1 THE INFLUENCE OF A PRIMED FOOD SCARCITY MINDSET ON HUMAN PROBLEM
SOLVING ABILITY AMONG DIETERS AND NON-DIETERS
Assessing differences in impact of a food scarcity mindset on problem solving between dieters and
non-dieters while taking mood into account
Vincent van der Hulst
2 THE INFLUENCE OF A PRIMED FOOD SCARCITY MINDSET ON HUMAN PROBLEM
SOLVING CAPACITY AMONG DIETERS AND NON-DIETERS
Assessing differences in impact of a food scarcity mindset on problem solving between dieters and
non-dieters while taking mood into account
University of Groningen - Faculty of Economics and Business
Author: Vincent van der Hulst
Date: 16-6-2016
3 ABSTRACT
In a two (condition: neutral prime vs. food scarcity prime) by two (dietary restraint: dieter vs. non-dieter) between-subjects factorial designed study to assess the effects of a primed short-term food scarcity mindset on problem solving, a sample (N = 128) was tested on a total number of 30 anagrams after either recalling and describing a normal day of the week or a situation where temporal food scarcity was experienced whereafter mood was measured. A significant effect of condition on problem solving indicating that subjects primed with a food scarcity mindset performed worse at the problem solving task than subject within the control group. There was found to be no significant effects of dietary restraint and mood on problem solving. These results stand in line with the vast majority of previous research that found negative effects of (temporal) food scarcity on cognitive functioning. This study contributes to current literature by providing evidence that a mere mindset of food scarcity can impact one‘s ability to solve problems in the same way as experiencing actual scarcity of food.
4 1.1 INTRODUCTION
Resource scarcity is an ever present element in human life. The phenomenon of scarcity is gaining importance within the research field and is studied in various ways to discover relationships and effects regarding scarcity of resources. Previous research already showed that reminders of resource scarcity promote a competitive orientation which guides
consumers‘ decision making toward advancing their own welfare (Van Lange and Kuhlman 1994; Van Lange et al. 1997; Van Lange et al. 2007). On the other hand, the reminders of resource scarcity can increase generous behaviors when those behaviors indirectly advance one‘s own welfare as well (Frimer et al. 2011). Other studies have shown that resource scarcity shifts one‘s attentional focus to the scarce resource (Shah, Mullainathan, and Shafir 2012) and that resource scarcity increases the value associated with the scarce resource (Shah, Shafir and Mullainathan 2015; Spiller 2011). Scarcity in the economy also has been studied and several behavioral responses have been found. Research suggests that rational responses to resource scarcity are to decrease spending, increase savings and become more cautious (Carroll, Hall, & Zeldes, 1992). Thus, previous research indicates that experiencing scarcity results in reduced focus, effectiveness and efficiency for the task at hand. This research particularly focuses on the effects of a food scarcity mindset on one‘s ability to solve problems. By using priming, instead of realizing actual scarcity, this study aims to uncover similar effects of this phenomenon. This is achieved by inducing a food scarcity mindset in order to mimic the effects of actually experiencing food scarcity.
5 stresses. Again, this shows various effects that occur when scarcity is being experienced. Also, by looking at the differences in diet orientation among people, this study intended to discover if differences exist in situations where one experiences a mindset of food scarcity.
However, there are many areas of scarcity that yet have to be studied more extensively in order to get better insights in the effects of scarcity on human behavior and ability. For this particular study the focus is on the relationship between food scarcity and the ability to solve problems. Not much research has been done in this specific area of scarcity. The goal of this study is to discover if and how a mindset of food scarcity affects human problem solving. Where previous studies mostly looked into the long-term effects of food scarcity/insecurity (i.e. effects on children‘s school performance over a period of one year), this study aims to disclose short-term effects of food scarcity; for example the ability of one to solve certain problems during or after a day of significant reduced food intake. Insights in this specific relationship are relevant for both academics and professional perspectives. First, inferences resulting from this study can add and extent to current research in the field of marketing and psychology as well as functioning as a foundation for future research. Second, it is also relevant for professionals and practioners who are dealing with customers that undergo problem solving in their product or service usage.
In the following section a threefold of components will be discussed. First, the current research problem will be put into context by discussing previous, relevant research that provides a solid base in order to address this study properly. Second, relevant concepts and theories are discussed that will build up to the conceptual framework. Third, research
questions and hypotheses are formulated that will indicate the direction and objectives of this study.
1.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND HYPOTHESES
6 Shafir (2012) found that scarcity increases focus by submitting participants to a shooting game while manipulating the number of shots (30 vs. 150) to be taken. This showed that the group experiencing scarcity spent more time aiming, while the group experiencing abundance was less engaged. For this research this could imply that participants that were exposed to the food scarcity prime would spend more time thinking about each anagram item before coming to a final answer, spending more time on each item and thus might experience time pressure. Therefore it is expected that primed individuals perform worse at problem solving. In addition, a study showed that scarcity often reduces mental bandwidth (Mani, Mullainathan, Shafir, Zhao, 2013; Spears, 2011), increases stress (Chemin, De Last, and
Haushofer, 2013), constrains attention, and hurts decision making (Shah, Mullainathan, and Shafir, 2012). Yet, some contradicting evidence showed that decision making could benefit from scarcity (Shah, Shafir, Mullainathan, 2015; Spiller, 2011). Again, this shows that it is quite plausible for food scarcity priming to evoke these negative impacts and thus result in decreased problem solving ability. Concluding, the vast majority of previous research confirmed negative effects of experiencing scarcity on human individuals.
Effects of food insecurity
Food insecurity is been related to depressive symptoms in adolescents (Alaimo, Olson & Frongillo, 2002), weakened interpersonal relations, lowered self-control, and non-cognitive skills impairment and general academic difficulties and social developmental delays in children (Alaimo et al., 2001a; Ashiabi, 2005; Howard, 2011; Kleinman et al., 1998; Murphy et al., 1998; Reid, 2000; Roustit et al., 2010; Stormer & Harrison, 2003). This shows that effects go beyond physicality and also affect how people think, feel and act. Thus, effects on the brain are definitely in play.
Other research confirms that behavioral problems arise in cases of food insecurity (Olson, 1999; Slack & Yoo, 2005). Multiple other researches show that effects of food insecurity cause poorer school performance (Alaimo, Olson, and Frongillo, 2001a; Dunifon &
7 person‘s mind and can have impact without being aware of it (For example, see Bargh and Chartrand, 2000). This proves that a mere mindset of food scarcity might be able to cause similar effects as actual food scarcity. This relevant concept will be elaborated on in chapter two. In this research same effects are sought by using priming and thus going beyond provided evidence of previous research.
Food scarcity and cognitive function
Another important aspect in relation to food scarcity is the human cognitive function. A study by Pollitt et al. (1983) showed that a group who skipped breakfast made significantly more errors on a test than the group who did have breakfast. However, this study used subjects in the age range of nine to eleven years old and had a small sample size.
A study by Green, Elliman & Rogers (1995) found that short-term food deprivation did not significantly impair cognitive function, irrespective of the information processing load of the task. There were no differences found in mood, except for jittery. Higher levels of jittery were found among persons who were deprived for 24 hours prior to the tests. Thus, scarcity of food can lead to jittery, which presumably does not have a positive impact on the cognitive
8 previous research. This asks for a clearer and more universal investigation resulting in the following main hypothesis:
1. Experiencing a mindset of food scarcity negatively affects problem solving.
Dieting
Self-control is a relevant behavioral aspect in this context and is relatively much studied. Previous research has shown that dieting (an alternative form of food scarcity) requires a lot of self-control and depleting this would make dieters more susceptible to eating more than they should according to their diet (Herman, Polivy, & Heatherton, 1990). Besides, after exerting self-control one‘s mental resources are limited (Baumeister et al., 1998). They found that after limiting one‘s mental resources there was less perseverance (attempts and spent time) in solving an unsolvable task as opposed to the control group that did not exert self-control prior to performing the task. A follow-up study by Muraven & Baumeister (2000) confirmed this and even extended by finding that one‘s mental resources are limited because of temporal depletion, the same way as a muscle can be temporarily depleted.
Dieters can be described as people who want to stick to their regimen, avoid failing this and are dominant on their Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS). BIS reflects the sensitivity to cues of punishment and negative stimuli and avoiding painful outcomes. In contrast, the
Behavioral Activation System (BAS) is sensitive to signals of reward, non-punishment and the experience of positive feelings such as hope and happiness (Carver & White, 1994; Gray, 1972). It is known that women are more prone to the BIS whereas men to the BAS (Wardell et al., 2011). Besides, it is expected that dieters, regarding their food choices, are BIS dominant and therefore have to exert more self-control (cognitive activity) than non-dieters.
9 focused and persist on certain tasks. Thus, food scarcity is able to trigger dieters and evoke negative thoughts which increase the negative effects (i.e. distraction, craving, temptation) of experiencing food scarcity as opposed to non-dieters. This results in the following hypothesis.
2. Dieters are more susceptible to food scarcity and will perform worse at problem solving than non-dieters.
Mood
Mood has also been found to be an influence in breaking a diet. Negative moods caused by failure on a meaningful task (Heatherton, Herman, & Polivy, 1991), by making a speech (Heatherton, Herman & Polivy, 1991), and by listening to sad music (Heatherton, Striepe, & Wittenberg, 1998) also led people to break their diet. In addition, Negative mood states have been linked to memory impairments (Blaney, 1986), poor decision-making and problem-solving abilities (Arkes, Herren, & Isen, 1998) and deficits in attention (Joormann & Gotlib, 2007). Thus, all these findings indicate a clear distinction between dieters and non-dieters and mood when looking at the effects of food (scarcity). This leads to the following hypotheses:
3. The more negative a mood of a dieter, the worse he or she will perform at problem solving compared to a non-dieter.
10 1.3 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Previous sections and the specific areas of interest build up to a conceptual framework which is graphically displayed below (figure 1.3.1) containing the relevant constructs and directions of expected relationships for this study.
Figure 1.3.1 Conceptual framework
11 2. RESEARCH DESIGN
This chapter describes the research design of the study. First, the information about the
participants and study design will be mentioned. Second, the study procedure is described and the elements and order of the experiment are formulated. Third, both independent and
dependent variables are linked to measures, scales are noted along with some examples of used items. The complete experiment with all its elements can be found in Appendix 1.
Participants and design
A total number of one hundred and twenty-eight adult respondents (76 female, 52 male; Mage = 34,12 years, SD = 16,19 ) were asked to voluntarily participate in an experiment where they would be answering a number of questions and solving anagrams. This study used an
experimental form in order to make inferences about differences between dieters and non-dieters that were either primed with scarcity or a neutral situation. Respondents were selected based on their age (18+) so that the sample would only contain adults. Results have been obtained using a two (condition: neutral prime vs. food scarcity prime) by two (dietary restraint: dieter vs. non-dieter) between-subjects factorial design. Again, all respondents voluntarily participated in the experiment and were randomly recruited from the researcher‘s networks and those people‘s networks.
Procedure
12 this chapter these will be further explained (p.12 under ‗dependent variable‘). If a participant failed to submit an answer within the preset timeframe, that particular item would be
considered an incorrect answer. Third, participants were presented eight statements regarding dietary restraint which had to be evaluated on a seven point Likert-scale ranging from 1 (no, never) to 7 (yes, always). This scale measured the level of dieting involvement of each participant independently. After being primed and exposed to the dependent variable the participants were presented four control variables. Participants were asked to indicate their mood on a one item scale ranging from one (very positive) to seven (very negative), indicate their exact age in years, their gender and their level of education (MBO, HBO, WO or other, namely..). The experiment was administered digitally through computers, tablets and
smartphones depending on the participant‘s preference. The participants were provided a link to the experiment so that they could take the steps in the experiment at a moment they deemed suitable. The experiment was not bound to a preset location. Participants could take part in the experiment on any location and point of time of choice.
Independent variables
Scarcity. Priming was used to induce a mindset of food scarcity among the experiment group. Previous research has already shown that scarcity of food is negatively related to cognitive performance. As already discussed, the majority of previous research indicates negative effects of (short term) food scarcity on cognitive performance although there is some
13 they experienced. The goal was to induce this mindset in order to mimic a situation of actually experiencing a situation with scarcity of food. When a prime works properly participants should (re)act as if they were actually in the situation of the prime. In this study the control group was asked to describe what a normal day of their week looks like and how they feel during that day. In contrast, the experimental group was asked to describe a situation where they experienced (temporal) food scarcity and how they felt during that situation. The exact format can be found in appendix 1 and 2.
Dietary restraint. Eating behavior was assessed using a subset of items of the Dutch Eating Behavior Questionnaire (DEBQ) (Van Strien et al. 1986). This subset of items consists of eight items relating to restrained eating and had to be rated on a seven-point scale ranging from 1 (No, never) to 7 (Yes, always). Examples of items were: ―If you have put on weight, do you eat less than you usually do?‖; ―Do you watch exactly what you eat?‖). The DEBQ scales have high internal consistency, high validity for food consumption, and high
14 Mood. Previous research already indicated that a negative mood state led to deterioration of memory (Blaney, 1986) and decision making and problem solving abilities (Arkes, Herren, & Isen, 1998) and inadequate attention (Joormann & Gotlib, 2007). Mood was measured using a one-item, seven-point scale where participants rated their current mood ranging from 1 (very positive) to 7 (very negative).
Dependent variable
Problem solving ability. Thirty anagrams were used to measure problem solving ability. These were created by the researcher in consultation with a colleague researcher. The items varied in length as well as difficulty and were presented in a list using random order. An example of an anagram is ―maagarn‖ which should be solved as ―anagram‖. Participants had to solve as many items as possible from the total number of 30 anagrams within a preset timeframe of 10 minutes total. If a participant failed to submit an answer within this
15 3. Results and discussion
This chapter shows and discusses the results that were obtained by analyzing the acquired data within this empirical research. First, the results of analyzing multiple relationships are presented. Second, conclusions are drawn based on the acquired empirical results. Finally, contributions, implications and possible directions for future research are formulated.
Results
A 2 (condition: neutral prime vs. food scarcity prime) x 2 (dietary restraint: non-dieter vs. dieter) ANOVA on the number of correctly solved anagrams demonstrated that results of the used prime are in line with set predictions. The ANOVA analysis compared the effect of condition (neutral vs. food scarcity) on problem solving in two conditions (non-dieter vs. dieter) of dietary restraint. These results confirmed and extended the findings of previous research and showed a main effect of condition (F(1, 124 = 10,41, p = .002) whereas the main effect of dietary restraint failed to reach significance (F<1). The main effect of condition indicated that the number of correct solved anagrams was higher among respondents in the control group (M = 24,11, SD = 0,69) than that of respondents in the experimental group (M = 20,37, SD = 0,92). Inspection of the means (shown below in figure 3.1) showed that
participants in the control group (primed with a neutral situation) managed to solve 24 out of the 30 anagrams whereas participants in the experiment group (primed with food scarcity) managed to solve 20 out of the 30 anagrams. This finding is in line with hypothesis 1 that predicted a negative influence of a food scarcity mindset on problem solving.
Figure 3.1. Comparison of correctly solved anagrams among groups
18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Control group Experiment group
16 Analysis showed that both the main effect and the moderating effect of dietary restraint failed to reach significance (F < 1). Thus, hypotheses 2, which predicted that dieters are more susceptible to food scarcity and thus perform worse at problem solving as opposed to non-dieters, is not supported. Below, table 3.1 shows the differences between groups.
Table 3.1 Grand mean and means of all groups
Further analysis of experienced mood showed a mean evaluation of 3,11. Further inspection showed that 65,6% of the participants was, to a greater or lesser extent, in a positive mood. The impact of mood on problem solving failed to reach significance (F<1). Thus, hypothesis 3, predicting that a more negative a mood of a dieter negatively influences the problem solving ability, is not supported.
Discussion
This study proposed a number of hypotheses regarding the influence of food scarcity (priming), dietary restraint and mood on problem solving ability. It was expected that the experience of a food scarcity mindset would negatively affect one‘s ability to solve problems. Also, dieters were expected to be more susceptible to food scarcity and thereby perform worse at problem solving than non-dieters. In addition, non-dieters were expected not to be
negatively affected by experiencing a mindset of food scarcity in their problem solving ability. Finally, a dieter‘s mood was proposed to have a negative effect on problem solving when it became more negative.
17 The main result of this empirical study indicates that a mere mindset of food scarcity can impact one‘s ability to solve problems in the same way as experiencing actual scarcity of food. This shows that emphasizing with a certain situation can evoke effects that normally only would occur when this situation literally the case. This main finding is in line with previous results of Pollitt et al. (1983) which showed that a group of participants who skipped breakfast made more errors on a test that the group who did have breakfast that day. However, this study used a fairly small sample. Also, more recent research by Owen et al. (2011)
showed that greater depletion of glucose lead to worse cognitive performance. However this study focused on glucose instead of food in general it is presumably in line with the finding presented in this research because glucose is a main ‗brain fuel‘ and is extracted from carbohydrates in food. Current findings also prove to be in line with other recent study by Shah, Mullainathan, and Shafir (2012) which showed that scarcity hurts decision making and evidence by Mani et al. (2013) and Spears (2011) which stated that scarcity often reduces mental bandwidth. On the other hand, literature also provides contradicting evidence. Green, Elliman & Rogers (1995) found that short-term food deprivation did not significantly impair cognitive function, irrespective of the information processing load of the task. However, this result must be cautious interpreted because the used sample size in that study was very small (N = 21). Taken together, the majority of existing literature tends to indicate that human problem solving ability is influenced negatively by short term food scarcity. This current study confirms this and also extends beyond it by finding similar effects from a mere food scarcity mindset instead of actually experiencing it. However, results remained inconclusive regarding differences among people with low or high levels of dietary restraint as well as influences of current mood while experiencing a mindset of food scarcity.
In practice, the main finding could be very relevant in cases where certain parties (i.e.
commercial companies) would not benefit when people fall to certain thoughts or associations which could have negative implications if these were actually experienced (i.e. hunger
provoking cues). Thus, by inhibiting negative mindsets, discouraging negative thought or possibly even promoting positive thought it could be possible for parties to foster profitable outcomes at their side. In addition, more specific examples of practical implications are relevant regarding this topic. Companies could benefit from this insight by providing
18 foods during the day (food scarcity mindset). Governments could proactively use this insight in awareness campaigns to inform the people that preventing a food scarcity mindset or hunger feelings can lead to improved cognitive performance. For example, this could be linked to certain (healthy) foods that are more satiating (i.e. complex carbohydrates or
vegetables) and thus increasing their problem solving ability by consuming healthy ‗balanced‘ meals throughout the day that keep them feeling satisfied for longer periods of time.
Also, the main finding for this study is very relevant for society in general. When taking into account the effect(s) of (temporal) food scarcity or a mere food scarcity mindset, people can reckon with their planned activities. More specifically, when being aware of the fact that problem solving ability is reduced after having a food scarcity mindset (or being temporally food deprived), one could possibly postpone cognitively demanding tasks to a later moment in order to prevent inadequate performance of certain tasks.
As mentioned before, both dietary restraint and mood were not found to be of influence on one‘s problem solving ability in context of (temporal) food scarcity). Both topics have been studied comprehensively and to great extents, however in a specific relationship to food scarcity it is fairly neglected. This combination would be an interesting topic to study more extensively. Although the used dietary scale proved being a proper measure, inconclusive results could have been due a fairly unbalanced gender distribution, resulting in females to be over-represented. Results on the effects of mood on dietary restraint and problem solving remained inconclusive and provide food for thought. Mood was measured using a single-item Likert scale. Future studies could use a multi-item Likert scale in order to determine a more accurate measure of one‘s current mood in order to analyze the effect of mood on dietary restraint and problem solving.
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25 Appendices
Appendix 1 Complete survey Introduction
Dit onderzoek maakt deel uit van een onderzoeksprogramma van verschillende onderzoekers aan de Faculteit van Economie en Bedrijfskunde aan de Rijksuniversiteit Groningen. Het onderzoek bestaat uit verschillende onderdelen, waarbij de focus ligt op voedselervaring. Dit onderzoek richt zich op personen van 18 jaar of ouder.
Alle informatie die u verstrekt zal discreet behandeld worden voor doeleinden van bovengenoemd onderzoek. Als vanzelfsprekend zullen gegevens niet verder verspreid worden. Het onderzoek zal slechts enkele minuten van uw tijd in beslag nemen.
Om de kwaliteit en validiteit van het onderzoek te waarborgen is het van belang dat u de vragen naar waarheid invult en u zelfstandig te werk gaat.
Neutral prime
- Beschrijf hieronder in enkele zinnen een normale dag van de week. - Beschrijf hieronder hoe u zich voelt op een normale dag van de week.
Scarcity prime
- Beschrijf hieronder in enkele zinnen een situatie waarin u (tijdelijk) gebrek aan voedsel hebt ervaren.
- Beschrijf hieronder in enkele zinnen hoe u zich voelde in bovengenoemde situatie.
Dependent variable
Er volgen nu 30 anagrammen. In iedere lettercombinatie zit een woord verstopt. Een voorbeeld hiervan is 'orodw' waarin 'woord' verstopt zit. U kunt de anagrammen in
willekeurige volgorde invullen. U dient zoveel mogelijk anagrammen op te lossen binnen een vastgesteld tijdslimiet. Nadat deze verstreken is, wordt u automatisch doorgestuurd naar de volgende pagina.
26 tagiar ziukme fcjeir rpjoet rpfuam riueses rarale jnknoi lepsne dnoh drapa vreo krand ndza rilb rhaa rdob plele ksraa sluobe kroeb Trait scale
Nu volgt een aantal vragen over uw terughoudendheid met betrekking tot uw eetpatroon. Geef alstublieft de mate aan waarin de uitspraken voor u van toepassing zijn op een schaal van 1 tot en met 7 (1 = nee, nooit, 7 = ja altijd).
- Als u bent aangekomen, eet u dan minder dan u gewoonlijk doet? - Eet u minder tijdens maaltijden dan u zou willen eten?
- Wanneer u eten of drinken aangeboden krijgt, hoe vaak weigert u dit omdat u zich bewust bent van uw gewicht?
- Let u exact op wat u eet?
- Wanneer u teveel heeft gegeten, eet u dan minder dan gewoonlijk op de volgende dag? - Eet u bewust minder om er voor te zorgen dat u niet zwaarder wordt?
- Hoe vaak probeert u niet te eten tussen maaltijden omdat u op uw gewicht let? - Houdt u rekening met uw gewicht met wat u eet?
Control variables Mood
De volgende vraag mag u beantwoorden op een schaal van 1 (heel goed) tot en met 7 (heel slecht).
27 Gender - Wat is uw geslacht? o Male o Female Age
- Wat is uw leeftijd in jaren?
Education - Wat is uw opleidingsniveau? o MBO o HBO o WO o Anders, namelijk... Debrief
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29 Appendix 3 Anagram items with solutions
