals experience two different processes when they encounter a changed situation within their work environment. These are stated as cognitive appraisal and adaptation (Beaudry & Pinsonnault, 2005). According to Beaudry and Pinsonnault (2005), cognitive appraisals are followed by adaptation strategies, which are chosen based on the individual’s cognitive appraisal. The term cognitive appraisal comprises primary appraisal and secondary appraisal. Primary appraisal can be defined as the evaluation of the nature of the situation in terms of personal importance and relevance to decide what will be at stake for the individual (Folkman, 1992). In other words, the individual will weigh the consequences of the specific change. The individual will decide between perceived opportunity and perceived threat (Beaudry & Pinsonneault, 2005). Perceived opportunity can be defined as the degree to which individuals class a(n) (IT) change as chance for an improvement of his/ her individual performance, i.e. personal growth, reward mastery, gain, or job performance. Perceived threat can be defined as the degree to which individuals class a(n) (IT) change as harm of his/ her individual well-being, growth, or personal gain (Bala & Venkathesh, 2016). In other words, if a(n) (IT) change is perceived to minimise the individual performance and status, perceived threat will be the result (Beaudry & Pinsonneault, 2005; Lapointe & Rivard, 2005).

(Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Based on these cognitive appraisals, Beaudry & Pinsonnault (2005) identified four adaptation strategies: benefits maximising, benefits satisficing, disturbance handling, and self-preservation. Benefit maximising occurs when an individual perceives the consequences of an IT change as an opportunity and feels that he/ she has control over the situation. This strategy is problem-focused and is problem-focused to take full advantage of what is offered by the IT event and to maximise personal benefits (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2000; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Benefit satisficing occur when the individual perceives the consequences of an IT event as an opportunity, but feels that he/ she has limited control over the situation. When this happens, adaptations efforts are probably minimal. Emotion-focused acts are limited because users do not feel the need to reduce tensions emanating from the IT event (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984; Beaudry & Pinsonnault, 2005, p.501) and problem-focused acts are also limited because users feel they cannot do much to further exploit the IT and reap its benefits (Beaudry & Pinsonnault, 2005, p.501). The third strategy, which is presented in Beaudry & Pinsonneault’s (2005) model, is called disturbance handling strategy. This strategy occurs when an individual perceives an IT event as threat but feels that he/ she has some control over the situation. The individual is focused on problem-focused adaptation for managing the given situation and the individual is focused on emotion-focused adaptation for minimising the expected negative consequences and for reconstituting emotional stability (Folkman, 1992; Folkman et. al., 1986; Folkman & Moskowitz, 2000). The last strategy, which is called self-preservation strategy, occurs in situations, where the expected consequences lead to a threat and the individual feels that he/ she has only limited control over the situation. Adaptation efforts within this strategy are mainly emotion-focused. This type of adaptation aims at reconstituting emotional stability and minimising the expected negative consequences of the IT event (Beaudry & Pinsonnault, 2005).

The described process is illustrated in figure 3 as a whole. According to Beaudry and Pinsonneault (2005) the adaptation process is highly iterative and adaptation and appraisal continually influence each other. That means that the appraisal process has an impact on adaptation efforts, which in turn lead to the reappraisal of the situation. Therefore, a feedback loop from adaptation strategies back to appraisal can be found (Beaudry & Pinsonneault, 2005). Another feedback loop can be found in the model of Beaudry and Pinsonneault (2005). This feedback loop goes from the outcomes back to the appraisal process. This leads to the conclusion, that these outcomes, which result from the adaptation process, may have an impact on user’s perception of the specific IT event. This changed perception can lead to a reappraisal of the situation. This in turn can lead to new adaption efforts (Beaudry & Pinsonneault, 2005).

These strategies result in the outcomes such as individual efficiency and effectiveness, minimisation of the negative consequences of the IT event, restoring personal emotional stability, and exit.

an impact on an individual’s cognitive appraisals. Therefore, the next section will explain the model of Bala and Venkatesh (2016), which added implementation characteristics to cognitive appraisals, adaptation strategies and outcomes.

Figure 3: The Coping Model of User Adaptation, CMUA (Beaudry & Pinsonneault, 2005)

2.2.2 Adaptation Model by Bala and Venkatesh (2016)

secure. The whole process of Bala and Venkatesh (2016) is illustrated in Figure 4. As this research is focussing only on implementation characteristics, these are illustrated more precise by zooming into the model.

Figure 4: Adaptation Model by Bala & Venkatesh (2016)

2.4 Research Process Model

implementation characteristics developed by Bala and Venkatesh (2016). Training effectiveness and management support might be of importance for this research. These reintegration strategies may affect the impact of leave time on adaptation and performance of general changes and IT specific changes. The internal factors are cognitive appraisal (Bala & Venkatesh, 2016; Beaudry & Pinsonnault, 2005), whereby the research is focused on primary appraisal only. These internal factors lead to technology adaptation or technology avoidance, which is illustrated in the third box. As mentioned before, cognitive appraisal and adaptation continuously influence each other. The cognitive appraisal processes have an impact on adaptation efforts, that are likely to be performed, which will in turn lead to reappraisal of the situation (Beaudry & Pinsonnault, 2005). This is illustrated by a feedback loop, which goes from the third box to the second box. Whereas Beaudry and Pinsonneault (2005) describe four adaptation strategies within their model, for this research it is more appropriate to generalise the adaptation process to adaptation and avoidance in a first step. This should help to get better insights about the individual adaptation story of the interviewees. The adaptation process may contribute to answering the research question, as adaptation and avoidance may be important for the impact of leave time. The fourth box describes the individual performance or goal attainment, of employees who take leave time. This individual performance or goal attainment is based on the last step in Beaudry and Pinsonneault’s (2005) model, outcomes. Another feedback loop goes from these outcomes back to the cognitive appraisal process, as these outcomes may have an impact on user’s perception of the specific (IT) event. This changed perception can lead to a reappraisal of the situation. This in turn can then lead to new adaptation efforts (Beaudry & Pinsonneault, 2005).

