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Master’s Thesis
Master Communication Science
Master’s programme Persuasive CommunicationTailored communication, exercise
behaviour, and personal goals:
The moderating influence of motivation
Lisa Baesjou 10175938Supervisor: Dr. Eline Smit
26 June 2015
2 Abstract
This study with online questionnaire (N = 419) is focused on the relationship between type of communication (combined communication vs. group communication only) and time spent on exercising (moderate and heavy exercise) and realisation of personal goals, and the
moderating influence of motivation (extrinsic vs. intrinsic). After conducting a cross-sectional online survey, results showed that combined communication (both individually tailored and group communication) (M = 469.02; SD = 364.44) led to more time spent on moderate exercise behaviour than group communication only (M = 386.55; SD = 286.29), t = -2.57, p = .011. This did not go for heavy exercise behaviour. Besides, combined communication led to more realisation of personal goals (M = 5.49; SD = 2.54) than group communication only, t = -3.46, p = .001. Last, there was no effect of type of motivation (extrinsic vs. intrinsic) on the relationship between type of communication and time spent on both moderate and heavy exercise and realisation of personal goals. With the knowledge gained from this study, more effective interventions and sport programs can be designed that help women realise their personal goals. This can be done by providing tailored communication next to the general group communication given by trainers. Furthermore, this study gave more insight in the existing influence of type of communication and time spent on exercising as well as on realisation of personal goals, specifically aimed at women. Another insight, is that type of motivation did not play a role in women’s time spent on exercising and realisation of personal goals.
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Introduction
Regular exercise has important health benefits for both men and women, such as risk reduction of coronary heart diseases, type 2 diabetes mellitus and obesity, and is positively associated with mental health and quality of life (Ooms, Veenhof & de Bakker, 2013). Nevertheless, exercising has been less extensively studied among women than among men, even though women do have other reasons for exercising than men (Segar, Jayaratne, Hanlon & Richardson, 2002).
On average 22 percent of Dutch women, compared to 27 percent of Dutch men, meet the Fit-norm (Volksgezondheidenzorg.info, 2015). This norm is aimed at maintenance of cardiovascular fitness and is the same for both adults and elderly people. To meet this norm, it requires at least three times a week of heavy exercise for 30 minutes (nationaalkompas.nl, 2014). Meeting the Fit-norm is important, because it improves general fitness and can help prevent the chronic diseases mentioned before (Ooms et al., 2013).
To stimulate the other three-quarters of Dutch women to meet the Fit-norm, it is useful to look at offline tailored communication these women are exposed to. Tailored
communication is communication aimed at one specific individual of whom certain characteristics are measured beforehand, for example in a consultation (Kreuter & Wray, 2003). Knowing certain characteristics beforehand is important, because in that way the communication becomes more relevant for the receiver and is more likely to be effective, since it addresses the needs and interests of the receiver (Segar et al., 2002). In their literature review, Yap & Davis (2008) examined six studies considering the influence of offline tailored communication on exercise behaviour. They conclude that tailoring does work; tailored communication had promising effects in helping individuals positively change their exercise behaviour. The annotation has to be made that these results only go for sedentary adults, whereas these results could be different for non-sedentary adults. Tailored communication in
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combination with group communication seems to be even more effective than the two types of communication separately (Richards, Hillsdon, Thorogood & Foster, 2013). Richards et al. (2013) concluded this after analysing 10 independent studies concerning tailored
communication and physical activity. Besides behaviour change, tailored communication can help people achieve their exercise goals. By letting people formulate personal goals during tailored communication, it is more likely people will really achieve their goals, compared to when people do not formulate these goals. The reason for this is that when formulating goals beforehand, there can be dealt with impediments and facilitators before they actually arise, so that it is easier to deal with them when they do arise (Chatzisarantis, Hagger & Thøgersen-Ntoumani, 2008).
Finally, research has revealed that motivation to exercise, plays a significant role in maintaining this exercise. Motivation can be divided into intrinsic motivation, participating in physical activity only for the pleasure and satisfaction obtained from performing the activity (Pelletier, Fortier, Vallerand, Tuson, Brière & Blais, 1995), and extrinsic motivation,
participating in physical activity for possible outcomes that lie outside the activity itself (Buckworth, Lee, Regan, Schneider & DiClemente, 2007). Several studies concerning this topic, found that intrinsic motivation leads to more participation in physical activity than extrinsic motivation does (Vallerand, 2004; Segar, Eccles, Peck & Richardson, 2007;
Vallerand, 2007). Moreover, Segar, Eccles and Richardson (2008) found that women having a high external motivation to exercise, e.g. weight loss or physical appearance, had more
difficulty maintaining this activity than women having a higher intrinsic motivation, e.g. increasing energy levels or staying in shape. Based on this, presumed is that people with a higher intrinsic motivation to exercise, have a greater chance of exercising regularly and realising their personal goals without support of others. The main reason for this is that, presumably, women with a higher intrinsic motivation to exercise, are more able to motivate
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themselves to exercise than women who have a higher extrinsic motivation to exercise, and therefore do not need to be extra motivated by external factors, like offline individually tailored communication. Therefore, this variable is taken into account as a moderator. As a result, the following research question (RQ) is formulated:
RQ: To what extent does tailored communication influence time spent on exercising and (moderate and heavy exercise) realisation of personal goals and does the type of motivation (intrinsic vs. extrinsic) have an influence on this
relationship?
With the knowledge gained from this study, more effective interventions and sport programs can be designed for stimulating exercising in women and making women realise their personal goals through the use of tailored communication. When using tailored communication next to group communication turns out to be effective for the exercising domain, public health can increase considerably, because women can be stimulated
effectively to reach the Fit-norm. Besides, found out is whether or not the effect of tailored communication on time spent on exercising and realisation of personal goals is different for women with either a more intrinsic or a more extrinsic motivation. When this is a case, women with different types of motivation need to be approached differently with regard to time spent on exercising and realisation of personal goals.
Considering the scientific part, tailored communication has mainly been studied in an online (computer-based) environment or with regard to patient-provider communication, and not yet in an offline environment among healthy exercising women. Besides, this study will give more insight in the existing influence of type of communication on time spent on exercising as well as on realisation of personal goals, which is extensively studied among
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men, but in this study specifically aimed at women. Another insight will be the role that type of motivation might play in women’s time spent on exercising and realisation of personal goals, which reveals whether or not this has to be taken into account during guidance.
Theoretical background Individually Tailored Communication
Individually tailored communication is communication aimed at one specific individual of whom certain characteristics are measured beforehand, for example in counselling (Kreuter & Wray, 2003). In this study, when talking about this type of
communication, offline tailored communication is meant, such as counselling and face-to-face guiding consultations. The reason why tailoring might work, according to Petty and
Caccioppo’s (1986) Elaboration Likelihood Model, is that people are more likely to actively and thoughtfully process information when they perceive that information to be personally relevant; when it addresses the needs and interests of the individual (Segar et al, 2002). Relevant information tends to be retained for a longer period of time and is therefore more likely to lead to permanent behaviour change (Kreuter, Strecher & Glassman, 1999).
