Advertising beyond the binary constraints of gender identity
MSc in Business Administration – Marketing Track Amsterdam Business School
University of Amsterdam
Name: Danielle Chan
Student nr.: 10399534
Date of submission: 23/06/2017
Version: Final
Supervisor: Marco Mossinkoff
Statement of originality
This document is written by Student Danielle Oi Kee Chan who declares to take full responsibility for the contents of this document.
I declare that the text and the work presented in this document is original and that no sources other than those mentioned in the text and its references have been used in creating it. The Faculty of Economics and Business is responsible solely for the supervision of completion of the work, not for the contents.
Abstract
Gender identity beyond its binary constraints is becoming an increasingly salient topic of discussion and brands are willing to participate in this discussion. This shift becomes evident as Facebook increased its options for gender and several fashion brands are introducing gender neutral product lines. The aim of this research is to explore the consumer experience of those identified as binary. In an online experiment, following a 2 (gender: binary, non-binary) x 3 (advertisement gender: feminine, masculine and non-gendered) between-subjects design, it is examined whether and how non-binary gender identification of consumers influences the attitude towards the brand and advertisement and to what extent this relationship is influenced by congruence between the perceived gender and a consumer’s own gender identity. In-depth interviews were simultaneously conducted for theoretical generalization.
The findings show that only the gender portrayed in an ad has an effect on attitude towards the brand, which in turn influences the attitude toward the brand. Furthermore, the qualitative data show that individuals that identify as non-binary seek acceptance. These individuals regard advertising and branding as means to do so, despite their skepticism towards brands and advertising. These findings contribute to the limited amount of research on gender identity by challenging the binary constraints of gender identity. Practitioners might benefit from these results by recognizing the need for sincere and hones communication from brands.
Table of contents
1. Introduction 4
2. Literature review 7
2.1. Gender identity 7
2.2 Gender identity in research 10
2.3 Gender identity and marketing practice 15
3. Conceptual model and hypotheses 19
4. Method 21 4.1 Online questionnaire 22 4.2. In-depth interviews 28 5. Results 29 5.1. Hypothesis testing 30 5.2. In-depth interviews 31 6. Discussion 37 6.1. Results 37 6.2. Limitations 39 6.3. Implications 41 6.4. Future research 41 7. Conclusion 42 8. References 43
1. Introduction
Gillette, a razor brand, has two different sub-brands for men and women. These products are positioned and branded differently to make the distinction between the men’s and women’s razors evident. However, currently a shift in social norms is challenging gendered products: the binary gender identity has been an increasingly salient topic of discussion. The evidence for the existence of this change is accumulating: Facebook added more gender options to display on a social medium profile (Williams, 2014), Covergirl, a make up label, picked its first male ambassador last fall (Feldman, 2016) and National Geographic devoted a whole issue to the shifts in gender (Wong, 2016). These cases support the notion that something is happening regarding the traditional gender identity spectrum.
If the traditional boundary between male and female is fading, it might effect different aspects of society. For example, the duality in public spaces, like toilets, was questioned in a debate about whether or not merely male and female toilets suffice (Thorn, 2016). Some cities in the Netherlands already have, or are planning to build, gender neutral toilets (“Genderneutrale toiletten in stadhuis Amsterdam”, 2017). As for the economic market the consequences of the graduate change of gender into more than “male” and “female” might influence the way products are designed, the way marketing strategies are build and lastly how consumer research is conducted. For example, fashion brand H&M designed a product line that would fit both women and men (Gonzales, 2017). This indicates that brands are also catching up with this development, but how do consumers perceive this change? And how do they respond to that? Little research has been done on this shift in gender identity within the field of marketing.
Furthermore, if it truly is the case that the traditional classification of gender based on sex (Avery, 2012; Kacen, 2000; Messerschmidt, 2009; Neale, Robbie & Martin, 2016; Valocchi, 2005) has lost its validity, scholars and market researchers might have to rethink how they conduct consumer (behavior) research. If non-binary consumers are to participate in studies researchers might have to rethink how to measure gender identity effectively, as Palan (2001) pointed out gender identity is often measured incorrectly. This would call for renewed
methods to measure gender in consumer behavior and another way of looking at gender in consumer research. Put bluntly, if the boxes “male” and “female” no longer uphold the title “gender”, surveys in consumer research might have to be redesigned in a way that gender is no longer dichotomous.
Moreover, expanding the spectrum of gender as a construct might increase the richness of research findings. If there is a multidimensionality to gender identity, it means that there is more variation within this variable. Thus, predictions about behavior based on gender might be even more detailed and targeting even more tailored based on the variation that the data on gender identity provides. Exploring and challenging the boundaries of gender identity might increase the value that can be extracted from data and offer scholars and practitioners new insights.