Figure 5: Research Process Model

3. Research Methods

In this section the researcher elaborates on the research approach, the case description, the data collection, and the data analysis.

3.1 Approach

The aim of this study is to gain a better understanding of the influence of leave time on adaptation, feelings and performance of an individual regarding (IT) changes. The existing literature lacks insight into leave time in IT context. Moreover, current literature rarely includes typical changes (such as leave time), which an employee experiences from time to time. To get a better understanding of the influence of leave time on IT adaptation and performance, qualitative research, especially the theory development approach was used to explore these different topics and their relations (Eisenhardt, 1989; van Aken, Berens & Van der Bij, 2012; Yin, 2014). Qualitative research allows to delve into the complex correlation between the data content, the process, and the context of leave time and IT adaptation and performance. But as the coherence between these aspects is highly complex, it is rarely possible by the use of quantitative research (Winch et. a., 2012). Therefore, qualitative research was selected. In this research a process model is developed instead of a variance model, which is also a sign for qualitative research. Informal conversations, observations, and semi-structured interviews were conducted to research these concepts and relationships. Then, emergent insights were worked out and compared with other emergent insights and with the relevant literature. After this comparison, the new insights will add or change the existing literature (Van Aken, Berends & Van der Bij, 2012).

3.2 Case Description

The interviewees consist of 14 female participants and two male participants (gender). Three participants are between 30 and 40 years old, seven between 40 and 50 years old, and six between 50 and 60 years old (age). The interviewees also differ in the duration of leave time. Six interviewees took leave time between zero and four years, three interviewees took leave time between five and eight years, two interviewees took leave time between nine and 11 years, and four interviewees took leave time between 12 and 15 years (duration). The different characteristics are illustrated in Figure 6.

A timeline is illustrated in Figure 7, which shows the key technical development of the municipal administration of the city of Munich. This timeline should give an overview over the development and can be assistant to understanding the changes, experienced by the interviewees. The key technical development of the municipal administration of the city of Munich occurred between 1985 and 2018, as can be seen in Figure 7. The interviewees took leave time between 1988 and 2016, which means that different interviewees experienced different changes. Interviewee 16, for example, experienced the changes regarding the computer with writing program, internet, and e-mail and calendar. However, interviewee 1, for example, experienced no key technical changes during his/ her leave time. Which key technical development the different interviewees experienced is illustrated in Figure 8.

Table 1: Overview of the twelve different departments of the municipal administration of the city of Munich

Departments of the municipal administration of the city of Munich

Referate der Landeshauptstadt München

Department of Construction Baureferat

Managerial Board Direktorium

Municipal Service Department Kommunalreferat

Department of Public Order (and District Administration)

Kreisverwaltungsreferat Department of Arts and Culture Kulturreferat

Department of Human Resources Personal- und Organisationsreferat Department of Labor and Economic Development Referat für Arbeit und Wirtschaft Department of Education and Sport Referat für Bildung und Sport Department of Health and the Environment Referat für Gesundheit und Umwelt Department of Urban Planning and Building

Regulations

Referat für Stadtplanung und Bauordnung Department of Social Services Sozialreferat

Figure 6: Characteristics of the interviewees

Figure 8: Overview of duration of leave time in comparison to the technical development

The municipal administration of the City of Munich supports leave time and offers part time working schemes to ensure the work-life-balance of their employees. 14 out of 16 interviewees took part-time jobs after their leave time. The City’s part-time jobs are very flexible. The working hours of employees after leave time can range from 8 hours per week up to 36 hours per week. This means that the City of Munich leaves it open to the departments and their employees to decide how many hours are necessary for fulfilling the task within the specific department and how many hours the employee can manage after leave time. If the employee worked full-time or part-time before and after leave time, can be seen in table 2. Interviewees, which are highlighted in blue, are male, the other interviewees are female. Table 2: Overview of duration, point in time and full-/ or part-time

Interviewee Duration Point in time Full-/ part-time before leave time

Full-/ part-time after leave time

1 2 month 2016-2016 Full-time Full-time

2 8 month 2014-2014 Full-time Full-time

3 1 year and 2 month 2013-2014 Full-time Part-time

5 3 years 2000-2003 Full-time Part-time

6 3 years 2000-2003 Full-time Part-time

7 3 years and 7 month 2004-2007 Full-time Part-time

8 6 years 1993-1999 Full-time Part-time

9 6 years 2010-2016 Full-time Part-time

10 7 years 2003-2010 Full-time Part-time

11 10 years 1990-2000 Full-time Part-time

12 10 years 1997-2007 Full-time Part-time

13 12 years 1988-2000 Full-time Part-time

14 13 years 1997-2010 Full-time Part-time

15 14 years 1990-2004 Full-time Part-time

16 15 years 1991-2006 Full-time Part-time

3.3 Data Collection

Primary data was collected through a qualitative instrument, namely semi-structured interviews, accompanied by analysation of documents provided by the company for secondary data. The first contact with the organisation was through an acquaintance of the researcher, which suggested the first interviewees. Through the Ponzi scheme the 16 interviewees were found and approached by e-mail. The documents for secondary data were analysed by the researcher for getting a better overview of the organisation in general. Informal conversations and observations added data to the secondary data set. These informal conversations were held with some managers from these departments. This triangulation, which can be defined as the combination of data collection methods, is a good instrument to provide more expressive constructs and propositions (Eisenhardt, 1989). Semi-structured interviews are useful for providing information about subjects the researcher is interested in and can provide possibility inferences and explanations (Yin, 2013). The questions of the semi-structured interview consist of general questions about the current job, age, duration of leave time etc., and specific questions about the feelings during and after leave time, the support through colleagues and managers, and a question referring to adaptation or avoidance and workarounds. Before the interviews started the setting was explained.