Tailored face-to-face communication has proven to be effective for different health behaviours, including exercise behaviour (Marcus, Bock, Pinto, Forsyth, Roberts & Traficante, 1998; Bock, Marcus, Pinto & Forsyth, 2001; Wayonyi, Themessl-Huber, Humphris & Freeman, 2011). Marcus et al. (1998) compared an individually tailored intervention to a standard intervention. The individually tailored intervention consisted of individually tailored reports and self-help manuals, which were matched to the participant's stage of motivational readiness for physical activity adoption. The standard intervention consisted of four self-help booklets promoting physical activity, which were developed by the American Heart Association (AHA). After recruiting their participants through newspaper
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advertisements and screening by telephone, participants received mail with their allocated intervention materials at baseline, after one, three and six months. Results revealed that the individually tailored intervention increased physical activity participation significantly more than standard self-help materials when comparing baseline to six months later. Bock et al. (2001) replicated this study a couple of years later and found practically the same results; during the treatment phase, which consisted of four questionnaires, at baseline, and months one, three and six, the individually tailored intervention showed a significant advantage over the standard tailored intervention. This study, furthermore, added a final follow-up mailing, which was sent at month twelve, after which the effect remained significant. An annotation to these two studies, however, is that the participants were screened for being sedentary adults. For more active adults, results can be different considering their level of activity. Adults who are already active, might increase their level of activity, but the difference in level of activity might be smaller due to their already active lifestyle.
Besides increasing exercise behaviour, individually tailored communication also seems to be effective for realising personal goals. Chatzisarantis et al. (2008) found in their study that people are more successful in progressing toward their goals when their
individually tailored motivation-related communication is related to personal interests and values than when this is not the case. This is in line with Kreuter and Wray (2003), who found tailored communication to be more effective than targeted communication because of its personal relevance. However, there has to be mentioned that the participants in this study were again non-active people in the field of physical activity.
Furthermore, the American College of Sports Medicine and the AHA recommend that physical activity should be stimulated by tailoring the communication (Haskell, Lee, Pate, Powell, Blair, Franklin, Macera, Heath, Thompson & Bauman, 2007). Their recommendation for stimulating physical activity, which is based on scientific research, is that these activities
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should meet each person’s interests, needs, schedule and environment and take into account work, family and social commitments. As such, they consider tailoring as an effective tool for this purpose.
Group Tailored Communication
Group tailored communication is communication aimed at one specific group of people with certain important characteristics that are measured beforehand (Richards et al., 2013). In a study of Segar et al. (2002), an intervention aimed at women was designed, in which participants got the task of discussing their – whether or not perceived – barriers to physical activity. This intervention was a small program consisting out of eight to twelve women per group, and a facilitator; a group tailored intervention so to say. This group met over six weeks, in six two-hour sessions. The main objective of this intervention was to help participants learn how to increase and maintain regular physical activity, once the program was over. Results showed that participants maintained or increased their physical activity frequency even after the intervention ended. This implies that group tailored communication can be effective too.
Combination of Individually Tailored and Group Tailored Communication
Richards et al. (2013) combined both individually tailored and group tailored
communication in their study. In their review, they compared 10 studies considering face-to-face physical activity interventions, which were all tested in randomised controlled trials. They found that the most effective interventions were those that offered both individually tailored and group tailored communication for increasing physical activity levels. This is in accordance with results of a study of Keele-Smith and Leon (2003). In their study,
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plus monitoring or a monitoring only treatment group. Participants in the group that received both the tailored exercise prescription plus monitoring had significantly more consistent exercisers and fewer inconsistent exercisers than those who received monitoring only. This implies that extra supervision, monitoring, has a positive effect on exercise consistency.
Another review found similar results; although tailoring is not specifically mentioned, they did conclude that a combination of individual and group delivery of communication might be more effective than individual delivery only (Yangyang Han & Jin Yan, 2014). This supports the idea that people who receive both individually tailored and group communication may spent more time exercising and may realise their personal goals more often than people who receive group communication only. Therefore, the assumption is made that the
combination of both types of communication works most stimulating. Based on this deduction, the following hypotheses (H) are formulated:
H1: Combined communication (individually tailored communication + group tailored communication) will lead to more time spent on exercising (moderate and heavy exercise) than group communication only.
H2: Combined communication (individually tailored communication + group tailored communication) will lead to more realisation of personal goals than group communication only.
Moderating Effect of Motivation
There has not been any study examining the moderating effect of motivation on the relationship between tailored communication and exercise behaviour, respectively realisation of personal goals. Considering intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and exercise behaviour, it has been found that intrinsic motivation leads to more frequent participation in exercise
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behaviour than extrinsic motivation (Vallerand, 2004; Segar, Eccles, Peck & Richardson, 2007, Vallerand, 2007). Intrinsic motivation is described as participating in physical activity only for the pleasure and satisfaction obtained from performing the activity (Pelletier et al., 1995), and extrinsic motivation is described as participating in physical activity for possible outcomes that lie outside the activity itself (Buckworth et al., 2007). Next to that, Segar, Eccles and Richardson (2008) found that women with a high extrinsic motivation to exercise, e.g. weight loss or physical appearance, had more difficulty maintaining this activity than women having a higher intrinsic motivation, e.g. increasing energy levels or staying in shape. This is supported by the self-determination theory (SDT) conceptualized by Deci and Ryan (1985). The main idea of SDT is that people who are more extrinsically motivated, are
performing the behaviour because of reasons that lie outside themselves, whereas people who are more intrinsically motivated, are performing the behaviour because of reasons that lie inside themselves. Therefore, more extrinsically motivated people will probably need more confirmation from their environment than more intrinsically motivated people to maintain or adapt the healthy behaviour, and realise their personal goals. Because of previous
establishments, expected is that tailored communication will be more effective for people who are more extrinsically motivated, than for people who are more intrinsically motivated, when looking at time spent on exercising and realisation of personal goals. This is rendered in the following hypothesis:
H3: The effect of combined communication (individually tailored communication + group tailored communication) on time spent on exercising (moderate and heavy exercise) and realising personal goals will be stronger for women with a higher extrinsic motivation than for women with a higher intrinsic motivation.
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The following conceptual model has been drawn up with type of communication (combined communication vs. group communication only) as independent variable, time spent on
exercising (moderate and heavy exercise) and realisation of personal goals as dependent
variables, and type of motivation (intrinsic vs. extrinsic) as moderating variable:
Methods Sample
Women in the age of 20 up to 74 (M = 52.57; SD = 10.36), who were members of the fitness chain Fit4lady, have participated in an online cross-sectional survey (N = 419). Most participants completed Higher Vocational Education (37.2 %). All members of Fit4lady of all fifteen branches have been approached, of which members of the branch in Hoorn had the highest response (19.3%).
Design and Procedure
An online cross-sectional individual self-report survey has been conducted with the help of the online survey software Qualtrics. The survey was conducted in the first two weeks of May 2015 and took approximately 10 minutes to fill out. A total of 4100 participants have been approached via the monthly online mailing of Fit4lady, wherein the link to the survey was included in an introduction story. In this introduction story, the researcher was
Type of motivation Intrinsic vs. extrinsic Type of communication Combined communication (Individually tailored communication
+ group tailored communication)
vs.