The practical contributions of this study affects the operations of marketers and product designers. If products have to cater consumers with gender identities other than the conservative ones, the products might have to look differently, named differently or
positioned differently (Kacen, 2000). Understanding whether or not, and if so to what extent, the broadened gender spectrum influences reactions to ads (Feiereisen et al., 2009; Jaffe, 1990; Jin Yoon & Kim, 2014) and perceptions of brands and their identity (Avery, 2012;
Neale et al., 2016; Palan, 2001) provides managers with insights to build their future
strategies on. Thus, the aim of this study is to provide brands with directions and insights on what the core issues regarding gender are, if there are any issues at all.
In conclusion, if “male/masculine” and “female/feminine” no longer suffice as options for gender, what should be the norm and, more importantly, what does this implicate for marketing practitioners? If the consumer experience for individuals outside the binary
spectrum of gender identity differs from those who fit within the boundaries, this might effect their response to marketing communication (Neale et al., 2016). Therefore, the issue at heart of this paper is whether and how the consumer experience of those within and outside the non-binary boundaries differ, especially in how consumers perceive brands. As brands are increasingly taking a stance in the gender debate, do consumers perceive them differently if their identities are incongruent with their own? Thus, to make the question more quantifiable, the research question states as follows: whether and how does non-binary gender
identification of consumers influence the attitude towards the brand and advertisement and to what extent is this relationship influenced by congruence between the perceived gender and a consumer’s own gender identity?
A mixed method approach was used to answer the aforementioned question. In-depth interviews and an online experiment were simultaneously conducted to gather rich data to find an answer to the research question. The findings of this study contribute to the limited amount of literature on the broadened spectrum of gender identity to better understand its role in consumer experience nowadays by building on congruence theory. The following section, the literature review, will discuss the most important findings in literature, the core concepts and its theoretical background. The literature review will conclude by discussing the gap in
literature, that is to be studied, more elaborately. The methodological decisions and the description of the analyses that follow provide insights in how the gap is studied. Finally, the results and an elaborate discussion thereof can be found at the end of the paper accompanied by directions for future research and a critical review on the research process.
2. Literature review
In the following sections the core concepts of this paper will be elaborated upon. Relevant literature and important findings within research on gender identity will be discussed. Also, the constructs to be measured, the underlying processes driving these concepts and possible relationships will be examined more closely. First, the construct of gender identity will be explained. In the following paragraphs, gender identity will be defined and discussed from different perspectives. In doing so, the difference between gender and sex will be pointed out, even the difference between gender and gender identity. Followed by a description of the processes underlying the construction of gender identity.
Secondly, gender identity as a multidimensional construct in research will be discussed. The discussion will also cover researches in other disciplines. This is mainly to illustrate the status quo in non-binary research. If the context of the debate on gender identity is illustrated, the discussion in marketing literature is examined more closely. This paves the way to examine how gender identity has affected marketing, which will cover the last part of the literature review. This part will also cover the effect of gender identity on marketing communications will be explained. leading The literature review will conclude with the gap in literature.
In order to examine how gender identity relates to marketing, it is important to understand the concept of gender identity first: what it is and how it works. In early studies on gender
identity, the distinction between “sex” and “gender” was made. The difference between the two being: sex refers to biological features, whereas gender refers to a psychological and social construct (Palan, 2001). In current research on gender this division is also evident. Schertzer et al. (2008) make a distinction between biological sex (e.g. the genitals one is born with) and gender (e.g. a cultural phenomenon). Several other scholars support the notion that gender is not equivalent to physical or biological characteristics (Avery, 2012; Kacen, 2000; Neale et al., 2016; Valocchi, 2005), although the concepts are related according to most of the researchers (Palan, 2001). Richards et al. (2015) elaborate on that by distinguishing the gender one was given at birth (that is similar to sex) and gender identity that develops throughout the years of childhood.
In several studies on gender identity, “gender” and “gender identity” are used
interchangeably, although the latter generally describes a narrower concept. Gender is often used to describe a cultural and societal phenomenon. Moreover, to clarify the difference between gender and gender identity: gender might also refer to gender roles, which describes the behavior expected from men and women (Bem, 1981; Hines, Brook & Conway, 2004; Palan, 2004). On the contrary, gender identity refers to a construct closer to the individual identity (Deaux, 1985; Palan, 2001). Because the aim of this study is to examine the experience of individual consumers, the term gender identity is used in this study to avoid any confusion.
Definitions of gender identity have covered different aspects of behavior and psychological traits (Palan, 2001). Early research correlated gender identity with sex. Gender identity was
regarded as a one dimensional construct in which masculinity and femininity were placed on the opposites of a continuum. Later, a two-dimensional gender identity model was developed. In this model masculinity and femininity and masculinity coexist in an individual, although being expressed differently. A definition that is used often in current research resembles that of Hines et al. (2004). They describe (core) gender identity as the sense of self in terms of male or female. Neale et al. (2016) and Kacen (2000) follow them in defining gender identity as the extent to which an individual identifies with either male or female. As the aim of this study is to explore gender outside its binary constraints, this definition of gender identity does not suffice. Thus, gender identity in context of this study could be best understood as the extent to which an individual identifies or does not identify with being either male or female or both male and female.