Controllability, reliability and validity were measured in order to improve the inter-subjectivity agreements of the results (Aken, Berend & Bij, 2012). The function of controllability is to allow other researchers to replicate the study, therefore the research process is written down as precise as possible. This allows other researchers to replicate the study or to assess the quality criteria of the performed research (Aken, Berend & Bij, 2012).

for this research. In order to keep the results free of the influence of personal characteristics, the question set was prepared in advance (Aken, Berend & Bij, 2012). This question set can be found in Appendix B. To avoid misinterpretations, a test interview was conducted with one participant. The semi-structured interviews were recorded, allowing the researcher to re-listen to the interview again in order to remove hot and cold researcher biases (Goldman, 1999). Before the researcher started each interview, it was asked for the interviewee’s permission for recording. The same interviewer conducted all of the interviews and did the coding of the interviews. All interviews were voluntary and the interviewees did not receive any form of incentives. As a small thank-you gift, the interviewees got a tiny box of pralines. This was not known beforehand. The interviews lasted between 20-55 minutes and were conducted in German. The interviews were held in confidentiality and were transcribed afterwards. As a last element, validity is covered in the methodology.

3.4 Data Analysis

After the data had been collected, the researcher used a data analysing method of Eisenhardt (1989). The first step was reading the data, which included transcribing the interviews and reading the transcripts, after this the coding process started and lastly interpretation was the final part of the process. Within the coding process, the researcher read the transcripts and searched for similarities and differences, which lead to inductive codes with examples from the interviews. A code book, made at the beginning, consists of inductive and deductive codes. In the codebook the codes, descriptions and examples from the interviews can be found. The code book is attached in Appendix C. The code book list is of deductive nature and is based on existing and mentioned literature. Inductive codes were found during the transcribing process. As mentioned before, similarities and differences were worked out and compared to each other. These codes were added to the existing code list. Several kinds of coding (Wolfswinkel et al., 2013) were used during the data analysis: open coding, axial coding, and selective coding. Within open coding extracts are grouped into categories. Axial coding, which includes cultivating categories and sub categories, is also used within this research. The relation and belonging of these categories and sub categories was ascertained. The last coding process, selective coding, was used for finding the core categories and relationships and the specific categories and relationships. As premature conclusions are hazardous to every research, various ways for data analysation are used (Eisenhardt, 1989). Each specific interview was studied separately. This helps to disentangle unique patterns, which generates familiarity with the information (Eisenhardt, 1989). These insights were compared and linked to existing codes and then new codes emerged based on the new insights. After each interview was considered in particular, the interviews were compared with each other to find differences and similarities in how the interviewees experienced their leave time and the time after coming back to the organisation.

4. Findings

In this section, the findings gathered from the interviews, informal conversations and observations are presented. It starts with the researcher’s first impressions after having conducted all of the interviews, presented in an abstract. Following the abstract, the findings will be presented in detail. At first, the findings about the organisational “orchestra” are presented, how the individuals perceived the change of the organisational “orchestra”, and what this meant for the interviewees. After this the feelings the interviewees had in terms of perceived opportunity and perceived threat are presented. This is followed by cues related to the reintegration, or reintegration strategies. In section 4.5 findings about the technology adaptation and performance will be presented. In the last section, the results are related back to the model. The codebook, which can be found in appendix C, includes the definitions and related quotes.

4.1 First Impressions

In this research, the impact of leave time on adaptation, feelings and performance of an individual regarding (IT) changes is considered. During the 16 interviews the researcher conducted, some impressions and thoughts came up before comparing the results with the literature. As mentioned before, the interviewees ranged from 35 years to 59 years of age and had taken leave times between two months and 15 years. According to the interviewees, taking leave time is important for both children and parents. Interviewee 5 believed, that both parents and children benefit a lot from parental leave time. A child learns and develops enormously during the first three years. Much would be missed by the parents if they worked during this time. Interviewee 5 mentioned this as the reason for her leave time. I5: “No, I would do the same again. For me this were lovely three years, because I think one gets much from these years, because especially in the first three years, the children learn a lot and this would be missed out, when you are working during this time.”1

As mentioned before, the municipal administration of the city of Munich offers part-time schemes, which was confirmed during the interviews, as most of the interviewees took part-time jobs after their leave time (table 2). The reintegration after leave time is supported by trainings, mentoring programs, workshops within the organisation, and support through colleagues and managers, as will be explained in detail in one of the next sections.

1 _{I13: „Nein, ich würde es wieder so machen. Also ich finde es waren schöne drei Jahre, weil das}

eigentlich, finde ich persönlich, man hat ganz viel davon, weil gerade in den ersten drei Jahren auch die Kinder sehr viel lernen und das geht halt verloren, wenn du in dieser Zeit in der Arbeit bist.“

All in all, the interviewees felt supported in a lot of ways by the City of Munich, which ensured a better reintegration and better adaptation of different changes, which happened during the absence of the employees. In the next section some insights about the changes of the organisation, which the interviewees experienced, and explanations for these experienced changes are exemplified.

4.2 Perception of the Individual of Organisation at Leaving and Organisation at Reintegration

Due to the different situations of the 16 interviewees, the changes which they experienced were highly diverse. The extent of the changes experienced by the interviewees, was dependent of the duration of leave time, the point in time, at which the interviewees left and entered the organisation, and if the interviewees returned to the same job they had prior to their leave time or not. These three main aspects can be seen in table 3. Whereas duration and point in time seem equal, the researcher interpret that duration, which is defined as the number of years an individual took leave time, could occur at any point in time, if e.g. from 1990-2004 or from 2000-2014. Point in time on the other hand is defined as the exact timeframe in which the interviewee took leave time. Interviewees which are highlighted in blue experienced a lot of changes. During data analysis it was striking, that interviewees, which experienced a lot of changes, took a long leave time from 6 up to 15 years and took leave time between 1989 and 2016, whereas 7 out of these 9 interviewees started taking leave time before 2000. This could be explained by the fact, that living in Munich seems to be gotten more expensive, what entails that taking leave time up to 15 years seems to be no longer possible for many employees, as such a long leave time is unpaid. Therefore, interviewees, who took leave time after 2000 might have exhibited a shorter duration. These interviewees are not highlighted.

As shown in column 4 of table 3, 11 out of 16 interviewees changed the job within the organisation after leave time, which means that these interviewees also had to learn a completely different task. This is due to the fact that 14 out of 16 interviewees worked part-time after leave time and that it was not always possible to generate a part-time position in their former department (table 2). A different job, also entailed changes within IT systems in some cases. Interviewees might have had to learn new systems, which had already been used by the City of Munich, but had not been relevant to the interviewees before their leave time. This is also mentioned by interviewee 9 (I 9). Duration could also correlate with the term same or different job, as it seems to be less likely that the same job would be unoccupied for such a long time.

Word, Excel and Powerpoint world. And then I was also confronted with many fold processes, which I never had before. Paula was in the implementation phase, Prisma, I could list a lot now, these programs did not exist. […]”2

The duration of leave time also had an impact on how many changes the interviewee experienced. Some interviewees left the organisation around 1990 with typists and documents in hard copy and came back between 2000 and 2004 with e-mails, internet, and computer. The changes seemed to be larger when the duration of the leave time was long than when the duration of the leave time was short. An overview of this aspect is given in Figure 8, which is provided in the methodology section.

The point in time, when the interviewees took leave time, seemed also crucial for the number of changes the interviewees experienced. Between 1990 and 2004 most of the changes, which were mentioned during the interviews, occurred and when an interviewee left the organisation within this timeslot, a lot of changes were made, which came up to the interviewees (Figure 8).

As mentioned before, 11 out of 16 interviewees had to change their job after leave time, as they started working part-time, as can be seen in table 3. This seems to be one reason for experiencing a lot of changes, as changing the job implies learning a new task, which in turn implies a change. These different changes, which are of general and IT specific nature, are summarised in the last two columns in table 3. In this table it is striking, that the interviewees from 6 years up to 15 years experienced the most changes. These interviewees are highlighted in blue.

In the next section insights about the personal feelings of the interviewees regarding a changed (IT) situation are explained.

2

Table 3: Overview of duration, point in time, same or different job and change

Interviewee Duration Point in time Same or different job Situation before leave time Situation after leave time

1 2 months 2016-2016 same No changes, but development No changes, but development

2 8 months 2014-2014 different Large team, large project (elections), legal matters

Small team, only three persons, organisational matters

3 1 year and

2 months

2013-2014 different Less administrative work, less structure, Limux (IT system)

More administrative work, more structure, more rules, no Limux (IT system) anymore, new IT processes

4 1 year and

1,5 years

2004-2005, 2009-2011

same No changes No changes

5 3 years 2000-2003 same No changes No changes

6 3 years 2000-2003 different Computer but no e-mail and no networked

computer, no internet

E-mail, internet, new opportunity for communication

7 3 years and

7 months

2004-2007 same Old law, old IT processes, old manager Changed law, new IT processes for implementing the law, new manager 8 6 years 1993-1999 same Typewriters, index cards, no internet Computer with a writing program and

9 6 years 2010-2016 different No Limux, less IT processes, steady

working, reliability of the working process

Fast-paced working environment, chronological lack of time, Limux, more IT processes

10 7 years 2003-2010 different From private enterprise To public service

11 10 years 1990-2000 different Working with typing papers,

communication through letters, no computer, no internet, no e-mail, handwritten signature, certificates in a bonded book

e-mail, internet, digital signature, computer, digitalised documents

12 10 years 1997-2007 different Beginnings of the intranet, typewriters, beginnings of computer, but not networked, no meetings

Computer, internet, e-mail, daily meetings

13 12 years 1988-2000 different Strong command structure, narrow

limitations, index cards, typing pool, handwritten documents

High autonomy, less command structures, computer, internet, media

14 13 years 1997-2010 different No computer, typing pool, handwritten documents, index cards

Computer, internet, e-mail 15 14 years 1990-2004 different Index cards, typing pool, handwritten

documents

Computer, e-mail, internet 16 15 years 1991-2006 different Index cards, typing pool, no IT, everything

on paper

4.3 Perceived Opportunity and Perceived Threat

Perceived opportunity and perceived threat can have a significant impact on the adaptation and avoidance of changes. As mentioned before, the individual will weigh the consequences (opportunity or threat) of the specific change within the primary appraisal. This was also visible during the interviews, as the interviewees also weighted the consequences the specific changes will have for them. Eight out of 16 interviewees experienced threat when they were first confronted with the specific changes after their leave time. Eight out of 16 interviewees perceived opportunity from the very beginning. The research results showed differences due to three reasons. First, the period of time in which the interviewees were born, and also what the interviewees had learned for example in school or before leave time seems to be a significant indicator for experiencing opportunity or threat after leave time. Six out of eight interviewees experiencing threat after their leave time, were over 50 years, which means that these interviewees were born earlier and learned other things in school as interviewees, which are younger. A difference of 10 years in birth time, can have an impact on if the individual started learning IT specific themes or not. The above mentioned is exemplary explained by interviewee 12.

I12: “Yes indeed, she was more out of the context than me. This is what I recognised. I had IT in school, I programmed in school, and therefore, I had relation to the IT. Whereas my manager did not have anything IT specific in school.” 3

The experienced threat of these six interviewees is related to changes in the IT system, which can be explained by the time in which these six were born, as these interviewees had not been in contact with IT systems or devices like a personal computer before their leave time. The threat the other two interviewees, aged 37 and 42, experienced, was more related to other changes within the organisation and were not aligned with IT systems or computer devices. This threat experienced by these interviewees was caused by differences in administrative work, rules and structures. This could be caused by the circumstance that these two interviewees are younger and had been in touch with IT systems or computer devices before their leave time.

Second, the duration seems to be the next indicator for perceiving threat after leave time. It is striking that six out of eight interviewees, who experienced threat, had taken a long leave time, ranging from seven to 15 years. A long leave time results in a greater distance from the job, as interviewee 7 explains, a loss of feeling to belong to a company and an increased lack of knowledge. This could be a result of the extremely different task an individual has during his/ her leave time, as mentioned by interviewee 14. She experienced her leave time as a time in which she was totally self-determined and came back to

3

_{I12: „Ja genau. Also es war schon so. Also da war sie jetzt doch weiter draußen als ich. Also das hat}

an organisation with regulations. This could be named as a reason for the perceived threat after a long leave time.

I7: “[…] one is out of the job, therefore, this can be said, it is a different daily routine, the time could be arranged by one self, there are different structures, the ability of fully concentrate on a task, to fulfil this task from the beginning to the end, this ability gets lost, therefore, one has to learn this again […]”4 I14: “There was total and excessive overload. I was overwhelmed by everything, because after such a long time everything was so new, being subject to regulations with a time card, having fixed working hours, sitting in the office over a fixed period of time, because before I was totally self-determined about to what I do and when I do it[…].”5

However, all interviewees, who initially perceived threat, later experienced opportunity posterior through the help of support tools, which are explained in the next section. These support tools played a significant role in minimising the perceived threat or in increasing the perceived opportunity, which the interviewees saw in the (IT) change.

Eight out of 16 interviewees perceived opportunity from the (IT) changes. Interviewee 6, for example, experienced the changes as positive and extracted always positive things from the changes. Interviewee 8 was enthusiastic about the new tool E-mail, as e-mails ease the working process, and interviewee 7 thought that the new fold process was more effective than the old one.

I6: “[…], I usually extracted positive things and I always face a change with positive feelings. I am happy about this, because I know many people, who react differently, they experience the changes personally and this pulls one down.”6

4

_{I7: „[…] man ist einfach raus, also das muss man sagen, es ist ein anderer Tagesablauf, man teilt sich}

die Zeit selbst ein, man hat ganz andere Strukturen, die Konzentration auf eine Aufgabe, die von Anfang bis zum Ende zu bringen, ist eigentlich weg, also da muss man eigentlich wirklich wieder reinkommen, […]”

5

_{I13: „Vollkommene Überforderung, aber bodenlose. Ich war mit allem überfordert, weil das so neu}

war auch nach dieser langen Zeit einfach wieder reglementiert zu sein mit einer Stempelkarte, mit einer festen Arbeitszeit, mit einfach über einen bestimmten Zeitraum im Büro zu sitzen, weil ich war ja vorher vollkommen selbstbestimmend über meine Zeit und auch vollkommen selbstbestimmend darüber was ich tue […]”

6

_{I6: „[…] also ich habe eigentlich immer positives rausgezogen und gehe eigentlich auch immer}

I8: “Yes, for me this e-mail is great, this is so easy, so back and forth. Previously you sent a letter and sometimes you called each other […].”7

I7: “[…]. And also the new fold process was more effective and better than the old one. […].”8

Interviewee Threat Opportunity Experienced change intensity Duration

1 x small intensity 2 months

2 x Small intensity 8 months

3 x Small intensity 1 year and 2 months

4 x Small intensity 1 year and 1,5 years

5 x Small intensity 3 years

6 x Small intensity 3 years

7 x Small intensity 3 years and 7 months

8 x Big intensity 6 years

9 x Big intensity 6 years

10 x Big intensity 7 years

11 x Big intensity 10 years

12 x Big intensity 10 years

13 x Big intensity 12 years

14 x Big intensity 13 years

15 x Big intensity 14 years

16 x Big intensity 15 years

Table 4 shows the relationship between perceived threat and opportunity, the experienced change intensity and the duration of leave time. It is striking that interviewees, who experienced a big change intensity seem to have experienced threat mostly. Only interviewee 8 and 9 perceived opportunity while experiencing a big change intensity. Five interviewees, who experienced a small change intensity perceived opportunity from the change and only interviewee 3 and 5 perceived threat while experiencing a small change intensity. Therefore, a big change intensity seems to entail threat with some expectations. In the next section reintegration strategies are explained, which could be one reason why interviewees, which experienced threat still adapted the changed (IT) situation.

7

_{I8: „Ja eben diese E-mail finde ich toll, das ist so einfach so hin und her und früher hast du einen}

Brief geschickt und telefoniert hat man auch manchmal, […]”

4.4 Reintegration strategies

The data collected through the interviews, showed different experiences made by the interviewees. As the duration of leave time of the interviewees ranged between two months and 15 years, the experiences were different. Some interviewees experienced a reintegration with full support while others experienced a reintegration with less support. Specifically, 10 out of 16 interviewees participated in a mentoring program, 10 out of 16 interviewees participated in workshops and trainings, and 14 out of 16 interviewees received support through colleagues and managers. Only two out of 16 interviewees experienced none of the three methods (mentoring programs, trainings and workshops, and support through colleagues and managers) when they returned. These three reintegration strategies are explained in detail below.

4.4.1 Mentoring Programs

Interviewees experienced mentoring programs as an important part of most of the municipal departments of the City of Munich. 10 out of 16 interviewees confirmed that they participated in a mentoring program, which they felt very helpful for making the reintegration easier. The interviewees felt that it was very helpful in the sense of easier understanding the work flow and encouraging the team spirit. Mentoring programs are perceived to be common practise in all municipal departments of the City of Munich according to respondent 15 (I 15). An experienced colleague, who is working in the unit, where a new employee is going to start working, is playing the role of the mentor. This means that he/ she undertakes the initial training and explains the basics. This colleague is a team colleague and not a superior manager, as respondent 15 (I 15) also explains. Six interviewees mentioned that there was no mentoring program, which was e.g. caused by “skilled worker shortage”, as respondent two (I 2) explains.

I15: “Yes. This is common practice in all municipal departments of the City of Munich. A team member is appointed as mentor for the reintegration of a new colleague. The mentor explains the basics and gives an overall introduction. This is not done by a manager, but by a colleague of equal status, who explains the generic details and who can be asked, if further questions arise.”9

9 _{I15: „Ja. Also das ist generell eigentlich immer gängige Praxis bei der Stadt München, dass es immer}

I2: “[…] I had to think more for myself and there was nobody, who could have taught me, because everybody was away. I had to acquire a lot of information by myself, but I didn’t need any special workshops. […]” 10

4.4.2 Workshops and Training

Respondent 12 (I 12) felt that the municipal departments of the City of Munich put emphasis on a well-developed advanced training program. Every respondent could have had trainings or workshops during their reintegration. Workshops and trainings were not necessary for every reintegration, however, 10 out of 16 interviewees made use of this advanced training program during the reintegration phase. However, attending workshops and trainings was troublesome in some cases due to lack of time. As mentioned before, most of the interviewees worked part-time after their leave time, but workshops or trainings often last two to three days. For some part-time employees this means losing a whole week of work and lagging behind in their workload. This is also mentioned by respondent three (I 3).

I3: “[…] Working part-time made it difficult to push something forward. It is easier to take two days off for a workshop when you have a full time job, than you have a part-time job. Because with a two-day workshop you are out of the job for one working week […]”11

I12: “This is very good within the municipal administration of the City of Munich, we get advanced training in every area.”12

4.4.3 Support through Colleagues and Managers

The last support tool, which was evident during the interviews, is the daily support through colleagues and managers. Many respondents mentioned that the daily support in terms of explanations, answering questions, and solving problems, contributed to their confidence, wellness, and independence (respondent 6, I 6).

All 16 interviewees mentioned that asking colleagues and managers was major part of their reintegration and no respondent mentioned bad experiences with this support tool.

10

_{I2: „[…]Es war jetzt nicht so, dass ich die Arbeit komplett neu lernen musste. Ich musste mich mehr}

reindenken und es war keiner da der mich einlernen konnte, weil die ja alle weg waren. Ich musste mir viel selber aneignen, aber es hat jetzt keine speziellen Fortbildungen gebraucht.[…]”

11

Tage Schulung machen als in Teilzeit. Weil bei zwei Tagen Schulung ist man in Teilzeit halt einfach eine Woche schon mal weg. […]”

I6: “[…] also employees from other departments, which were very experienced, helped and supported. Especially employees from the Department of Construction gave a lot of support. […]. I could also always ask my colleague, who was in the same team. And also my manager could always be asked. […]”13

Some interviewees mentioned reintegration tool, which they would have wished for their reintegration. The most wished reintegration tool are refreshment workshops, which should be conducted from time to time to help the employees to better understand the task and information and to remember the learned information from the workshops better. This is mentioned by interviewee 13.

I13: “I had wished for more support in the sense of refreshment workshops of half an hour or an hour, maybe two hours, because this long packed workshops are really difficult for people who do not speak this language, because you only can remember a specific part of a long workshop. When you then learned something and you have one or two weeks later another workshop, then you can learn this new step faster, this is more like chapter learning, this is what I would have wished more, maybe when you also have an own trainer. For one or two hours, I think this would have been more productive than an eight hour workshop, of which one cannot remember the last three hours […].”14

4.5 (Technology) Adaptation and Performance

This section describes how the interviewees adapted or avoided the changes and how they performed the changes. As mentioned before, eight interviewees perceived threat while being confronted with the changed (IT) situation. Although half of the interviewees experienced threat, only two interviewees avoided the changed (IT) situation (I 15). One interviewee of these two mentioned that she, in the first step, experienced the situation extremely negative (I 15a). Whereas all 16 interviewees seem to not have applied any specific adaptation strategies, it can be assumed that the two interviewees,

13

_{I6: „[…] das waren dann auch welche aus anderen Referaten und da hatte ich welche, die sehr erfahren}

waren und das hat mir natürlich sehr geholfen. Insbesondere jetzt auch im Baureferat, die haben mich da sehr unterstützt. […]. Hier auch noch die Kollegin, die da noch mit im Team war, die konnte ich immer frage. Der Chef auch, den konnte man auch immer fragen. […].“

14

who avoided the changed (IT) situation acted in the sense of Beaudry and Pinsonneault’s (2005) self-preservation strategy.

I15: “Hm, you can call it overload to a certain extent […].”15

I15a: “So in the first step I just experienced it in a negative way, […]. Additionally, I saw myself in the situation, that I had to make letters by myself in the appropriate form. This was always a challenge, when you accidently make a click, and thereby delete the complete effort of the past 10 or 15 minutes. […].”16

For understanding how these interviewees worked better, the researcher had an informal conversation with a manager of one of the four departments. The manager mentioned that the focus of the public service sector is not completely on performance and as most of the employees are public servants, they are irredeemable. Therefore, the manager believes that these two interviewees, who avoided the change, just tried to fulfil their task somehow with less quality. However, this is only a speculation, as there is no specific data on this information. The managers also talked about workarounds, which could have been done by these interviewees. The manager’s assumption was also partly described by respondent 13 (I 13).

I13: “At the beginning, I tried to circumvent a lot of things. Everything, which was possible to do handwritten, I did by hand and not with EDV. I did not experiment with the EDV, but rather just like typewriting. I just did things, which were strictly pretended. Once a signal came on the computer, which I have not seen before, it was over for me.”17

Two interviewees did not really adapt the situation nor avoid the situation (I 16), they just accepted how it is, so they just did their work in the sense how it was thought by the developer, and 12 interviewees partly or totally adapted the situation (I 11 and I 8). Two interviewees adapted the situation with some expectations (I 9). Interviewees, who partly adapted the changed (IT) situation seem to handle in the sense of Beaudry and Pinsonneault’s (2005) disturbance handling strategy. Interviewees who totally

15

_{I15: „Ähm, man kann es vielleicht ein Stück weit Überforderung nennen, […].“}

16

kam dann dazu, als ich mich in der Situation sag jetzt Schreiben selber in den entsprechenden Formaten zu fertigen, was das immer eine Herausforderung, wenn man dann mit irgendeinem Klick etwas erzeugt, was man eigentlich nicht wollte und dann unter Umständen die Arbeit von 10 Minuten, einer viertel Stunde praktisch vernichtet war. […].“

17 _{I13: „Also ich habe versucht ganz viele Sachen am Anfang zu umgehen, also alles was ich machen}

adapted the changed (IT) situation seem to follow Beadury and Pinsonneault’s (2005) benefit maximising strategy, as they perceived opportunity.

I16: “In the sense of IT, I had a lot of regard, which I still have nowadays, however, in total I adapted the changed situation, I mean what else would have been left for me? But always with regard.”18

I11: “Yes I adapted the IT. I saw the advantages.”19

I8: “I adapted the situation, yes I adapted it and I also experienced the situation increasingly as positive, because it made a lot easier.”20

I9: “Adapted, avoided only when I thought it is idiotic. […].”21

The two interviewees who avoided the changed (IT) situation mentioned that it would have been much easier if they had not avoided the changed (IT) situation (I 15b).

I15b: “Yes, maybe my workflow would have been faster and more effective, if I maybe had said to myself from the beginning, the IT is there now, I accept it as a positive support and apply it with all opportunities it offers. However, I did not see this in the beginning. However, in the beginning, everything could be managed without IT and it took a while until I actually relaised, that I can save written documents, which I had saved before, a second time under a new name and changed it with a few clicks simple into a new document. While before I had to write the whole letter again. […].”22

All in all, it can be said, that although half of the interviewees perceived threat at the beginning, 12 of the interviewees adapted the changed (IT) situation. Therefore, perceived threat does not seem to be the indicator for avoidance of a changed (IT) situation. It seems that reality is not that black and white. That

18

_{I16: „Also ich habe einen heiden Respekt, habe ich heute noch, aber insgesamt habe ich die}

Veränderung, ja mei, was wäre mir denn anderes übriggeblieben, angenommen natürlich, aber immer halt mit Respekt.“

19

_{I11: „Ja doch ich habe die IT angenommen. Ich habe mehr die Vorteile gesehen.“}

20

_{I8: „Ich habe es angenommen, doch ich habe das angenommen und es auch zunehmend als positiv}

empfunden, weil es einfach Vieles einfacher gemacht hat.“

21

_{I9: „Angenommen, abgelehnt nur, wenn ich es idiotisch finde. […].“}

22

means that employees seem to avoid only parts of a changed (IT) situation and not the whole situation. This was mentioned before by interviewee 9, who said that she adapted the situation and avoided only when she thought it is idiotic (I 9, p. 32). The two interviewees, who avoided the changed (IT) situation, adapted the changed (IT) situation after filling their lack of knowledge through training, mentoring programs, and support through colleagues.

Within an informal conversation with a manager of one of the four departments it was striking that the interviewees seemed to see more opportunities in the changed (IT) situation, when they performed good and reached their goals. This arose in feedback meetings, which the employees of the municipal administration of the city of Munich have with their managers. During the informal conversation with the manager it was also mentioned that the interviewees seemed to understand the changed (IT) situation better when performing good and attaining the goals. These arose also during feedback meetings between employee and manager. These meeting occur once a year and help the managers to better understand how their employees feel and behave.

The 12 interviewees, who adapted the changed (IT) situation, mentioned that the reintegration strategies helped them to overcome the perceived threat. With this support, all interviewees, who perceived threat at the beginning, changed their feelings and saw opportunities in the changed (IT) situation and felt more secure. This led to adaptation of the changed (IT) situation.

Table 5: Overview of the relationship between opportunity and threat, total adaptation, partly adaptation and avoidance and the potential movement Interviewee Threat Opportunity Total

Adaptation

Partly Adaptation

Avoidance None of total/ partly adaptation and avoidance

Movement

1 x x

2 x x

3 x x Through reintegration characteristics from

threat to opportunity

4 x x

5 x x Through reintegration characteristics from

threat to opportunity

6 x x

7 x x

8 x x

9 x x Through reintegration strategies from partly

adaptation to total adaptation and from threat to opportunity

10 x x Through reintegration characteristics from

threat to opportunity

11 x x Through reintegration characteristics from

threat to opportunity

13 x x Through reintegration strategies from

avoidance to partly or total adaptation and from threat to opportunity

14 x x Through reintegration characteristics from

threat to opportunity

15 x x Through reintegration strategies from

avoidance to partly or total adaptation and from threat to opportunity

16 x x Through reintegration characteristics from

(2005) adaptation strategies, it was not striking during the interviews that the interviewees followed any specific adaptation strategies. Therefore, for the conceptual model, the researcher thought about new terms for adaptation, which are more general and not specified in general detail. These terms are more in the next section, where the conceptual model is presented.

4.6 Towards a Conceptual Model

is important as total avoidance happened less often. If an individual experience threat, the individual will avoid the changed situation or changed IT system or, if the tools related to the reintegration minimised the threat, will also totally or partly adapt the changed situation, or changed IT system. As these different options resulted from the interviews, they are new insights and therefore illustrated in blue. Cognitive appraisals, which can be found in the internal factors box, and the internal behaviour, which can be found in the third box, influence each other. Therefore, a feedback loop goes back from internal behaviour to internal factors. This was not really supported by any data, therefore, the feedback loop is shown dashed, however, the researcher regarded this feedback loop as important. Internal behaviour results in outcomes, such as performance of the changed (IT) situation or goal attainment. This can also have an impact on the internal factors, as a specific performance can change the feeling about the changed (IT) situation, which is reflected in opportunity or threat. This second feedback loop was supported by a manager within an informal conversation. However, as it is not strongly supported it is also shown dashed. A third feedback loop goes from the outcome box back to the change box, in which the organisational “orchestra” can be found, as with a good performance the perspective of an employee might change and the employee might see the organisational “orchestra” differently and this might help the employee to better understand the organisational “orchestra” and to better reintegrate herself/ himself. This was also supported by a manager within an informal conversation and is, compared to the former research process model, a new insight, therefore it is illustrated in blue. However, it is not strongly supported. For this reason, it is shown dashed.

Figure 9: Process model

5. Discussion and Conclusion

The purpose of this research was to explain which impact leave time of women and men has on their adaptation, feelings and performance regarding (IT) changes, how these women and men experienced comping back after a leave time and how they reacted. To answer the research question, 16 interviewees who differed in age, gender, and duration of leave time, were interviewed. Within the municipal administration of the City of Munich, which was the partner organisation of this research, leave time is encouraged and widely accepted. It was expected that reintegration strategies can have an effect on the feelings about the changed (IT) situation, which was confirmed. The conclusion will be compared to existing literature. Finally, research limitations, practical and theoretical implication and potential future research are defined.

5.1 Theoretical Discussion and Conclusion

most appropriate reintegration strategies for this research are management support, training effectiveness, mentoring programs, and support though colleagues. The realisation that other people can help the individual using the technology (mentoring programs) and that others have control over the system and understand it, helps the employee to be motivated to learn and understand the changed (IT) situation as well. In addition, the researcher shows that there is a feedback loop from the outcome box back to the change box, which means that a good performance of the changed (IT) situation leads to better understanding about the whole organisational “orchestra” and helps the employee to better reintegrate in this “orchestra”. Other theories from IS adaptation, such as the coping model of user adaptation of Beaudry and Pinsonneault (2005) or the adaptation model by Bala and Venkatesh (2016), did not show this feedback loop. This feedback loop could also be compared to Mueller, Renken and van den Heuvel’s (2016) figure in their paper, as individuals decide about perceiving opportunity or threat on the basis of their experiences and expectations of their own organisational “orchestra”. This decision leads to actions and through this feedback loop, which is based on evaluation and reflection, the expectation of the own organisational “orchestra” may have changed.

Zooming into the leave time aspect of the model, there are three decisive terms, which determine how much change an employee experiences. The research showed, the longer an employee took leave time, the more changes the employee experienced and the harder it was for the employee to reintegrate to the existing organisational “orchestra” (duration). The research also showed that the point in time is an important aspect, as most IT-related changes in the organisation occurred between 1990 and 2004. Therefore, if an employee left and re-entered the organisation during this time period, the employee experienced more changes than an employee, who entered the organisation after this time period. Another aspect, which this research showed, is the fact that it is crucial whether the employee enters the same job or a different one, as entering a different job entails more changes than entering the same job. However, how these employees managed coming back after this long period can be more explained by the reintegration strategies, which were mentioned above. These strategies show how the employees were reintegrated after such a long time.

Like the CMUA literature of Beaudry and Pinsonneault (2005), the changed (IT) situation was appraised differently by different employees with different adaptation strategies. While Beaudry and Pinsonneault (2005) developed four different adaptation strategies, this research focuses on three different adaptation strategies, the total adaptation, partly adaptation, and avoidance.