Group communication only
Time spent on exercising
Moderate and heavy exercise
Realisation personal goals
H1 H2 H3
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introduced, the potential participants were told what the research was about, and the amount of time that it would take to fill out the survey was mentioned. Participants were also told they could contact the researcher at any time. Because not enough respondents were collected from the first appeal (n = 310), there was sent a reminder e-mail with a link to the survey ten days after the first appeal. One week after the reminder, a total of 419 participants completed the survey. This gave a response rate of 10,2% percent, which is sufficient for the sample size (Wyse, 2012).
Before the beginning of the survey, participants were shown an online written informed consent form. Herein, information about the general purpose of the study and information about the procedure was given. Participants were also told that participation was voluntary, they could withdraw at any time, and that information gained from the survey would be handled anonymously. If they had read all this information, they had to confirm they had understood everything they read and that they agreed with participation in this study (appendix A), after which they could start the survey. In the survey, questions about the amount of tailored communication, motivation to exercise, time spent on exercising and realisation of personal goals were asked. Additionally, there was asked for some background information. A detailed description of all measurements can be found in appendix B, where the complete questionnaire is presented.
Measures
Tailored communication. Amount of tailored communication can be defined as the
amount of individually tailored communication participants are or have been exposed to during their membership at Fit4lady. The individually tailored communication consists of a weekly or, most of the times, three-monthly consultation with a Fit4lady trainer in which, among others, exercise goals and perceptions of goal realisation are discussed, and Body
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Mass Index (BMI), body fat and other body related measures are measured. This variable was measured with the question ‘How often do you make use of the opportunity to have a
guidance consultation at Fit4lady?’. The four answers were ‘Never had this consultation, except for the intake-consultation’, ‘Did have it more than once in the past, but not anymore’, ‘Once every three months’ and ‘Once a week’. The first two answers concerned people who were exposed to group communication only at the time of filling out the survey, and the last two answers concerned people who were exposed to both individually tailored and group tailored communication (combined communication) at the time of filling out the survey.
Exercise behaviour. Exercise behaviour was measured with six open-ended questions
derived from the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) (Appendix C). Two questions covered heavy physical activity and two questions covered moderate physical activity. In both cases, there was asked for the days per week respondents participated in heavy and moderate physical activity, respectively, and the hours and minutes they participated in that physical activity during these days.
Realisation of personal goals. The measurement of realisation of personal goals
consisted of two parts; in the first part, participants could choose their most important goals to strive after by exercising, out of 18 displayed goals. In the second part they were asked to rate to what extent they felt like they were realising their chosen goals at Fit4lady per goal on a five-point Likert-scale, ranging from 1 (= Never) to 5 (= Always). Examples of these goals are ‘stress reduction’, ‘social reasons’, and ‘competition’ (Segar et al., 2008).
Motivation. Motivation can be defined as the different motives someone has for
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extrinsic motivation (eight statements) and intrinsic motivation (12 statements), which were measured on a five-point Likert-scale, ranging from 1 (= Totally not applicable to me) to 5 (= Totally applicable to me). Respectively, examples of these statements are ‘I do not know it anymore: I got the feeling that I am not suited for this sport’, ‘Because it makes that people who know me, appreciate me’ and ‘For the pleasure I experience when I am wrapped up in the sports activity’ (Pelletier et al., 1995; Van Burken, 2014). The reason amotivation was included in this measure, is because this is also included in the original measure. Since taking out these four statements could influence the validity of the scale, there is chosen to include it, though it will not be used for analyses.
Demographics. Since only women were supposed to fill in the survey, a question to
measure gender was not necessary. There was, however, asked for age in years with and open-ended question. Besides that, there was asked for highest finished or current educational level with nine answering options which were ‘None’, ‘Primary school’, ‘Lower Vocational Education’, ‘Lower General Secondary Education’, ‘Senior General Secondary Education’, ‘Pre-university education’, ‘Intermediate Vocational Education’, ‘Higher Vocational
Education’ and ‘University’ (Bruggink, 2009). There also was a question where respondents could mark at which of the fifteen Fit4lady branches they were exercising.
Pre-test
A pre-test was conducted (N = 5) to be sure all questions and answering categories were clear and complete, the online questionnaire was well routed, and to rule out possible spelling mistakes. Therefore, a test-link has been sent to a number of women of different age groups (M = 35.40; SD = 17.24) who paid special attention to these points of interest. A couple of things concerning the online questionnaire have been changed. The first point was about the
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question about realisation of personal goals. At first, respondents were told to mark their three most important goals to strive after when exercising. Though, concluded was that some women may have less than three goals and some women may have more than three goals they strive after when exercising. Therefore, in the eventual questionnaire, there was not asked for a minimum or maximum number of goals. Besides, concerning the question about time spent on exercising, respondents did not find it clear enough where they had to fill in the different time measures. As a result, the amount of days, hours and minutes were underlined to make this more clear. Last, a couple of spelling mistakes were corrected. The respondents that participated in the pre-test, have been excluded from filling out the survey for the eventual research.
Scale Construction
To analyse the data, the statistical software SPSS Statistics 20 was used. First, the data of 513 respondents were checked for any missing values by running frequency tables that, among others, displayed the means and standard deviations of the variables. With some variables, there were missing values. The respondents belonging to these values have been deleted from de dataset. Hereafter, scales could be composed of the data of the remaining 419 respondents.
Tailored communication. Originally, this variable consisted of four groups ranging
from ‘Never had this consultation, except for the intake-consultation’ to ‘Once a week’. Because only the difference between having or not having a guidance consultation at Fit4lady did matter at this study, this variable is recoded into two groups: the participants who did not make use of the guidance consultation, and the participants who did make use of the guidance consultation at the moment of participating at this study.
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Exercise behaviour. This variable has been measured with six open-ended questions
of which three were related to moderate exercising behaviour and three were related to heavy exercising behaviour. For both, the number of days, hours and minutes were calculated with the function ‘Compute’, which led to a continuous scale: minutes per week spent on
moderate, respectively heavy, exercise. Some outliers emerged at both heavy and moderate exercise. Therefore, for both variables, the participants with numbers that were three times the standard deviation above the mean score have been deleted, which was everyone who scored 1457.41 or higher for moderate exercise and everyone who scored 1110.88 or higher for heavy exercise.
Realisation of personal goals. This has been measured with two questions. The first
question indicated the most important goal(s), out of 18 goals, for women to strive after by exercising. The second question indicated the degree to which these women felt like they are realising these goal(s) at Fit4lady. This second variable has been changed into a new variable, which shows the mean scores for goal realisation per respondent. This was done with the help of the function ‘Compute’.
Motivation. Two new variables had to be created, that were based on guidelines of a
validated questionnaire (Pelletier, 1995); extrinsic motivation and intrinsic motivation. Before forming these two variables, however, there had to be looked at the reliability of these
variables. The reliability of the scales for extrinsic motivation (M = 2.34; SD = .59; = .73) and intrinsic motivation (M = 2.48; SD = .73; = .87) was good. As a result, the original 20 items were changed into two scales of, respectively, eight and twelve variables. These two variables have been formed by taking the mean score of the belonging components, with help of the function ‘Compute’ in SPSS. Hereafter, one new variable was created, so that it could
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be used as a categorical variable. Therefore, participants who scored higher on intrinsic motivation were assigned with a ‘1’, and participants who scored higher on extrinsic motivation were assigned with a ‘2’.
Plan of Analysis
First, to get a good overview of the sample characteristics, frequency tables were created to find out the mean age, the most frequent education level and the number of women per chain who participated.
First, expected was that combined communication (individually tailored
communication + group tailored communication) would lead to more time spent on exercising than group communication only. Because of a dichotomous independent variable and a continuous dependent variable, an independent samples t-test will be executed.
Second, hypothesised was that combined communication (individually tailored
communication + group tailored communication) would lead to more time spent on realisation of personal goals than group communication only. Because of a dichotomous independent variable and a continuous dependent variable, here too an independent samples t-test will be executed.
Third, and last, expected was that the effect of combined communication (individually tailored communication + group tailored communication) on time spent on exercising
(moderate and heavy exercise) and realisation of personal goals would be stronger for women with a higher extrinsic motivation than for women with a higher intrinsic motivation. Because of a categorical independent variable, two continuous dependent variables, and a categorical moderating variable, this analysis will be conducted with two separate two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA).
18 Results Combined Communication and Exercise Behaviour
The first hypothesis, which was that combined communication (individually tailored communication + group tailored communication) would lead to more time spent on exercising than group communication only, was tested with an independent samples t-test. For moderate exercise behaviour, Levene’s F-test was significant, which means equal variances were not assumed, and results had to be interpreted carefully, F(300.43) = 6.47, p = .011. Besides that, the t-test was significant, which means that combined communication (M = 469.02; SD = 364.44) leads to more time spent on moderate exercise behaviour than group communication only (M = 386.55; SD = 286.29), t(300.43) = -2.57, p = .011, 95% CI [-145.36, -19.31].
This is not the case for heavy exercise behaviour. Levene’s F-test was not significant, which means equal variances were assumed, F(417) = .41, p = .522. Next to that, the t-test was not significant, which means there is no difference in time spent on heavy exercise for women who are (M = 399.68; SD = 230.27) and who are not (M = 391.94; SD = 251.37) exposed to tailored communication, t(417) = -.32, p = .748, 95% CI [-55.14, 39.65]. The first hypothesis is partially accepted.
Combined Communication and Realisation of Personal Goals
To get an indication of the most often reported goals strived after, in table 1 the goal frequency and mean score per goal are showed. Goal frequency is the number of women that reported that goal as one of their most important goals. Multiple goals could be marked (M = 5.49; SD = 2.54). The mean score per goal was asked after the respondent had filled in which
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Table 1
Goal frequency and mean goal realisation
Goal Frequency % of total (N = 419) Mean Score Stress reduction 90 21.5 4.01 Weight maintenance 164 39.1 3.91 Energy level 200 47.7 4.14 Tone/shape body 149 35.6 3.88 Sense of well-being 287 68.5 4.17 Weight loss 158 37.7 3.52 Social reasons 54 12.9 4.28
Overall health benefits 155 37.0 4.25
Flexibility 67 16.0 4.12 Competition 1 < 0.1 1.00 Disease prevention 78 18.6 3.94 Family time 2 < 0.1 5.00 Enjoyment 26 < 0.1 4.46 Cardiovascular fitness 347 82.8 4.21 Endurance/stamina 178 42.5 4.17 Strength 115 27.4 4.09 Fun 213 50.8 4.50 Other 7 -
Note. Mean score measured on a 5-point Likert-scale ranging from 1 (= Never) to 5 (= Always).
goals were most important for her. To see whether type of communication and realisation of these goals correlated in some way, the second hypothesis, that combined communication (individually tailored communication + group tailored communication) would lead to more time spent on realisation of personal goals than group communication only, was tested with an independent samples t-test. Levene’s F-test was not significant, which means equal variances were assumed, F(279.03) = .56, p = .455. Besides that, the t-test was significant, which means that women who are exposed to combined communication (M = 4.14; SD = .44) are more likely to realise their personal goals than women who are not exposed to combined communication (M = 3.97; SD = .53), t(417) = -3.46, p = .001.
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The Moderating Influence of Motivation: Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic
The last hypothesis was tested with a two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), in which type of communication and motivation (intrinsic vs. extrinsic) were predictors and time
spent on exercising (moderate and heavy exercise) and realisation of personal goals were
dependent variables. First, for moderate exercise behaviour, Levene’s F-test was significant, which means there is a difference in variance between the two groups, F(3, 415) = 5.14, p = .002. Besides that, the interaction-effect was not significant, which means there is no
difference in influence of combined communication on time spent on moderate exercise behaviour (M = 469.02; SD = 364.44) for intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, F(1, 415) = 1.02,
p = .314, 95% CI [388.30, 455.84] (table 2). This also goes for time spent on heavy exercise
behaviour. Levene’s F-test was significant, which means there is a difference in variance between the two groups, F(3, 415) = 2.79, p = .040. Besides that, the interaction-effect was not significant, which means there is no difference in influence of combined communication on time spent on heavy exercise behaviour (M = 399.68; SD = 230.27) for intrinsic an extrinsic motivation, F(1, 415) = .04, p = .849, 95% CI [367.15, 414.70] (table 3).
For realisation of personal goals, Levene’s F-test was not significant, which means equal variances are assumed in both groups, F(3, 415) = .58, p = .629. Furthermore, the interaction-effect of combined communication and realisation of personal goals was not significant, F(1, 415) = .23, p = .633, 95% CI [4.00, 4.09] (table 4). This means there is no different influence of combined communication on realisation of personal goals (M = 4.14;
SD = .44) for intrinsic and extrinsic communication. These results suggest that type of
motivation does not influence the relationship between type of communication (combined communication vs. group communication only) and time spent on exercising and realisation of personal goals. The third hypothesis is rejected.
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Table 2
Results two-way ANOVA for moderate exercise behaviour
Sum of Squares df Mean Square F p η2
Communication 524826.19 1 524826.19 4.65 .032 .01 Motivation (intrinsic vs. extrinsic) 416842.04 1 416842.04 3.69 .055 .01 Communication * Motivation 114933.99 1 114933.99 1.02 .314 .00 Within subjects 46871703.69 415 112943.86 Total 128785887.00 419 Table 3
Results two-way ANOVA for heavy exercise behaviour
Sum of Squares df Mean Square F p η2
Communication 1396.13 1 1396.13 .03 .875 .00 Motivation (intrinsic vs. extrinsic) 402816.45 1 402816.45 7.20 .008 .02 Communication * Motivation 2021.88 1 2021.88 .04 .849 .00 Within subjects 23229895.02 415 55975.65 Total 89658672.00 419 Table 4
Results two-way ANOVA for realisation of personal goals
Sum of Squares df Mean Square F p η2
Communication 2.49 1 2.49 11.38 .001 .03 Motivation (intrinsic vs. extrinsic) 2.19 1 2.19 9.98 .002 .02 Communication * Motivation .05 1 .05 .23 .633 .00 Within subjects 90.91 415 .22 Total 7057.24 419
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Conclusion and Discussion
The aim of this study was to give more insight into the relationship between tailored communication and time spent on exercising (moderate and heavy exercise) and realisation of personal goals, and thereby the moderating influence of motivation (extrinsic vs. intrinsic).
First, concerning type of communication, combined communication - in comparison with group communication only - turned out to have a positive influence on time spent on moderate exercise. Women who were exposed to combined communication spent more time on moderate exercise behaviour than women who were exposed to group communication only. This does not go for heavy exercise behaviour, which was not influenced by being exposed to combined communication compared to group communication only. So, combined communication does influence the amount of time spent on moderate exercise behaviour, but does not influence the amount of time spent on heavy exercise behaviour compared to group communication only. This is in conflict with the results of Bock et al. (2001) who compared an individually tailored physical activity intervention to a standard tailored physical activity intervention. The individually tailored intervention showed a significant advantage over the standard tailored intervention for amount of time spent on physical activity, which has been proven before by Marcus et al. (1998). In their studies, however, they did not distinguish moderate and heavy exercise when analysing the results, though they did measure different levels of physical activity intensity. This could explain the different results. The step towards spending more time on moderate exercise is smaller than spending more time on heavy exercise, because, among others, it is less intensive than heavy exercise. It is more likely someone goes by bike as an alternative for going by car to the supermarket as an extra
exercise, than getting the motivation to go work hard with as a result being all hot and sweaty afterwards; the barrier might be greater for spending more time on heavy exercise than for spending more time on moderate exercise, because of the efforts you have to make for it.
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People are getting more aware of their, moderate, activities during their daily lives due to tailored communication, which is easier to adapt than heavy exercise.
Second, combined communication did have a positive influence on realisation of personal goals. This means that women who were exposed to combined communication, at the time of filling out the survey, do more often realise their goals than women who were not exposed to combined communication. This is in accordance with what Richards et al. (2013) found in their study. They found that the most effective interventions were those that offered both individually tailored and group tailored communication. They did not specifically aim at goal realisation, though some of their reviewed studies did take that variable into account.
Third, the influence of type of communication on time spent on exercising and on realisation of personal goals did not differ for intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. This means that it does not matter whether a woman is more intrinsically or more extrinsically motivated for combined communication to have an effect on the amount of time spent on exercising or on the realisation of personal goals. Though there is no study that examined this specific relationship, Segar et al. (2008) suggested there must be a different effect for these two types of motivation on the relationship between tailored communication and time spent on
exercising. They found that women with a high extrinsic motivation to exercise, had more difficulty maintaining this activity than women having a higher intrinsic motivation. Based on that, presumed was that women with a higher intrinsic motivation to exercise, would have a greater chance of spending more time exercising and realising their personal goals without support of others. It might be, though, in this case that group communication alone was already stimulating enough for those women who were more extrinsically motivated, and therefore no effect was found. This is in line with the findings of Segar et al. (2002), who found that group communication is only very effective in stimulating women to exercise. In the case of current study, group communication took place during exercising, whereby a
24
trainer motivated the exercising women during the training. Besides, doing exercising in a group context can work stimulating, because in that way people stimulate each other and do not want to be inferior to each other.
To answer the research question, combined communication does not seem to have a positive influence on time spent on heavy exercise behaviour, but does have a positive
influence on time spent on moderate exercise behaviour and realisation of personal goals. The moderating influence of type of motivation (intrinsic vs. extrinsic) on the relationship between type of communication and time spent on exercising (moderate and heavy exercise) and realising personal goals is not present for what can be concluded out of this study.
Limitations and future research
A limitation is that this study only focused on women, so that results from this study cannot be generalized to men or other not-women-specific fitness chains or gyms. It might be that there are other outcomes for time spent on exercising and goal realisation when looking at men than when looking at women, because, according to Segar et al. (2002), men and women set different goals when going to the gym and therefore need to be approached differently. Suggested is that this study should be replicated for men only, to be able to compare the outcomes to the outcomes of this study. Hereby, an indication can be made whether or not to approach exercising men and women differently.
Another limitation is that the hypotheses in this study are mostly based on findings of online tailored communication and online interventions, which were often longitudinal
studies, whereas offline tailored communication formed the basis in this cross-sectional study. This means that in this study there is no baseline, so there is no starting point to compare with, only groups to compare to each other. Next to that, most of these studies were experiments whereby groups were formed for the purpose of that study, while in this study, the groups
25
were naturally existing groups. This methodological difference might influence the results of current study, because the women who participated in this study were not aware they were classified to a certain group, whereas when participating in an experiment, someone might be more aware of this. This limitation can also be a strength, however, because when working in real life conditions, people are not aware of belonging to a certain group, which makes the results of this study more generalizable to real life situations. For future research is suggested to conduct more field studies, so the results become more truthful, and more comparable to the results attained from this study.
A third limitation is, again, the literature on which the hypotheses of this study are based. Most studies discussed in the theoretical framework concerned sedentary or non-active adults. Participants in current study, however, were active adults, which might explain the non-significant results. An obvious difference is that already active adults found the
motivation to start exercising before the beginning of the study, while non-active adults did not find this motivation yet. Therefore, these adults are on a whole other level when looking at the point of motivation to exercise they are at. Non-active adults have to go from no motivation, to motivation to exercise, whereas active adults have to – ideally – go from a certain level of motivation to an even higher level of motivation. With this last group it is not the question whether or not they are motivated, but how they are motivated: extrinsic or intrinsic. This last thing is something to elaborate on in future research. In this study, no results have been found considering type of motivation: results did not significantly differ for extrinsic or intrinsic motivation. So, type of motivation has no effect, but maybe the level of motivation does. It might be that a higher level of motivation, regardless of type of
motivation, has a different influence on the relationship between type of communication and time spent on exercising and realising personal goals, than a lower level of motivation has.
26
A fourth limitation is the division of the four answering categories into two groups concerning the variable type of communication. For analyses in this study, it was decided to divide the participants into two groups on basis of whether or not they were making use of the opportunity to have a guidance consultation at Fit4lady at the time of filling out the survey. In this way, a part of the group that did not make use of having a guidance consultation at that time, did make use of this consultation in the past. Therefore, it is possible that this guidance consultation still works on, even though this group did not made use of it anymore. To exclude other outcomes, new analyses have been conducted to see whether or not another division of these variable would lead to different results. Hereby, the first group only
consisted of women who never had a guidance consultation, and the second group consisted of women who did have a guidance consultation in the past or still made use of it at the time of filling out the survey. Results revealed that a different division did not lead to different results; results that were not significant still were not significant and results that were
significant still were significant. Despite similarity of results, it is useful these analyses have been conducted again with another deviation, because it makes these results more complete.
Last, with respect to the content of the questionnaire, the question about the number of days per week, and the hours and minutes per day spent on exercising, adopted from the IPAQ, seemed not to be clear for everyone. Some outliers had to be deleted, because,
presumably, some women had the idea they had to fill in the amount of hours and minutes per week spent on exercising, though there was explicitly asked for the time per day spent on exercising. Even though less than one percent of the respondents had to be deleted because of this misunderstanding, which has presumably no influence on the results, when using this question again, it has to be made more clear that it is about time per day spent on exercising instead of time per week.
27 Implications
With the knowledge gained from this study, more effective interventions and sport programs can be designed for stimulating exercising in women and making women realise their personal goals through the use of tailored communication. Using tailored communication next to group communication turned out to be more effective for stimulating the time spent on moderate exercise and realising women’s personal goals than using group communication only. Therefore, it is important gyms and other sport organisations become aware of the benefits of using both group and individually tailored communication simultaneously. When adding individually tailored communication to group communication, it is more likely that, in this case, women who want to lose weight, actually lose weight, and women who want to become more muscular, actually become more muscular. This contributes positively to the public health, because in this way women are stimulated effectively to reach the Fit-norm and become, or stay, healthy as long as possible.
Besides, found is that the effect of tailored communication on time spent on exercising and realisation of personal goals does not differ for women with either a more intrinsic or a more extrinsic motivation. Based on this study, women with different types of motivation do not need to be approached differently with regard to time spent on exercising and realisation of personal goals. It might be, though, that for other specific outcomes, such as disease prevention and endurance, these types of motivation play a significant role. The reason for this is that these are more internal processes where motivation probably plays a more important role.
Considering the scientific part, tailored communication has mainly been studied in an online (computer-based) environment or with regard to patient-provider communication. This is, to my knowledge, the first study that elaborates on the influence of tailored communication in an offline environment on sport-related behaviour among healthy exercising women.
28
Besides, this study gave more insight in the existing influence of type of communication on time spent on exercising as well as on realisation of personal goals, which is extensively studied among men, but in this study is specifically aimed at women. Another insight is that type of motivation does not seem to play a role in women’s time spent on exercising and realisation of personal goals, though the level of motivation might, which is, as said, something for future research.
References
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Bruggink, J. W. (2009). Ontwikkelingen in (gezonde) levensverwachting naar opleidingsniveau. Bevolkingstrends, 57(4), 71-75.
Buckworth, J., Lee, R. E., Regan, G., Schneider, L. K., & DiClemente, C. C. (2007).
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doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2006.06.007
Chatzisarantis, N. L. D., Hagger, M. S., & Thøgersen-Ntoumani, C. (2008). The effects of self-discordance, self-concordance, and implementation intentions on health behaviour. Journal of Applied Biobehavioral Research, 13(4), 198-214. doi:10.1111/j.1751-9861.2008.00035.x
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human
behaviour. [Online book]. ISBN 0306420228. Retrieved from
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Haskell, W. L., Lee, I-M., Pate, R. R., Powell, K. E., Blair, S. N., Franklin, B. A., Macera, C. A., Heath, G. W., Thompson, P. D., Bauman, A. (2007). Physical activity and public health: Updated recommendation for adults from the American College of Sports Medicine and the American Heart Association. Circulation, 116(1), 1081-1093. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.185649
Internationale vragenlijst in verband met fysieke activiteiten (IPAQ). [Online file]. Retrieved
from https://sites.google.com/site/theipaq/questionnaire_links
Keele-Smith, R., & Leon, T. (2003). Evaluation of individually tailored interventions on exercise adherence. Western Journal of Nursing Research, 25(6), 623-640. doi:10.1177/0193945903255404
Kreuter, M. W., Strecher, V. J., & Glassman, B. (1999). One size does not fit all: The case for tailoring print materials. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 21(4), 276-283.
doi:10.1007/BF02895958
Kreuter, M. W., & Wray, R. J. (2003). Tailored and targeted health communication: Strategies for enhancing information relevance. American Journal of Health Behavior,
27(Supplement 3), S227-S232.
Marcus, B. H., Bock., B. C., Pinto, B., Forsyth, L. H., Roberts, M. B., & Traficante, R. M. (1998). Efficacy of an individualized, motivationally-tailored physical activity intervention. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 20(3), 174-180.
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Ooms, L. Veenhof, C., & De Bakker, D. H. (2013). Effectiveness of Start to Run, a 6-week training program for novice runners, on increasing health-enhancing physical activity: A controlled study. BMC Public Health, 13(1). 697. doi:10.1186/1471-2458-13-697 Pelletier, L. G., Fortier, M. S., Vallerand, R. J., Tuson, K. M., Brière, N. M., & Blais, M. R.
(1995). Toward a new measure of intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and amotivation in sports: The Sport Motivation Scale (SMS). Journal of Sport & Exercise
Psychology, 17(1), 35-53.
Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1986). The elaboration likelihood model of persuasion (pp. 124-192). New York, NY: Springer.
Richards, J., Hillsdon, M., Thorogood, M., & Foster, C. (2013). Face-to-face interventions for promoting physical activity (review). Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2013,
9(CD010392), 1-87. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD010392.pub2
Segar, M., Jayaratne, T., Hanlon, J., & Richardson, C. (2002). Fitting fitness into women’s lives: Effects of a gender-tailored physical activity intervention. Women’s Health
Issues, 12(6), 338-347.doi:10.1016/S1049-3867(02)00156-1
Segar, M., Eccles, J. S., Peck, S. C., & Richardson, C. R. (2007). Midlife women’s physical activity goals: Sociocultural influences and effects on behavioral regulation. Sex Roles,
57(11-12), 837-849. doi:10.1007/s11199-007-9322-1
Segar, M., Eccles, J. S., & Richardson, C. (2008). Type of physical activity goal influences participation in healthy midlife women. Women’s Health Issues, 18(4), 281-291. doi:10.1016/j.whi.2008.02.003
Vallerand, R. (2004). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in sport. Encyclopedia of Applied
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Vallerand, R. (2007). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in sport an physical activity: A review and a look at the future. In Tenenbaum, G., & Eklund, R. C. (Eds.), Handbook of sport psychology (3rd ed.) (pp. 59-82). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Van Burken, P. (2014). De Sport Motivation Scale-6 (SMS-6): Een verbeterde versie van de
SMS. Retrieved from http://www.psychfysio.nl/Nieuws/1_17_2.html.
Volksgezondheidenzorg.info, 2015. Beweeggedrag volwassenen. [Online database]. Retrieved from https://www.volksgezondheidenzorg.info/onderwerp/sport-en-bewegen/cijfers-context/huidige-situatie#!node-beweeggedrag-volwassenen
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Yangyang Han, R. N., & Jin Yan, R. N. (2014). The effect of face-to-face interventions in promoting physical activity. AJN The American Journal of Nursing, 114(4), 23. doi:10.1097/01.NAJ.0000445684.37306.10
Yap, T. L., & Davis L. S. (2008). Physical activity: The science of health promotion through tailored messages. Rehabilitation Nursing, 33(2), 55-62.
32 Appendix A. Factsheet and informed consent (Dutch)
Factsheet
Beste mevrouw,
Welkom bij dit onderzoek over sportparticipatie onder vrouwen. Voordat u met dit onderzoek kunt beginnen, is het belangrijk onderstaande zaken goed door te nemen.
U bent uitgenodigd deel te nemen aan een onderzoek dat wordt uitgevoerd onder verantwoordelijkheid van ASCoR, onderdeel van de Universiteit van Amsterdam.
Het onderzoek waarvoor ik uw medewerking vraag, is getiteld ‘Sportparticipatie onder vrouwen’. Iedereen die bij Fit4lady sport of heeft gesport kan deelnemen aan dit onderzoek. Het doel van het onderzoek is meer inzicht te krijgen in sportparticipatie van vrouwen.
Tijdens dit onderzoek zal een aantal vragen worden gesteld over uw sportgedrag en redenen waarom u sport. Het onderzoek duurt hooguit 10 minuten.
Omdat dit onderzoek wordt uitgevoerd onder de verantwoordelijkheid van ASCoR, Universiteit van Amsterdam, heeft u de garantie dat:
1) Uw anonimiteit is gewaarborgd en dat uw antwoorden of gegevens onder geen enkele voorwaarde aan derden zullen worden verstrekt, tenzij u hiervoor van tevoren uitdrukkelijke toestemming hebt verleend
33
2) U zonder opgaaf van redenen kunt weigeren mee te doen aan het onderzoek of uw deelname voortijdig kunt afbreken. Ook kunt u achteraf (binnen 24 uur na deelname) uw toestemming intrekken voor het gebruik van uw antwoorden of gegevens voor het onderzoek. 3) Deelname aan het onderzoek geen noemenswaardige risico’s of ongemakken voor u met zich meebrengt, er geen moedwillige misleiding plaatsvindt, en u niet met expliciet aanstootgevend materiaal zult worden geconfronteerd.
4) U uiterlijk 5 maanden na afloop van het onderzoek de beschikking over een onderzoeksrapportage kunt krijgen waarin de algemene resultaten van het onderzoek worden toegelicht.
Voor meer informatie over dit onderzoek en de uitnodiging tot deelname kunt u te allen tijde contact opnemen met de projectleider L. A. Baesjou (BSc), l.a.baesjou@gmail.com.
Mocht u klachten of opmerkingen hebben over dit onderzoek en de procedure ten gevolge van uw deelname aan dit onderzoek, kunt u contact opnemen met het hiervoor aangewezen lid van de Ethische Commissie welke ASCoR vertegenwoordigt, op het volgende adres: ASCoR Secretariaat, Ethische Commissie, Universiteit van Amsterdam, Postbus 15793, 1001 NG Amsterdam; 020-525 3680; ascor-secr-fmg@uva.nl. Alle klachten of opmerkingen zullen in strikt vertrouwen worden behandeld.
Ik hoop u hiermee voldoende te hebben geïnformeerd en dank u bij voorbaat hartelijk voor uw deelname aan dit onderzoek dat voor ons van grote waarde is.
Met vriendelijke groet,
34 Informed consent
Hierbij verklaar ik dat ik op duidelijke wijze ben geïnformeerd over de aard en de methode van het onderzoek, zoals beschreven op de vorige pagina.
Ik stem volledig en vrijwillig in met deelname aan dit onderzoek. Hiermee behoud ik het recht mijn toestemming terug te trekken, zonder hiervoor een reden te geven. Ik ben ervan op de hoogte dat ik mijn deelname aan dit onderzoek op ieder moment mag stopzetten.
Als mijn onderzoeksresultaten worden gebruikt in wetenschappelijke publicaties of publiek worden gemaakt op een andere manier, zal anonimiteit compleet gewaarborgd zijn. Mijn persoonlijke gegevens zullen niet worden doorgespeeld aan derden zonder mijn expliciete toestemming.
Als ik wens meer informatie te ontvangen over dit onderzoek, nu of in de toekomst, kan ik contact opnemen met L. A. Baesjou (l.a.baesjou@gmail.com). Wanneer ik klachten heb over dit onderzoek, kan ik contact opnemen met het aangewezen lid van de Ethische Commissie welke ASCoR vertegenwoordigt op het volgende adres: ASCoR Secretariaat, Ethische Commissie, Universiteit van Amsterdam, Postbus 15793, 1001 NG Amsterdam; 020-525 3680; ascor-secr-fmg@uva.nl
35 B. Questionnaire (Dutch)
Membership
Bent u op dit moment lid van Fit4lady?
□ Ja
□ Nee, maar ik ben wel lid geweest □ Nee, ik ben nooit lid geweest
Tailored communication
1. Hoe vaak maakt u gebruik van de gelegenheid een begeleidingsgesprek te hebben bij Fit4lady?
Onder begeleidingsgesprek vallen het Fitgesprek en het Slank & Fit gesprek.
(1) Nooit (buiten het intakegesprek)
(2) In het verleden wel één of meer keer gehad, maar nu niet meer (3) 1 keer per 3 maanden
(4) 1 keer per week
2. Hoe lang bent u lid van Fit4lady?
(1) Minder dan 1 jaar (2) 1-2 jaar
(3) 3-4 jaar (4) 5-6 jaar
36 Realisation of personal goals (Segar et al., 2008)
1. Wat zijn voor u de belangrijkste doelen die u wilt nastreven door te sporten?
(1) Stressvermindering (2) Gewichtsbehoud (3) Energielevel (4) Lichaamsvorm (5) Gezondheid (6) Gewichtsverlies (7) Sociale redenen (8) Algemene gezondheidsvoordelen (9) Flexibiliteit (10) Competitie
(11) Voorkomen van ziekten (preventie) (12) Familietijd (13) Genot (14) Conditie (15) Uithoudingsvermogen (16) Kracht (17) Plezier (18) Iets anders
37 2. [1 = Nooit, 5 = Altijd]
U heeft net aangegeven dat [doel 1] voor een belangrijk doel is na te streven door te sporten. In hoeverre heeft u het idee dit doel te behalen bij Fit4lady?
1 2 3 4 5
U heeft net aangegeven dat [doel 2] voor een belangrijk doel is na te streven door te sporten. In hoeverre heeft u het idee dit doel te behalen bij Fit4lady?
1 2 3 4 5
U heeft net aangegeven dat [doel 3] voor een belangrijk doel is na te streven door te sporten. In hoeverre heeft u het idee dit doel te behalen bij Fit4lady?
1 2 3 4 5
Etc.
Exercise behaviour (IPAQ)
De volgende vragen gaan over alle fysieke activiteiten die u de laatste maand gedaan heeft. Denk alleen aan die fysieke activiteiten die u gedurende minstens 10 minuten aan één stuk door verricht heeft.
Hoeveel dagen in de week heeft u de afgelopen maand gemiddeld zware fysieke activiteiten gedaan, zoals aerobics, steps, lopen, snel fietsen, snel zwemmen of andere zwaar intensieve activiteiten? Sporten bij Fit4lady valt hier ook onder.
38
Hoeveel tijd in totaal heeft u op zo’n dag besteedt aan zware fysieke activiteiten?
Wanneer deze zware fysieke activiteit minder dan een uur besloeg, vul dan ‘0’ in bij uur en vervolgens het aantal minuten dat u aan zware fysieke activiteit heeft gedaan.
__ uur per dag __ minuten per dag
Hoeveel dagen in de week heeft u de afgelopen maand gemiddeld matig zware fysieke activiteiten gedaan zoals fietsen in een middelmatig tempo, zwemmen in een
middelmatig tempo, tennis dubbelspel of andere activiteiten in een matige intensiteit?
__ dagen per week
Hoeveel tijd in totaal heeft u op zo’n dag besteedt aan matige fysieke activiteiten? *Wanneer deze zware fysieke activiteit minder dan een uur besloeg, vul dan ‘0’ in bij uur en vervolgens het aantal minuten dat u aan zware fysieke activiteit heeft gedaan.
__ uur per dag __ minuten per dag
39 Motivation
(Original: Pelletier et al., 1995; Free Dutch translation: Van Burken, 2014)
Onderstaande stellingen gaan over de redenen waarom u aan sport doet. Lees de stellingen alstublieft goed en geef het antwoord dat het beste uw mening weergeeft. Er zijn geen goede of foute antwoorden.
Komt geheel niet overeen Komt een beetje overeen Komt matig tot redelijk overeen Komt veel overeen Komt precies overeen 1 2 3 4 5
De reden dat ik sport is…
1. Voor de opwinding die ik ervaar als ik opga in de sportactiviteit. 1 2 3 4 5 2. Omdat het onderdeel uitmaakt van de wijze waarop ik mijn leven
wil leiden.
1 2 3 4 5
3. Omdat het een goede manier is veel dingen te leren die op andere levensgebieden van nut kunnen zijn.
1 2 3 4 5
4. Omdat het zorgt dat ik gewaardeerd wordt door de mensen die ik ken.
1 2 3 4 5
5. Ik weet het niet meer: ik heb het gevoel dat in niet geschikt ben voor deze sport.
1 2 3 4 5
6. Omdat het me veel persoonlijke voldoening geeft als ik bepaalde moeilijke trainingstechnieken leer beheersen.
1 2 3 4 5
7. Omdat het absoluut noodzakelijk is te sporten als je in vorm wilt blijven.
1 2 3 4 5
8. Omdat het een van de beste manieren is andere aspecten in mijn leven te ontwikkelen.
1 2 3 4 5
9. Omdat het bij me hoort. 1 2 3 4 5
10. Omdat ik moet sporten om me goed over mijzelf te voelen. 1 2 3 4 5
40
12. Ik weet niet of ik door wil gaan met het opbrengen van dezelfde tijd en inspanning voor mijn sport.
1 2 3 4 5
13. Omdat deelnemen aan mijn sport overeen komt met mijn diepste principes.
1 2 3 4 5
14. Voor de voldoening die ik ervaar als ik mijn vaardigheden perfectioneer.
1 2 3 4 5
15. Omdat het een van de beste manieren is goede contacten met mijn vrienden te onderhouden.
1 2 3 4 5
16. Omdat ik me slecht zou voelen als ik geen tijd zou nemen te sporten
1 2 3 4 5
17. Het is mij niet meer duidelijk; ik denk niet dat ik echt thuis hoor binnen de sport.
1 2 3 4 5
18. Voor het plezier van het ontdekken van nieuwe strategieën om te presteren.
1 2 3 4 5
19. Voor de materiële en/of sociale voordelen die je hebt als je een sporter bent.
1 2 3 4 5
20. Omdat hard trainen mijn prestaties zal verbeteren. 1 2 3 4 5
21. Omdat het deelnemen aan sport een integraal onderdeel is van mijn leven.
1 2 3 4 5
22. Ik geniet niet meer zo van mijn sport als ik voorheen deed. 1 2 3 4 5
23. Omdat ik regelmatig moet sporten. 1 2 3 4 5
24. Om anderen te laten zien hoe goed ik in mijn sport ben. 1 2 3 4 5
Key Amotivation 5, 12, 17, 22 External regulation 4, 11, 19, 24 Introjected regulation 7, 10, 16, 23 Identified regulation 3, 8, 15, 20 Integrated regulation 2, 9, 13, 21 Intrinsic motivation 1, 6, 14, 18 Extrinsic motivation Intrinsic motivation
41 Explanation
Amotivation No motivation
External regulation The individual performs the behaviour because (s)he feels obliged to perform it.
Introjected regulation The individual feels an internal obligation to perform the behaviour.
Due to embarrassment, fear to blunder, its tendency to exaggerate, not willing to be inferior to another force one to perform the behaviour.
Identified regulation The individual performs the behaviour because (s)he really is persuaded of the personal importance. The individual thinks it is good for oneself.
Integrated regulation Is even more deep-seated in the individual. Performing the behaviour because it meets values that have become one with the individual. It is part of one’s identity.
Intrinsic motivation The individual has started to appreciate the behaviour itself and not only the outcomes of the behaviour. The individual not only
identifies oneself with the behaviour, but also enjoys it.
Demographics
1. Wat is uw leeftijd in jaren?
___
2. Wat is uw hoogst gevolgde opleiding?1
(1) Geen (2) Basisschool (3) Vmbo (4) Mavo (5) Havo (6) Vwo 1 Bruggink, J. W. (2009)
42
(7) Mbo (8) Hbo (9) Universiteit
3. Bij welk Fit4lady filiaal sport u?
□ Alkmaar □ Bergen □ Goeree-Overflakkee □ Grootebroek □ Heemstede □ Heerhugowaard □ Hillegom □ Hoorn □ Krommenie □ Leeuwarden □ Limmen □ Panningen □ Reuver □ Schagen □ Volendam
43
C. International Physical Activity Questionnaire: Part 4 (4d to 4g)
Deel 4: Fysieke activiteiten die verband houden met sport,
ontspanning en vrije tijd
Dit deel gaat over alle fysieke activiteiten die u de laatste zeven dagen gedaan heeft, maar dan uitsluitend als recreatie, sport, training of vrijetijdsbesteding. Nogmaals, denk alleen aan die fysieke activiteiten die u gedurende minstens 10 minuten aan één stuk verricht heeft. Gelieve geen activiteiten mee te rekenen die u reeds vermeld hebt.
4d Op hoeveel dagen, in de laatste zeven dagen, heeft u zware fysieke activiteiten gedaan zoals bijvoorbeeld aerobics, lopen, snel fietsen, snel zwemmen of andere intense activiteiten, in uw vrije tijd ?
________ dagen per week
4e Hoeveel tijd in totaal heeft u op zo’n dag besteedt aan zware fysieke activiteiten in uw
vrije tijd?
____ uur ___ minuten /dag
4f Op hoeveel dagen, in de laatste zeven dagen, heeft u matige fysieke activiteiten gedaan zoals bijvoorbeeld fietsen aan een middelmatig tempo, zwemmen aan een middelmatig tempo, tennis dubbelspel of andere activiteiten aan een matige intensiteit,
in uw vrije tijd ?
44
4g Hoeveel tijd in totaal heeft u op zo’n dag besteedt aan matige fysieke activiteiten in
uw vrije tijd?