Processes driving the construct of gender identity
Driving this concept of gender identity are social and psychological processes (Kacen, 2000; Neale et al., 2016; Valocchi, 2005). Various disciplines describe the constructions of gender identity from different perspectives. Some describe gender identity as constructed through cognitive processes (Bem, 1981; Feiereisen, Broderick & Douglas, 2009; Howard, 2000), others as social processes (Ashforth & Mael, 1989; Howard, 2000) or cultural processes (Butler,1990;1993; West & Zimmer,1987). Although these perspectives differ in their ideas of how gender identity is constructed, scholars agree that gender identity is a part of the self that is being displayed through different symbols (Chodorow, 1995; Frable, 1997; Howard, 2000; Lal, 2000) and behaviors (Ashforth & Mael, 1989; Bem, 1981; Howard, 2000).
Schema theory is one of these perspectives in explaining how gender identity is constructed (Feireisen et al., 2009). This theory might be useful in offering insights in the psychological background of gender identity. According to Howard (2000), Feireisen, et al. (2009) and
Frable (1997) social cognition theory is a useful theory to illustrate how gender identity is constructed. Scholars describe gender identity as a constructed self-schema (Frable, 1997; Howard, 2000). A schema is comprised of knowledge and associations stored in a cognitive network. These schemas are used to process information about the world one lives in: new information is decoded and encoded into existing schemas (Bem, 1981; Howard, 2000). People learn to categorize and sex type others and, most importantly, themselves based on available knowledge stored in schemas (Frable, 1997).
Furthermore, schema theory also offers a richer understanding of gender identity as a multidimensional construct. Four different gender self-schemas can be distinguished within this particular perspective: masculine, feminine, low- and high androgynous (Feiereisen et al, 2009). These schemas are comprised of the information and knowledge structures about gender identity and differ from person to person. These differences contribute to the
existence of non-binary gender identities. However, schema theory is generally not supported in consumer behavior literature (Gentry & Haley, 1984). Thus, in the following sections different perspectives on gender as non-binary construct will be examined.
2.2 Gender identity in research
As aforementioned, academics reckon that gender identity is different from biological sex. But what do scholars say about the multidimensionality of gender identity? More
importantly, why is it relevant and necessary to examine gender identity beyond its binary constraints? To illustrate the context in which the discussion about gender identity takes place, a short overview of the existing literature on gender identity as more than a
dichotomous concept will be provided. The first part of this section briefly discusses gender identity as studied in other disciplines, followed by a more detailed description of the debate
on gender identity within marketing research. However, the debate within marketing research is rather small.
The small amount of studies on gender identity as a broader concept within marketing
research does not come as a surprise, because gender identity as a multidimensional construct is generally studied in other disciplines. As marketing literature often draws on knowledge of different disciplines, like psychology, the first paragraphs will draw upon knowledge about gender identity of other disciplines. There is an interdisciplinary field of research that studies gender and everything that constitutes to it more closely: gender studies (Pilcher &
Whelehan, 2004; Renn, 2010; Valocchi, 2005). In this field of research scholars challenge the normative thinking about gender, sexuality and gender roles. They question gender
stereotypes, the social norm on gender and gendered behavior, and discuss gender on a more philosophical level (Pilcher & Whelehan, 2004). These scholars draw, amongst others, on knowledge of feminist or queer theory, sociology and literature studies (Chodorow, 1995; Pilcher & Whelehan, 2004; Renn, 2010; Valocchi, 2005). Most of their studies apply discourse analyses focused on the expression of gender identity. In doing so, the findings often lack the rigor of experimental data to build theories that explain behavior (Renn, 2010; Valocchi, 2005).
Other fields that have taken interest in gender identity are psychotherapy (Hines et al., 2004) and psychiatry (Richards et al., 2016). In those fields the non-binary spectrum has been studied as a psychological (Richards et al., 2016) and biological (Hines et al., 2004) phenomenon, in which scholars confirm the existence of gender identities outside the
advise practitioners how to address cases of non-binary patients in their practices rather than provide in-depth insights in the phenomenon of non-binary gender identities.
Thus, as might be evident, studies in other disciplines are conducted in a descriptive fashion, rather than a prescriptive one. Research in the aforementioned disciplines are more advanced in understanding gender identity beyond its binary restraints, but lack rigor and predictive ability to explain behavior driven by gender identity.
Gender identity in marketing research
As the aim of this paper is to explain and predict consumer behavior, this part is dedicated to gender identity as studied in marketing research. Often, gender was studied in context of segmentation (Palan, 2001). Traditionally, segmentation and targeting of potential customers or consumers for businesses based on gender as a variable happened in a binary fashion: a consumer was either male or female. Scholars that studied gendered differences in response to advertisements mainly applied the aforementioned dichotomous approach of male and female (Jin Yoon & Kim, 2014; Schneider, 2014; Vigorito & Curry, 1998). However, several scholars have begun challenging this assumption by including androgyny as option for this variable (Neale et al., 2016; Jaffe, 1994) or looking at several degrees of femininity and masculinity (Avery, 2012; Feiereisen et al., 2009) in their studies. Despite these efforts, a deep understanding of gender as a multidimensional construct and its implications on consumer experience is lacking (Palan, 2001).
In an extensive literature review Palan (2001) discussed all the relevant gender identity studies in consumer behavior up until then. The author points out that studies on gender identity in consumer behavior lack consistency in how gender identity has been measured.
She even elaborated on that by stating that gender identity is misunderstood and measured the wrong way in consumer behavior research. Gender identity scales within consumer behavior research measured gendered personality traits. In her opinion, this led to the finding that gender identity often did not have significant impact on consumer behavior but rather biological sex. However, in an extensive study Neale et al. (2016) show that gender identity is a more effective dimension for customer segmentation than biological sex. In their research they contradict Palan’s (2001) conclusions, as they used measurement scales that Palan deemed inaccurate. Also, Feiereisen et al. (2009) have similar findings using the same scale. This contradiction in findings show that there is little consensus on the predictive ability of gender identity.
In conclusion, despite the best efforts of scholars to study gender identity in consumer behavior, they have yet to find a way to fully understand and measure the concept of gender identity. However, other fields have already progressed in confirming the existence of gender identity beyond the binary boundaries and have tried to grasp the complexity of gender identity. Consumer behavior is lagging behind on measuring gender identity as binary concept, let alone as a multidimensional concept. Thus, as Palan (2001) also pleads, new insights and a richer understanding of how gender identity affects consumer behavior have to be discovered still.
Gender identity studies
Researchers have attempted to test the predictive ability of gender identity. In the following section these studies will be examined in more detail. Four papers will be discussed that were deemed most relevant for this study. First, Feiereisen et al. (2009) examined the reactions of women to advertisement, in which the gender identity of the ad varied in their degree of
masculinity and femininity (e.g. low/high, high/low, high/high, low/low). The reactions were measured in terms of attitudes towards the ad and purchase intention. Moreover, the
researchers discerned masculine and feminine women among their participants. However, their point of interest was to examine the predictive ability of congruency theory rather than examining gender identity. Their results show that gender identity is a predictor of reactions to ads. Moreover, this effect can indeed be explained by congruency theory. The researchers find that congruency positively affects the attitude towards the ad and purchase intention.
A similar study and one of the early studies on gender identity beyond its binary form was conducted by Jaffe (1990). The author examined the reactions of two hundred women to advertisements. These advertisements differed in their positioning (e.g. modern vs. traditional female role portrayals). Reactions were measured in terms of purchase intentions and
information interest. Additionally, they measured masculinity and femininity using the Bem Sex-Role Inventory. They found that gender identity (called sex-role identity in this study) is a good predictor of consumer behavior. More specifically, they found that masculinity was the most determining factor for the reaction to ads. The finding that masculine individuals show more resistance to gender bending was also found in other studies. Avery (2012)
studied the gender bending of brands (e.g. brands shifting their positioning from masculine to feminine or vice versa). She found that men resist the gender bending of masculine brands, with Porsche being the focal brand of the research. Moreover, Neale et al. (2016) found similar resistance to femininity in their studies, which will be elaborated upon in the next paragraph.
Neale et al. (2016) examine the influence of brand gender on loyalty and purchase intention. They do so among masculine, feminine and androgynous individuals. In their study they
manipulated the gender of the brands (e.g. feminine vs. masculine). Their results show that masculine consumers prefer masculine brands and reject feminine brands. In contrast with what they expected, feminine and androgynous consumers have more acceptance for brands with incongruent gender identities. As explanation for their findings, they opt that the cultural stigma, that using certain brands affects consumers’ masculinity, has more impact on
masculine individuals and, thus, causes masculine individuals to reject feminine brands.
2.3 Gender identity and marketing practice
One of the lasts sections in this literature review is dedicated to explaining how gender identity affects marketing practice. Moreover, the gap will become more evident. As the aim of this study is to explore the changes in the gender spectrum within the field of marketing, it would make sense to explore the effects of gender identity from a marketing practice
perspective. Particularly, to speculate on the effects of changes in gender identity based on marketing or consumer behavior theories. If gender is truly becoming more fluid as
sociologist and psychiatrists claim, this influences the playfield of marketing and the context in which marketing practitioners operate (Peter & Olsen, 2001). As brands are increasingly taking a stance on these matters, like Cover Girl and Levi’s, it is interesting to examine what effect these actions have on consumers. More specifically, how does this affect the
consumer’s perception of brands?
Brand image and gender
Consumer’s perceptions about a brand, manifested in brand associations, are defined as brand image by Keller (1993). A brand is “a name, term, sign, symbol, or design or combination of them which is intended to identify the goods and services of one seller or group of sellers and to differentiate them from those of competitors”. The way consumers perceive a brand, or the
brand image, is constructed of associations with a brand. These associations are based on attributes (non-product related and product related), benefits (functional, experiential and symbolic) and attitudes towards the brand, see figure 2.1. If these associations are strong, favorable and differentiating the reactions to marketing communication is more positive.
Figure 2.1 Brand knowledge adapted from Keller (1993)
As aforementioned, Neale et al. (2016) assumed that one characteristic a brand has is gender. They state that brands can be perceived as masculine or feminine. In their study they find that the gender of the brand contributes to the reactions of consumers to advertisements. Their results show that masculine brands in general elicit more positive reactions, these reactions are dependent on the gender identity of the consumer as aforementioned. However, in their study only purchase intention and loyalty were measured as indicators of consumer behavior.
Furthermore, the researchers measured loyalty and purchase intention as indicators of consumer behavior. Loyalty and purchase intention are regarded as behavioral reactions to
stimuli or marketing communication (Peter & Olsen, 2001). Despite the frequent use of these behavioral measures, several scholars indicated that behavioral components are preceded by attitudinal components. For example, in the theory of planned behavior Armitage and Christian (2003) argue that attitudes, subjective norms and the perceived behavior control influence behavioral intention and eventually behavior. Thus, the authors argue that consumers go through different stages before actually showing overt behaviors. Similarly, Spears and Singh (2004) conducted a study to develop a set psychometric measures of attitude toward the brand and purchase intention. In doing so, they found that attitude toward the ad influences attitude towards the brand, which subsequently influenced purchase
intention.
Thus, to measure consumer perception of brands, or brand image, both the attitude towards the ad and the brand will be measured in this study. Contrary to most of the aforementioned studies, the stage of evaluation and attitudes formation will be studied more closely. This might shed a light on the contradiction found between the results of Palan (2001) and Neale et al. (2016).
Congruency theory
As several scholars already opted, an explanation of why gender identity elicits different evaluations and attitude might be found in congruence theory. This theory is based on the argument that a cognitive match between a stimulus and the consumer’s self-concept should generate more positive attitudes than incongruent portrayals (Orth & Holancova, 2004). This congruence is based on a specific trait that identifies the consumer with a certain in-group. These groups, according to Howard (2000), formed in addition to the self-schemas, are social groups with which individuals identify themselves with (Ashforth & Mael, 1989). In this
particular case the groups would be non-binary, feminine and masculine individuals. However, the concept of congruency examined in relation to gender is new in the field of consumer behavior.
Moreover, the theory states that consumers use brands and products to express their identity, which influences brand preference to consumer loyalty (Park & Lee, 2005). As
aforementioned, brands hold functional, experiential and symbolic meanings in consumers’ mind (Keller, 1993). These symbolic meanings of products and brands function as symbols that contribute to the identity of the owner (Hosany & Martin, 2011). Consumers select and purchase brands that fit and reinforce their identity, rather than buying something opposed to his or her own identity. They also tend to evaluate these products and brands more positively (Sirgy, 1982).
2.4 The gap
To summarize the literature review, gender identity in this particular study could be best understood as the extent to which an individual identifies or does not identify with being either male or female or both male and female. This construct is driven by several social and psychological processes and should not be confused with the concepts “gender” nor “sex”. According to Palan (2001) the concept of gender identity is often misunderstood in consumer behavior research. Despite the extensive researches in other disciplines, in which the
multidimensionality of gender identity has been recognized, the richness of gender identity as a concept has often been underestimated and measured with the wrong instruments and scales in consumer behavior research. This lead to the general belief that biological sex has a larger predictive ability than gender identity does.
However, Neale et al. (2016) and Feieresen et al. (2009) found the opposite, as they found that gender identity indeed has predictive abilities. In which masculine gender identity was the driver of reactions to advertising. This gap and contradiction shows that there is still room to clarify and specify the effects of gender identity on consumer behavior. By expanding the concept of gender identity beyond its binary constraints, more variation will be added to the concept. This variation provides practitioners and researchers have richer data to draw upon. By conducting an online experiment and interviews simultaneously, the richness of gender identity will be examined.
3. Conceptual model and hypotheses
In the following section the conceptual model will be discussed and the hypotheses will be formulated. The conceptual model studied in this study is depicted in figure 3.1.
Figure 3.1 conceptual model
Hypotheses
As Neale et al. (2009) found, masculine brands seem to elicit most favorable reactions. Thus, it is expected that the ad that displays a masculine gender identity will elicit more favorable attitudes toward the ad than feminine ads do.
H1b: Feminine (vs. masculine) advertisements lead to more negative attitudes toward the ad
As there is is little known about non-gendered ads the hypothesis is build on pure speculation and deductive reasoning. Non-gendered ads are expected to elicit more negative reactions than feminine ads, because non-gendered ads include masculine individuals as in-group as well. If the cultural stigma is truly driving the resistance against feminine brands, the non-gendered ads might be perceived as even more harmful for masculinity as masculine individuals are targeted similarly as feminine individuals. Moreover, there would be no articulated gender, which also means there is no recognition of their masculinity.
H1c: Non-gendered (vs. feminine and masculine) advertisements lead more negative attitudes toward the ad.
As Feiereisen et al. (2009) found. Congruity positively influenced the reactions to ads. Thus, it is expected that high congruity will positively influence the relationship between displayed gender identity and ad attitude. Whereas, low congruity will negatively influence the
relationship between displayed gender identity and ad attitude. Specifically, it can be expected that an individual would elicit more favorable associations and evaluations when showed a brand congruent with their own identity. This would mean that non-binary individuals would elicit more favorable attitudes towards brand with a non-binary gender identity. Similarly, individuals that are either masculine or feminine would prefer gender identities that are congruent with their own. On the other hand, incongruent ads would lead individuals to evaluate the brand more negatively. Which means that individuals who identify as non-binary would evaluate ads with either feminine or masculine portrayals more
more negatively as do feminine individuals evaluate masculine and non-gendered portrayals more negatively.
H2a: High (vs. low) congruity the relationship between the displayed gender and attitude towards the ad positively.
H2b: Low (vs. high) congruity influences the relationship between the displayed gender and attitude towards the ad negatively.
The theory of planned behavior describes attitudes as preceding factors for behaviors (Armitage & Christensen, 2003). Moreover, Spears and Singh (2004) state that attitudes towards the ad influence and precede attitudes towards the brand positively. Thus, it is expected that attitude towards the ad influences attitude towards the brand.
H3: Attitude towards the ad positively affects attitude towards the brand.
4. Method
The goal of this study was to investigate whether and how non-binary gender identity influences the attitude toward an ad and the attitude toward. Also the role of congruence between the displayed gender and gender identity of consumers in this relationship was explored. To examine this relationship an experimental approach was taken, resulting in a 2(gender: binary, binary) x 3(advertisement gender: feminine, masculine and non-gendered) between-subjects design. Also, to explore the matter in-depth and to add theoretical rigor, semi-interviews were conducted. These interviews, thus, add to the theoretical generalization of the findings.
4.1 Online questionnaire Sample
A convenience sample was taken due to the short amount of time and the lack of resources to create a sample that represented the whole population. Even though a convenience sample has a low external validity it gives researchers the opportunity to recruit a large amount of participants in a short amount of time (Bryman, 2008).
The original sample counted more participants (N= 181) than the amount of participants (N= 158) in the sample used for analysis. This was the result of several missing values in the questionnaires, which led to withdrawal from the sample. Participants (Mage= 25.50, SD= 6.76) were recruited using the social medium Facebook, due to a lack of available mailing lists and financial resources recruit otherwise. The questionnaire was distributed using Facebook profile and posted in two Facebook groups. The first being a secret group called ON”, which is a group for “more Edge, Crazy, Open Minded nights with a Naughty
atmosphere in Amsterdam nightlife”. This group was chosen because the group would be the best chance to find open minded participants who would identify themselves as non-binary. The second group was an online group to gather participants. Participation was voluntarily without any rewards. Furthermore, all the participants were assigned to their conditions randomly to increase external validity.
Table 4.1 Descriptive statistics of sample Displayed gender n Age M SD Masculine 71 (44%) 23.86 4.214 Feminine 39 (24%) 26.65 7.560 Non-gendered 48 (30%) 23.36 9.060
Independent measures Gender identity
Gender identity was measured using the shortened version of the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) (Hormiga & Pérez-Quintana, 2015; Neate et al., 2016; Scherzer et al., 2007). This scale existed of twenty items participants were to rate themselves on (e.g. rate to what extent these items describe you as a person). The measurements were on a 7-point Likert scales (e.g. Not at all accurately/extremely accurately). An overview of the items and can be found in table 1. These 20 items constituted to a reliable scale for both masculinity (ɑ = .87) and femininity (ɑ = .86). Moreover, an item was included in the final part of the questionnaire that required participants to indicate their gender (e.g. male, female, other). This was to get an indication of how respondents identified themselves.
Table 4.2 BSRI items
Variable BSRI item
MASC1 Have leadership abilities
MASC2 Dominant
MASC3 A strong personality MASC4 Act like a leader
MASC5 Aggressive
MASC6 Competitive
MASC7 Willing to take a stand
MASC8 Forceful MASC9 Ambitious MASC10 Assertive FEM1 Tender FEM2 Sensitive FEM3 Warm FEM4 Sympathetic FEM5 Understanding
FEM6 Sensitive to others’ need
FEM7 Loyal
FEM9 Compassionate FEM10 Affectionate
Gender identity was determined using a median split, following Hormiga & Pérez-Quintana (2015) and Neale et al. (2016). Individuals were considered non-binary when both their scores were higher or lower than the average of the masculinity (Mdnmasc= 5.30) and femininity (Mdnfem = 4.40). Individuals were considered binary if their scores on masculinity were higher than average and their femininity were lower than the average or the other way around.
The median split was chosen, because of the clear distinction it could make between binary and non- binary individuals. A continuous scale was also considered (e.g. 0 being masculine and 100 being feminine). However, there was little theoretical evidence to justify the decision to do so. Even so, it would decrease internal validity. Remember, non-binary gender identity was described as the extent to which individuals identified as both male and female, neither male and female or either. If gender identity was measured on a continuous scale, there would be no room for individuals that would identify as neither or both male and female. Moreover, it was expected that individuals would opt non-binary when they were asked about their gender. However, this was not the case, all respondents self-identified as either male or female (27% male, 73% female).
Table 4.2 Descriptive statistics of gender identity n Age M SD Binary 97 (61%) 23.86 4.172 Non-binary 61 (39%) 28.81 10.311
The advertised product, and thus product category, had to have enough stretch to be perceived as masculine, feminine and non-gendered. As fashion is often regarded as a means to express oneself, it is within this product category that a product is sought. (Hosany & Martin, 2011) Within fashion, denim appeared to be an interesting product category as it has both a functional and expressive function for consumers (Rahman, Jiang & Liu, 2010). Despite these functions being different across countries, it surves self-expression and personal enhancement in Western cultures. More specifically, Miller states that purchasing denim comes with a certain care-free feeling. This is why denim is chosen as a product. Furthermore, Levi’s was chosen as focal brand, as they produce jeans for both men and women. They even started to produce unisex garments in early 2017 (Sawyer, 2015).
Advertisement gender
The gender displayed in the advertisement was manipulated, which resulted in three
advertisements: feminine, masculine and non-gendered advertisements. These ads were based on real advertisements for the brand Levi’s, which advertised their unisex jeans, as can be seen in figure 4.1. The ads were pre-tested in a within-subject test (N=20, Mage= 23.80, SD= 5.95).
1. 2.
A repeated measures ANOVA with a Greenhouse-Geisser correction determined that mean masculinity differed significantly across three pictures (F(1.685, 30.334)= 16.022, p=.000), with masculinity being highest for the first ad (M=5.54, SD=1.02). Femininity also differed significantly across all three ads (F(1.902, 34.236)= 12.040, p=.000), with femininity being highest for picture 2 (M=4.74, SD= 1.49). Non-gendered (M= 5.68, SD=1.60) had the same results for the third picture (F(2.268, 40.829) = 13.028, p=.000). This shows the
manipulations were successful. In the online questionnaire a manipulation check was added, to correct any biases.
Table 4.2 Repeated measures ANOVA
Picture M SD df Mean square F Sig Masculine 5.54 1.02 Greenhouse Geisser 2.268 26.794 13.028 .000 Feminine 4.74 1.49 Non-gendered 5.68 1.60 Dependent measures
The dependent variable brand attitude (Abrand) was measured using four items measured on 7-point scales, following Spears and Singh (2004). Participants had to rate five statements regarding to how they perceived the advertised brand e.g. (unappealing/appealing, unlikeable/likable, bad/good, negative/positive and unattractive/ attractive). The items formed a reliable scale (ɑ = .96)
The second variable ad attitude (Aad) was measured using four items measured on 7-point scales, following Robideaux (2013). Again participants had to rate eight statements regarding to how they perceived the advertised product (e.g. bad/good, dislike/like,
irritating/nonirritating, unfavorable/favorable, unpleasant/pleasant, awful/nice, insensitive/sensitive, tasteless/tasteful). Once more, the items formed a reliable scale (ɑ = .91)
Procedure
The experiment was conducted using an online questionnaire using Qualtrics, a computer aided software for online surveys. The questionnaire started with a brief statement about the research topic and ensured the anonymity of the participants. Hereafter, the participants were to fill in the BSRI. Then the stimulus was shown. Followed by the measurement of the dependent variables (e.g. brand attitude, ad attitude). The last items concerned the demographics of the participant (e.g. nationality, age and education level). The last item included an option for participants to write whether or not they had final remarks on the survey or research.
An online survey was chosen because its efficiency and ease of use. It can reach a lot of people with little costs. Also this way participants could fill out the questionnaire in their natural environment. This was beneficial for the generalizability of the findings, as there was no lab setting to influence their behavior (Wright, 2005).
4.2. In-depth interviews Sample
Due to time constraints the number of interviews were limited (N=6). Interviewees were recruited via the same social media group in the same post that recruited the online
respondents. The interviewees were all English speaking, some of them native, and identified themselves as queer (N=1), gender fluid (N=4) and transgender (N=1). They were aged between 21-28. Furthermore, the interviewees were assured their anonymity. Thus, an overview of the interviewees can be found in the appendix.
Procedure
The interviews were conducted simultaneously whilst collecting data for the online
questionnaire. The choice for doing so was made because of the limited amount of time given to write this thesis. Six semi-structured interviews covered two main topics: gender identity and consumerism. The first questions were about gender identity as a non-binary construct (e.g. what does gender identity mean to you?), the last questions were about gender identity and advertising (e.g. how do you feel about gender in advertising/branding nowadays?). The structure of the interview allowed for a division in two main themes: gender identity and brand image. The full interview guide can be found in the appendix.
Analysis strategy
The transcribed in-depth interviews with people who self-identified themselves as having a non-binary gender identity were first analyzed by open coding. When coding the data an inductive method was followed. The transcripts were read using close reading (Flick, 2009) and notes were taken to facilitate the following process of coding. After repeating this for each interview, codes were assigned to relevant sub-topics within the two main topics of consumerism and gender identity. These codes would usually be assigned to a few lines or words. This was done in a computer-aided program Atlas.ti. After coding the transcripts, the codes were categorized and counted. Also, the link and patterns were determined. This data was then used to design the experiment that followed these qualitative interviews. Although, it would be better to gather more data and decide to stop coding when saturation was reached, time constraints limited the process.
In the following paragraphs the results of the online experiment will be discussed first. Followed by a report of the in-depth interviews.
5.1. Hypothesis testing Hypothesis 1
To test whether the displayed gender had an effect on Aad, a one-way ANOVA was conducted. In this ANOVA it was tested whether there was a significant effect of the manipulation itself. The ANOVA showed that the manipulation had a significant effect on Aad (F(2,97) = 5.67, p=.005). Furthermore, a post hoc Bonferroni shows that there is no significant difference between the effect of the feminine (M=4.18, SD=.85) and masculine ad (M=4.21, SD=1.03). This rejects hypotheses 1a and 1b. Rather, the differences are between the feminine and masculine vs. gendered ads (M=4.95, SD=.98). This indicates that non-gendered ads lead to more favorable attitudes towards the ad than the masculine and feminine ad did. Thus, none of the hypotheses are supported, meaning that H1a, H1b and H1c were not supported.
Table 5.1 ANOVA Portrayed gender x Aad Mean
Masculine Feminine Non-gendered F df p Portrayed gender 4.21 (1.03) 4.18 (.85) 4.95 (.98) 5.520 2 .005 Hypothesis 2
A two-way ANOVA was conducted to test whether there was an interaction effect between the gender displayed in the ad and gender identity on Aad. This showed that the results were not significant for Aad (F(2,.29)=.14, p =.86). This rejects the second hypothesis (e.g.
congruity affects the relationship between displayed gender and attitude towards the advertisement), congruity does not affect the reaction to ads.
Table 5.2 Two-way ANOVA portrayed gender x gender identity x Aad
Df Df error F df p η2 Potrayed gender x Gender identity 6.000 6.00 .970 2 .514 .492 Hypothesis 3
To test whether Aad affects Abrand a mediation analysis was conducted. The results show that Aad is a significant predictor of Abrand (b=-.2093, t=-1.589, p=.001). Thus, partially
supporting H3. To ensure the independent variables only affect Aad and thus indicate a full mediation, the above mentioned tests were also conducted using Abrand as dependent variable. No significant relationship between displayed gender and Abrand was found (F(2,97) = .316, p=.73), neither was an interaction effect found (F(2,1.149)= .77, p= 47).
Table 5.3 Mediation analysis
b t p R2 F Df1 Df2
Aad x Abrand
-.2093 -1.589 .001 .193 11.687 2.000 98.000
Confounding variables
To ensure the effects were ascribed to gender identity or the manipulation the correlation between Abrand and Aad vs. age, nationality, employment status, and education level were measured using the Pearson-correlation test. No significant results were found.
As aforementioned qualitative and quantitative data were gathered simultaneously. The findings of the in-depth interviews are reported in the following sections. First the most salient topics on gender identity will be discussed, followed by a report of the findings on how consumers perceives brands. An overview of the codes and exemplary quotes regarding gender identity and branding are provided in table 5.2.
Table 5.2. Gender identity and branding Gender
identity/branding
Description Exemplary quotations Gender identity
For oneself Development of gender identity is perceived as part of the self. