The impact of gender on satisfaction with assignments abroad and the
decision to leave
MSc Advanced International Business Management Dissertation
ABSTRACT
Despite being a phenomenon that has existed since time immemorial, expatriation has undergone shifts in nature and purpose in the current era. With increasing globalisation, the nature of expatriates has changed, as well, with an increasing number of women and self-initiated expatriates. Along with these shifts, the challenges to expatriation and repatriation have undergone a shift, as well. Using a qualitative approach based on Gioia (2013)’s methodology, this study attempts to explore the impact of gender on various aspects in the expatriation process: the reasons and challenges to expatriation, the level of satisfaction, and the subsequent decision to leave. In order to gain a deeper understanding of the issues surrounding these elements, in-depth interviews were undertaken with respondents who had experienced working abroad. It was found there were differences due to gender in all of the aspects mentioned. Although most of the respondents mentioned being satisfied with their experiences, the factors that contributed to this varied between men and women expatriates. Hence, it can be proposed that the impact of gender needs to be considered by organisations whilst framing policies. This study contributes to the existing literature on expatriation by bringing in a gendered perspective to the changing facets of expatriation.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research project was one of significance and a path of discovery for me, since this topic was one that is very close to me, being the daughter of expatriates who were always longing for home, but did not go back for a long time, due to multiple reasons. I am eternally thankful for my parents, their sacrifices and choices which enabled me to be here today, as well as for their unwavering support that kept me going despite all the obstacles.
I am immensely grateful for the opportunity to carry out this study. I would like to thank my supervisors Dr Ana Lopes and Dr Esha Mendiratta for their invaluable support and guidance and constantly encouraging me to work better. I would also like to express my gratitude towards all the participants who took time out of their busy schedule to participate in an interview for this project, without which it would have been impossible. I am also indebted to my friends and family who provided me with moral support throughout this process, both in person and through video calls despite being spread around the world.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION………...5
2. LITERATURE REVIEW………...9
2.1. Reasons for expatriation………...11
2.2. Challenges for expatriation………...12
2.3. Level of job satisfaction………14
2.4. Decision to return………..16 3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY……….20 3.1. Research Design………...20 3.2. Data Sample………..21 3.3. Data Collection……….23 3.4. Data Analysis………25
3.5. Reliability and Validity……….26
4. ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS………...27
4.1. Reasons for expatriation………...32
4.2. Barriers to expatriation……….32
4.3. Level of job satisfaction………38
4.4. Decision to return………..42
4.5. Anticipated issues with repatriation………...45
5. DISCUSSION……….48
6. CONCLUSION AND LIMITATIONS………52
6.1. Theoretical and practical implications………..52
6.2. Limitations………53
6.3. Future research………..54
7. REFERENCES………...55
8. APPENDICES………66
8.1. Appendix 1: Interview Consent Form………..66
8.2. Appendix 2: Interview Guide………...67
8.3. Appendix 3: Sample Interview Transcript………68
INTRODUCTION
With the increasing globalisation and the shift towards a more global business environment, international assignments are becoming the norm. Although expatriation and migration are phenomena that span centuries, in the digital era, the motivations behind this move, both from the perspective of the organisation, as well as that of the people involved, differ, which prompts a shift in the process of expatriation (Bonache et al, 2017). More transparency about the world beyond one’s own space has propelled the move towards expatriation, amongst others. Further, with the increase in competition between firms in an international context, it might be beneficial for organisations to have an international staff, with the local skill shortages being another reason to hire expatriates (Howe-Walsh and Schyns, 2010). Unlike in the past, where it was believed that women did not prefer to take up expatriate assignments (Adler, 1984), the number of women expatriates are increasing in the present world, with many of them moving by their own initiative (Tharenou, 2014). Whilst all of this would imply hiring expatriates, crafting a HR strategy that incorporates all their unique needs tends to be imperative. Hence, an understanding of the specific challenges faced by women expatriates, and how these differ from those faced by men are of importance. As with the outbound process of expatriation involved, the final stage of in-bound repatriation in this process is also deemed crucial, considering that more than 80% of the repatriated expatriates experience at least one issue while returning home, with more than half of them missing their life abroad (HSBC, 2017). Hence, an understanding of these challenges is crucial for an understanding of their motivations, and how it will affect an organisation in the long-run.
These cross-border assignments could range anywhere from a few months to years, with the reasons for return being varied and not just the secondment ending. Much has been theorised about the challenges and difficulties that are endured by expatriates, with the additional challenges of being a woman in this context being touched upon (Altman and Shortland, 2008). However, most studies have focused on the cultural assimilation process in the expatriate setting and how this relates to the adjustment (Peltokorpi and Froese, 2014), which might cease to be a major factor with self-initiated expatriates. Their adjustment in a host country is proposed to be better since they are internally motivated to be there (Von Borell de Araujo, 2013). With self-initiated expatriation, whilst there is the initial desire to move abroad for various reasons, the length and the satisfaction with the job tends to vary on a personal basis. Whilst Javidan et al (2010) believe that a global mindset is the most essential element, one could further analyse whether an individual’s gender would have an impact on this. The role of gender in this context has also been explored, with research carried out on the unique set of challenges faced by female expatriates as compared to their male counterparts, in terms of cultural adjustment and assimilation into the new context (Harrison and Michailova, 2012).
decision to leave is of increasing importance, which this study attempts to address. This particularly holds for self-initiated expatriates who have a choice to leave, without the repercussions of being seen as a failure on the overseas assignment, by the home organisation. The pull of family and the feeling of dissatisfaction with the job, coupled with changes due to the environment might prompt the decision to leave. This study attempts to explore whether this had more of an impact on women expatriates as compared to men. Yet, repatriation comes with challenges on its own, from having to re-build social and professional networks in the home-country, as well as those relating to a sense of a shift in the identity of these individuals. This is of importance to most of the expatriates since more than half of repatriate turnover happens in the first two years (Brookfield Global Relocation Service, 2016). The question as to whether these phenomena might vary depending on the gender of the individuals involved, is an interesting basis to explore. This is especially so, since some of the women expatriates report choosing to move abroad as a means of advancing their career prospects.
with individuals who underwent the process of expatriation. This data is then thematically organised through the method proposed by Gioia et al (2013), by bringing in first and second-order constructs in order to ensure rigour.
LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter aims to provide a basis for the study to be undertaken by providing an overview of the existing literature in the field, relevant to this study. This chapter initially details the reasons to expatriate, followed by the challenges faced by the expatriate in the host-country and their level of satisfaction with the job that they do, which subsequently affects their decision to return to their home country. The existing research on women expatriates and the challenges unique to them are further summarised. The variations in the literature of these themes and the importance of these for the study to be undertaken are described in the following paragraphs.
In an increasingly globalised world, with improvements in technology, the movement of people across the world has become easier. This has furthered a shift in the number of people opting towards an international career, which involves taking up assignments in countries other than their own. The shift towards internationalisation of companies have also prompted them to send employees abroad (McDonnell et al, 2017) whether to start up the operations of the firm in newer countries, to develop the professional and career aspirations of the employees, to make up for the lack of local talent, or perhaps to spread the image of the firm in a different region (Vidal et al, 2008). There have also been cases of smaller organisations increasingly going international or starting up operations in a host-country, that is being “born international” (Cavusgil and Knight, 2015).
Despite the aspect of gender influencing expatriation being paid attention to, since the seminal work of Adler (1979) there has not been a definite answer as to why the inequality persists in the area. In an organisational posting, women are less likely to be posted abroad than men (Tung, 2004). Various authors have attempted to theorise the reasons for why this is so, with Shortland (2009) theorising that women’s human and social capital, as well as their choices and perceived local resistance played a significant role. In the past, it was believed that women did not desire to work abroad or that they did not possess the skill set required for an expatriate (Adler, 1984), or even if they did, they would not be accepted in the host country’s social environment (Adler, 1987). However, in the current environment, with around half of the self-initiated expatriates being women, this may not hold true (Tharenou, 2014).
Although expatriation is a phenomenon spanning centuries, in this day and age, it is one that has undergone significant shifts, as well. These might to due to changes in the context of home organisations and host countries, changes in attention to types of international experience, and finally the changes in the management of expatriates (Bonache et al, 2017). In this paper, the focus is on the changes in the types of international experience and how does the management or the organisation fit in, and the variation of the same between genders.
Reasons for expatriation
behind accepting a job abroad could be diverse. Of these, some of the broad categories identified by Richardson et al (Richardson and McKenna 2002, 2003; Richardson and Mallon, 2005) include adventure/travel, career reasons, family, financial incentives and life change/escape. The study by Selmer and Lauring (2011) delved into the variations in the reasons behind opting for expatriation based on demographics, with traditional gender roles having an impact on these reasons, with gender differentiating two of the five dimensions, that of financial incentives and life changes. Likewise, Baruch and Forstenlechner (2017) proposed that although financial incentives and career reasons were major reasons to expatriate, there tend to be variations about the reasons and the length of stay, depending on demographics such as nationality and gender.
Challenges in expatriation
These challenges could be more pronounced in the cases of women expatriates, especially those in a male-dominated setting (Shortland, 2018). Whilst the choices of the women were of importance, the reluctance of the employers were also highlighted, with the women having to prove themselves to a greater extent than their male counterparts (Linehan and Walsh, 1999) or that they present a greater risk than male expatriates (Izraeli et al., 1980 cited in Adler, 1984). Whilst this may not be the case for self-initiated expatriates, the traditional familial roles and cultural dimensions play a part there. Whilst women might try to balance out family and career commitments through satisficing (Crompton and Harris, 1998), with expatriation, this may not be feasible, and women might be led to a career compromise, especially with dual career couples. (Corby and Stanworth, 2009).
stereotyping and find it harder to find suitable employment (Cole, 2012). This furthers the challenges to expatriation for women, as they would be hesitant to initiate the process due to family or relationship ties.
Level of job satisfaction
Job satisfaction, or “a positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one's work or job experiences” (Locke, 1976, cited in Froese and Peltokorpi, 2013) has been discussed in varying contexts in business literature. The reason for job satisfaction being accorded the level of importance it receives is its impact on an employee. Job satisfaction has been linked to absenteeism, the productivity of the employee, organisational efficiency, and subsequent turnover intentions (Mottaz, 1985). Job satisfaction in the simplest terms could be the extent to which a person enjoys his or her job (Froese and Peltokorpi, 2013). There are multiple aspects that determine job satisfaction, whether intrinsic or extrinsic. Intrinsic job satisfaction is how a person feels about their job and is within themselves, whereas extrinsic satisfaction is that gained due to factors that are external to the job itself (Naumann, 1993). As a whole, job satisfaction, especially in an expatriate context, has multiple aspects that contribute towards it including the ability to adapt well to new cultural situations, along with tangible and intangible benefits like housing, transportation, as well as perceived organisational support (Shaffer and Harrison, 1998). These contribute towards a total feeling of satisfaction with the expatriate experience. Hence, in this context, the level of satisfaction is closely intertwined with support factors which could be organisational, social or other factors.
Decision to return
81% of the repatriates experienced at least one issue while returning home, with more than half of them missing their life abroad (HSBC, 2017). Hence, this would be of relevance to self-initiated expatriates as well, who decided to return due to several reasons. In this phase as well, there tend to be challenges that are particular to women expatriates, including those relating to career advancement after an international experience, the challenges of family and getting used to the work culture at home (Linehan and Scullion, 2002). This is also of importance in the case of accompanying spouses and dual career couples who might experience shifts in their personal lives, including logistical and emotional issues which might spill over to the work life and also have implications on the repatriation (Kierner and Suutari, 2018). Although there is no sufficient evidence to this, it is likely that women repatriates might face these challenges to a greater extent, which this study aims to explore. This factor coupled with that of satisfaction could possibly have a strong impact in the reverse cultural assimilation process post a cross-border assignment and lead to differing levels of satisfaction, which could be examined through further research (Vidal et al, 2008). However, this has been an aspect that has not been studied in great detail.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The research question on “How does an individual’s gender affect their level of job satisfaction, and influence the decision to return post an assignment abroad?” suggests a qualitative research approach. This is further reiterated by the use of the word “how”, which tends towards the qualitative aim of developing an initial understanding of actual employees’ experiences, instead of quantifying data and seeking generalizable results (Malhotra et al, 2013).
Research Design
since the data that is being analysed is a qualitative one, and the research problem has been addressed in a subjective fashion, in order to understand the world from the point of view of the actors involved and the reasons for decision making in a certain way. An interpretivist approach provides for finding the reasons behind a certain issue and understanding social reality, which forms an essential part of qualitative research.
Data Sample
pseudonyms and professional conduct which involved treating data from all the respondents in the same way, helped with minimising bias (Brewis, 2014). The sample further involved a cross-section of individuals, with the criteria that they would have had to have undergone an expatriate experience. In order to examine the effect of gender and cultural differences in the participants, the participants were selected from a diverse stratum of individuals, in order to accommodate this variable. That is, the selected sample featured a variation within demographical characteristics of nationality, ethnicity, and gender. The limitations of time and the subsequent obstacles due to time-zone differences had the sample being limited to ten individuals. Although this did not meet the norm of 15-60 participants for a qualitative study as suggested by Saunders and Townsend (2016), the sample was considered sufficient because it was similar to that of previous studies conducted along the similar lines (Akerlind, 2008: Stalker and Mavin, 2011). Furthermore, whilst the sample is relatively small, it reflects a wide range of individuals, which could be appropriate for understanding the variation of the phenomena amongst the population (Akerlind, 2008). The demographic profile of the sample has been tabulated as under.
Table showing the demographics of participants
Name Age
Group
Gender Nationality Country lived/living in
Occupation Elizabeth 45 – 60 Female British Qatar, China Librarian
Arya 26 – 35 Female Indian Denmark Technical Consultant
Anushka 26 – 35 Female Indian USA Technical Consultant
Isabella 26 – 35 Female Spanish UK Creative/Marketing/Art
Gallery
Sabrina 26 – 35 Female German Indonesia,
USA Consultant/Management
Alex 26 – 35 Male Indian Netherlands Technical Consultant
Nikolai 26 – 35 Male Norwegian Kenya, UK Consultant/Management
Ishaan 36 – 45 Male Indian Saudi Arabia Management
Ahmed 36 – 45 Male Indian Saudi Arabia Technical/Management
Data Collection
Whilst there is a variety of methods for data collection in a qualitative study, here the data collection was done through two means. Collection of secondary data through the review of existing literature, followed by the collection of primary data through cross-sectional interviews. The primary data collection technique that was adopted involved conducting ten in-depth and semi-structured interviews with individuals who had undergone the process of expatriation, which was considered appropriate since the phenomena under question is dynamic over time and place and hence, ungeneralizable.
technology such as Skype was considered positive since it widened the reach of participants and hence the inputs to the study.
An interview guide with nine open-ended and non-directive questions (see Appendix), helped in focusing on the key topics and maintained reasonable consistency across the interviews, whilst also providing the space for follow-up questions. Ten semi-structured interviews were conducted in English, with eight through Skype and two face-to-face interviews, each lasting about 35 to 45 minutes. English was chosen as the preferred language for the interviews since it was the first language or a language that all the participants were comfortable with using in a professional environment. These interviews were audio recorded, transcribed, and a pseudonym was used to maintain participant confidentiality. Through these in-depth interviews with open questions, personal stories of employees and experiences could be discovered. These personal experiences help in gathering a deeper understanding of the motives behind the issues. This method of data collection allowed for the respondents to lead the topic into different perspectives, and hence provide an opportunity to discover new themes and generate a discussion that could lead to a greater depth and insight into the topic. That represents a unique advantage of a qualitative approach towards research since it involves an exploratory design that leads to the discovery of new themes and a better understanding of the nuances of the topic researched upon.
the use of pseudonyms to protect their identity, and care was taken to ensure ethical considerations were followed.
Data Analysis
Once the data was collected through the aforementioned interviews, the transcribed versions of these interviews were initially coded, in order to analyse them. Whilst the use of computer assisted software like Atlas.ti and NVivo were considered, these packages only manage and organise large amounts of data. The actual analysis is carried out by the researcher, and considering the smaller sample, it was more appropriate to analyse the data manually, by hand.
question at hand. These themes could then be reviewed, defined and used to construct possible theories that are relevant to the research question. This method of qualitative analysis is highly appropriate to condense vast sets of non-numerical data into relevant patterns that relate well to the research question and have linkages towards prior research and literature that was reviewed on similar themes.
Reliability and validity
ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS
This chapter details the analysis of the data collected and the findings that emerged out of the process. The data for the analysis involves transcripts of ten interviews conducted with a diverse range of people who had undertaken jobs abroad. The sample was a gender-balanced one, with five men and five women. The participants spanned diverse ages, nationalities, host countries, and occupations. However, they were all professionals who had at least a bachelor’s degree from a university. At least half of the sample were either European expatriates in Asia, or were Asian expatriates in Europe, although there were expatriates in different regions, as well. A table showing the detailed demographics of the participants along with their pseudonyms has been attached in the chapter detailing the research methodology.
Visa issues Housing Logistics
Language
Local customs and traditions Inherent bias of host-country nationals
Accessibility of country Political environment and
Long working hours
Competitive work environment Hierarchy
Differences in work culture Career growth prospects Gender-divide in work place
Difficulty finding a job Not being able to work/work part-time
Accepting a lower role
Personal issues
Logistical barriers
Barriers within the host-country
Issues in the host-country workplace
Issues with moving as an accompanying spouse
Barriers with expatriation First-order Concepts
Living away from home Long-distance relationships Distance
Social life
Short-term feeling
Support with visa Housing
Food
Social life (friends from home country also)
Welcoming attitude of host country nationals
Host country characteristics
Team at work Cultural/diversity training/orientation Time to settle in
Career growth/opportunities Hierarchy (less)/ favourable company policies
Work-life balance Long term perspective
Change in political
environment and government policies (visa)
Instability
Attitude of host-country nationals towards expatriates change
Retirement/age restrictions Family and relationships Distance from home Entrepreneurial ideas
Financial reasons
Negative changes in work environment (Bad work culture)
Inability to find similar job Lack of satisfaction with job Lack of career opportunities
Personal reasons Host-country changes Workplace issues Reasons to leave
Potential social isolation Shift in identity
Home to come back to? Outsider feeling
Financial issues Hierarchy
Long-working hours Competitive environment Career issues (Difficulties finding a job)
Building up a professional network from scratch Gender bias in workplace Differences in work culture
Lack of convenience, open spaces Commute Development Personal issues Career/Workplace Other issues Anticipated issues with repatriation
Reasons for expatriation
The interview sample consisted mainly of self-initiated expatriates. Of the ten, two had moved abroad as accompanying spouses, whilst the rest of the participants had moved abroad on their own volition. Thereby, the five broad classifications by Richardson (2001) fit the most common themes that emerged with regards to the reasons for moving abroad. These include, adventure/travel, career reasons, family, financial incentives and life change/escape. The most cited reasons amongst the participants of the interview were career and financial reasons, followed by a thirst for adventure, and finally, for personal or family reasons. Career reasons in the sample also included those who had moved abroad in search of a better job opportunity, as well as those who had initially moved abroad for higher education but had decided to get a job in the country again. Hence, previous experience of living in the place was a strong factor in motivating a person to go back to a particular country in search of a job. This was justified by the possibility of adapting better to the place since it was a known environment. A majority of the participants interviewed had a previous experience with the place they worked, whether it was a study abroad semester, or their close family had lived in the country, in the past. Whilst the pull of career reasons was strong irrespective of gender, the accompanying spouses interviewed were both women who had decided to move abroad due to their partner’s career and subsequently found a job in the country after moving there.
Barriers to expatriation
was on the problems caused due to gender differences, multiple aligned themes emerged out of the study which are detailed below.
Personal issues
Expatriation comes with a lot of balances and compromises, was a major theme that emerged from the sample interviewed. Irrespective of gender, the aspect of leaving family was an issue faced by most. However, some of the women expatriates found it more challenging to explain their decision to expatriate to their families, due to the perceptions or pre-conceived notions their families tended to have, regarding an unknown place. This was a notion that was mentioned by a few respondents, that of people outside having entirely different perceptions regarding a place, and being surprised to learn that it was different. For the younger expatriates, living away from home was a challenging task to get used to, especially when it was the first time that they were living away from their home country. This posed a barrier in their experience, which was further emphasised with the distance. Although this was a sentiment that was echoed mostly by the younger expatriates, some of the older expatriates mentioned the distance aspect as well. For instance, Raman stated that the lack of accessibility to the host-country increases the distance with family back home, as travelling back and forth is limited. This increased the strain on relationships and family ties, which was another personal difficulty faced by expatriates who had partners living in their home countries, which they believed posed barriers towards making the decision to expatriate and in staying away from home.
Whilst some of the women in sample interviewed had moved as accompanying spouses with their partners, or in the case of men, had partners who moved to be with them, this was an aspect that was very much gender-specific. In the sample interviewed, whilst there were women who moved to be with their partners, it was not the case the other way around. This also led to the aspect of the social life in the host-country playing a role in adjusting to the place. For instance, Elizabeth believes that in certain countries, most of the people felt transient, and they tended to leave soon. So, making long-term friends and establishing a support network was complicated, which was accentuated in the cases of accompanying spouses who did not have the organisation’s support in the initial days. Arya, who had moved as an accompanying spouse mentions setting up a “spouse community” for people like her, as a way of adapting to this challenge posed by a lack of social support.
Logistical barriers
couldn’t really understand or couldn’t really know what they were really thinking about me.” - Sabrina
Another logistical issue that was commonly mentioned was that relating to visas and immigration. At least half the respondents had difficulties relating to visas, like Alex, who experienced delays with starting work, due to visa delays. Likewise, with Anushka, who believes that visas and related issues are always at the back of her mind whenever she makes a decision, and that she believes it makes her a second-class citizen, despite paying the same taxes. This sentiment was also echoed by Raman who believes that whilst there was always the feeling of having to leave anytime now, due to visa regulations, invoking a feeling of instability.
“…the country or the job is not permanent. Neither do they provide citizenship nor a job with retirement benefits. Any moment, they can cancel my residence permit and send me back home.” – Raman
“…it’s something that is constantly there on my mind and it is a weight on my shoulders, I feel a second-class citizen. That you are not even a citizen. So, it is like I don’t get, I mean I pay the same taxes, but then I don’t get the same benefits.” – Anushka
Issues with moving as an accompanying spouse
having to settle for a lower position. This was a case of a career compromise, as they were a dual career couple.
“…was difficult at first because most people were working and I wasn’t. I had worked for 30 years full-time and it was quite a bit of shock to me, not being able to work…. Later, it was difficult because when I had worked at {home}, I had quite a senior role so I was doing roles that I wasn’t used to.” - Elizabeth
For Arya, it was a combination of multiple issues. Adding on to the difficulties posed by the language, there existed the latent stereotyping that she believed stemmed from being a woman expatriate from a country, which from the perspective of the host-country nationals had more traditionally defined gender roles. Having to break these stereotypes posed challenges to Arya, who describes a disappointing interview experience.
“…He kind of hinted like, it was a bad thing that we don’t have children yet, and I think he was also trying to judge whether I am going to go on a maternity leave, soon. Which was a very odd question, and then, a lot of Danes told me that that’s not the right question to ask, and it’s actually not allowed in Denmark. But, he just did that maybe because, maybe this international wouldn’t know, about this rule. This expat wouldn’t know.” - Arya
Host-country characteristics
of sorts, in which the host-country nationals ranked different nationalities. Whilst Nikolai believed that it was a sort of internal anger directed at certain nationalities, without physical manifestations, Ahmed insists that these sentiments tend to affect tangible things such as salary or career progression.
“…this is not only on the preference. If we talk about the remuneration also, there is a major impact on this. What the Europeans get is different to the Arabs (which is) different to Asians.” – Ahmed
Language posed a barrier for those who had moved to places where the first language was not English. This barrier was more pronounced in social situations or those outside of work, since the workplaces of the respondents were mostly international. However, most of the sample believed that the challenges relating to language were easier to overcome due to the advancement of technology. Local customs and traditions also played a role in the initial adjustment phase. Whilst most of the respondents believed that whilst these were initially jarring, they were able to get accustomed to this over time. However, this was the factor that saw a fair bit of variation across gender. Whilst some of the women expatriates found themselves limited by these, others believed that it worked to their advantage in a strange way.
“…the only issue was what you wore… In fact, it was an advantage because I was considered a non-working spouse, when I first arrived. A male non-working spouse found it really difficult to get jobs. Because they wouldn’t be allowed to go where the women were. So, yes, it almost worked to my advantage, in a strange way.” - Elizabeth
Issues in the host-country workplace
Whereas the host country characteristics in general, played a role in creating barriers or problems with adjusting to the expatriate experience, the differences in the workplace were also a cause for concern. Most of the respondents mentioned that they had initial adjustment issues due to the differences in work culture as compared to that at home. This included differences in working hours, the competition in the work environment, as well as the hierarchy.
Whilst some of the women expatriates cited the allure of a more equal workplace where their contribution was valued irrespective of their gender, as a reason to move, it was not the same scenario everywhere. In certain cases, women expatriates believed that their career growth was limited in the host country’s workplace due to the local customs and traditions. Men expatriates in the same region also believed that it was difficult for a woman to be in their position, as challenges were tougher, with the rules regarding gender-mixing being stringent in some countries, and women having to work in women-only places, which makes it tougher for them to ascend the corporate ladder. They also believed that in those regions, it was easier for them to adapt since they had previous experience of the place, and the challenges would have been more, if they were entirely new to the place.
“…because I had lived here when I was younger, my perception of what is right and wrong according to the locals here was in black and white in my mind, but I have seen friends who come down or who have just flown in from other parts of the world, they do take some time to adjust to the perception levels here.” - Ishaan
Level of job satisfaction
shown that the organisation’s support or perceived support from the organisation played a role in their level of satisfaction. This support extended into various domains, professional, personal, and logistical.
Workplace/organisational support
Professional support involved providing time to settle in, having a welcoming attitude towards expatriates, and a good team to work with. These were factors valued by nearly all the respondents interviewed. Having a supportive team and environment at work had women expatriates more satisfied with their jobs, because this prompted the belief that they were valued by the organisation for the work that they do, irrespective of gender or nationality. For them, this was accentuated with the career growth opportunities available in the organisation, and the pay scale. Further, those expatriates who received an orientation of sorts, regarding the host country characteristics and culture, along with a briefing on the local customs and traditions, reported an ability to adjust better and feeling more satisfied with the job. Similarly, with the language barrier, language classes conducted by the organisation were received in a positive light, with satisfaction levels being attributed to the same. The work-life balance is seen as a major aspect contributing to the level of satisfaction. However, the women expatriates believed that this balance was rather skewed in countries that emphasised more traditional gender roles. They believed that this led to feelings of dissatisfaction due to the inability to have time for themselves and their family. Some of them believed that the lack of work-life balance in their home country was a reason for wanting to move abroad.
there here. You are just an individual, who is performing A B C tasks, and how are you doing that. So, I feel that it’s more merit-oriented than opposed to gender based.” - Anushka
Logistical support
A concern that was voiced by most of the expatriates was that relating to visas and the immigration process, which was seen as a hindrance in the expatriation process. Hence, when the organisation that they are employed at takes an effort to support the expatriates in this process, it was seen as contributing towards the feeling of satisfaction with the experience. Likewise, with another logistical issue relating to housing, the expatriates who received support from their organisation reported being happier with the process.
“…I got support with the visa, the housing stuff. I think it was because the team was smaller and there was a family feeling, but I actually really needed it for Indonesia. I think if I wouldn’t have had that support in Indonesia, I might have had a negative overall feeling about that experience. But, since I had all the support from my co-workers and the organisation with the housing, I think the overall experience is still quite good.” – Sabrina
“…they got us British food, because I’m vegetarian, and it’s quite a struggle with the Chinese food for me. Even the vegetables are cooked in pork fat.” - Elizabeth
“…in my company, there’s importance even to food. They want to give us the best kind of lunch, because they believe that if, if employees get good food, it is an important factor which influences people to actually stay back.” – Arya
Social support
On a personal basis, the support received from friends, and an active social life was a factor that was given importance to, by most of the respondents. Whilst some of the respondents believed that having friends from their home country led to more comfort, others preferred a more diverse social circle since they deemed it crucial to integrate. The welcoming attitude of the host country nationals was also an aspect involved in the social dimension. The characteristics of the host country which included the local customs and traditions, were found to be easier to navigate through social support. Some of the women expatriates also mentioned the feeling of safety in the new environment, due to the support provided by social sources which made them more comfortable.
When the organisation took on an active role in providing this support, there was an increase in the feeling of positivity towards the organisation. This was also the case with Elizabeth who cites the differences in average age in the expatriate populations in different countries being a factor influencing the satisfaction and support coming from a social life.
Social support playing a major role in an expatriate experience was also emphasised by the importance of support networks within and outside the organisation. For accompanying expatriates, in particular, the support networks outside is of importance, since most of them tend to be women who move to a new place to be with their partner, without a job contract and hence the traditional support network provided by a workplace. As Arya mentions, the reasons behind her setting up a Spouse Community in her current city stemmed from the feeling of being lost, isolated and lonely in a new place, especially as she felt that her partner had a support network of colleagues and work, whilst she initially did not.
“…It’s a support group, everybody is looking to connect and find some friendship, someone to do things around the city. At least, I didn’t have that, at that point, but I think a lot of people who are coming in now are having this. it is important to have some community like this.” - Arya
Decision to return
The decision to return is the phase before the actual repatriation, in the expatriate process. The major reason behind taking up a decision to return is when there is a lack of satisfaction in the job being done. In an expatriate setting, in particular, this dip in satisfaction levels may result in an intention to leave the job. This was, again due to multiple reasons: personal, within the workplace, and within the host-country as a whole.
Personal reasons
expatriates who felt that the distance from family or home would lead to a feeling of isolation or a loss of roots. The distance from home geographically was also cited with a feeling of wanting to go back, especially with the women expatriates who had left their families behind.
“…it’s going to be for family reasons that I would come back. Because of China being so distant. If we were working closer, we could get back in around 2 hours if there was a problem at home.” - Elizabeth
Another personal reason mentioned for wanting to leave involved the desire to start up a business of their own. Since these kinds of ventures were tricky to set up in a foreign land, these expatriates preferred to return home, for this reason.
Workplace reasons
wished to go back to their home country or search for other options in a different country. However, as an expatriate, the inability to find a similar job in the same country forced the decision to return on a few.
Host-country changes
Possible shifts in the host country’s political environment and government’s policies were considered to be of importance in deciding to leave. Most of the expatriates believe that this would have a direct bearing on them if it involved changes in policies relating to visas and immigration laws. Even if that was not the case, a shift in other policies which had the potential to lead to a state of instability or uncertainty were seen as reasons to take the decision to leave. As Isabella mentions, she wished to move abroad since she wanted to avoid the feeling of insecurity or instability in their home country, and if the host-country were to turn similar, she would rather move back home.
“…But, I always think that if things were going to get really difficult, I would go back. I mean, if I move here, it is not for going through a bad experience or things getting really hard, because then what is the point?” - Isabella
Likewise, Raman mentions how after a war, the situation in the country worsened and there seemed to be a degree of instability and a kind of suppressed anger towards expatriates, which could be avoided by moving back home.
“…the first ones to be affected when there is a problem, of any kind, in a country, are foreigners. It just automatically turns into, you are not supposed to be here, so why not leave before it is too late and you have to flee the country, like what happened in Bahrain?” - Raman
Anticipated issues with repatriation
Repatriation is a theme that has been a sensitive issue for most of the respondents since all of them believed that their experiences abroad had changed their outlook, and given them a global mind-set. Whilst they believed this experience made them more tolerant, most of them believed that they might have difficulty adapting back to their home country when they moved back.
Personal Issues
Most of the participants believe that they underwent a kind of shift in their personalities or a difference in the way they viewed the world, as a consequence of their experience abroad. This involved concerns about going back home and finding that it was different from what they remembered. For the older expatriates, who believed that their next option after the assignment ended was retirement, there is a fear of social isolation, and having to start things over in a personal way.
“…potential to be quite isolated. At home, I would have to make a lot more effort to go back to the old thing.” - Elizabeth
As Elizabeth mentions, having a home to come back to, was a significant concern, which was why she insisted on coming back home for holidays as a way to keep her roots grounded. Further, they believed that the perception of their country people towards them would have undergone a shift, as well. With the feeling of, too foreign for here, too foreign for home, striking a chord.
Similarly, many respondents felt that their perceptions regarding their home country would have also changed, the longer they stayed away. Further, some of them believed that personally, they had undergone a shift in their identity. With women expatriates, this might mean moving back into traditional type-sets or “moulds that they have to fit into,” which they believed they left behind, when they left their home country.
“…went I went back, I noticed more changes with the people who asked me, certain questions that I consider personal, but it’s generally asked in India… I feel like I am somewhere in the middle. I don’t know if I can completely be 100% American. I am always going to be an Indian. But then, when I go back, it is not going to be the same again. Because, my perspective has definitely changed. I love being independent, I enjoy it but it is frowned upon, back home.” - Anushka
Career or workplace difficulties
Other concerns
The feeling of going back to a home country that is different from what they remembered was a concern amongst most of the expatriates interviewed. Whilst for some, it was about getting used to different procedures in their daily lives and practicalities, for others, it was a concern regarding the state of development and the possible lack of convenience in their home countries. For instance, Ishaan mentions how the lack of open spaces might pose challenges in his everyday life, whilst Arya believes that getting used to long commutes again would be a tedious task.
One common link that was found amongst all the respondents was that they were all open to new challenges and assignments abroad in vastly different countries, since they believed that their current experiences have paved the path for them, and they would be able to face the challenges and adapt better even in a new environment. Whilst it was found that there were barriers and problems surrounding expatriate stories, it was indeed heartening to learn that most of the experiences were positive and filled with deep learning opportunities that left their recipients more tolerant and worldly-wise individuals.
DISCUSSION
This study was framed by a desire to look through a gender lens on issues surrounding expatriation: the challenges, level of satisfaction with the experience, and the decision to leave followed by anticipated challenges with repatriation. With the interviews, the first two dimensions were those that had been experienced by the respondents whilst the last two were intentions and anticipated challenges. The research question here focused on how the gender of an individual can impact their expatriation process, in particular, the feeling of satisfaction with the job and experience, followed by the decision to leave. The analysis showed that these aspects are indeed gendered, with challenges and perspectives varying by gender.
Much has been theorised about the changing nature of expatriation, which was also the case with the sample interviewed, as they were all self-initiated expatriates, who had moved for varying reasons. Whilst the reasons for expatriating were in line with the five broad classifications theorised by Richardson et al (2002), the variation in gender are in line with Selmer and Lauring (2011) with men being more likely to be motivated by financial reasons. However, the sample differed in that women were more motivated by career reasons, as compared to the men who were motivated by financial reasons. The sample also included women who had moved as accompanying spouses which came with challenges of its own which have been detailed in this study.
spouses or accepting a lower role. Within the workplace, however, the challenges were closely interlinked with the host-country characteristics. In certain countries, the local customs and traditions influenced social lives as well as career advancement opportunities. This was found to be stronger in case of women expatriates some of whom believed that the host country characteristics affected their career advancement, whereas others stated that these were reasons for a move. The host country characteristics seemed to pose varying challenges based on the individual and context. However, stereotyping was a common theme amongst most. Whilst in the case of men, it was mostly due to their nationality, the women experienced the impact of being foreign and gendered (Stalker and Mavin, 2011). Similarly, with the women in certain cases, the intersectionality of various factors, like nationality coupled with gender, led to the stereotyping, as well. However, this was a theme that was not very common in the sample surveyed and hence was not explored fully. Despite that, it might perhaps be an indication of the changing times, with most of the women expatriates feeling safer in their host countries, as compared to their home country, which would invalidate the risk organisations believed they posed (Izraeli et al, 1980, cited in Adler, 1984). The respondents who had moved as accompanying spouses had additional challenges, being from dual-career couples (Kierner and Suutari, 2018), in terms of finding a job in a new environment, where they faced challenges either due to gender stereotypes or due to policies of the host country which did not permit them to work. This led to cases of career compromises, (Corby and Stanworth, 2009) and accepting a lower position. They also believed that if it had been a male accompanying spouse, the challenges might have different and that the host country environment and customs play a role in this. This could be both in a professional, as well as a social environment. Hence, this leads to the notion that this is a rather gendered aspect, as well.
Almost all of the respondents reported to feeling satisfied with their jobs and experience abroad. This was mainly attributed to the support they received from various sources: social, organisation, and logistical support, which were valued by everyone irrespective of gender. Further, the work-life balance was considered of importance. Whilst the importance of active social networks (Bader and Schuster, 2015) and support from the organisation (Varma and Russell, 2015) were theorised previously, the logistics or “simple practicalities” including housing, visa, and food were emphasised by the respondents, as shaping their experience. This was believed to be of importance, since this was the facet where they faced a lot of difficulties and prejudices due to their nationality and gender, with some respondents reporting the inability to find suitable housing due to being a single woman from a particular country. Although most of the respondents valued an orientation or diversity training from the organisation, as well as language classes, language was not considered to be a major issue, especially due to the advancement in technology, which would differ from early studies (Stahl, 2000). Hence, the analysis suggests that the challenges throughout the expatriation process might be different between genders, but the support received was appreciated equally by everyone and contributed to their satisfaction levels.
might enable them to take a decision to leave. Likewise, the shifts in the host country environment and political policies were also likely to affect their decision to leave.
The reasons to leave were similar to the factors that contributed to the support factors that influenced the feeling of satisfaction, which varied by gender. Thereby, it can be theorised that the possible lack of these support factors would prompt a decision to leave, by the expatriates. That is, the level of satisfaction contributes towards the decision to stay or remain in the host country, especially with self-initiated expatriates for whom this decision is one of their own.
CONCLUSION AND LIMITATIONS
This study hoped to further the existing literature on issues surrounding the expatriation process by considering the variations across gender and highlighting the impact that it has on the subsequent themes. Through semi-structured interviews with individuals who had undertaken assignments in a country other than their own, by their own volition, several key themes were formulated. The experiences described by these expatriates provided avenues for exploration. It could be theorised that expatriation is still a very much gendered process, with the challenges and motivations at each step being varied. The support factors that contributed to the level of satisfaction also varies by gender, but they were similar to the reasons for making a decision to leave. Hence, for both men and women, when the factors that they value do not exist, there tends to be a feeling of dissatisfaction which might prompt them to make a decision to leave.
Theoretical and practical implications
Hence, an organisation needs to be aware of the specific concerns raised by the employees whilst crafting their HR strategies.
Limitations
Future research
Whilst care was taken to cover multiple constructs and provide an exploration into the gendered aspects of the expatriation process, multiple issues were discovered that were merely touched upon and were not explored fully. Hence, this could constitute as avenues for future research.
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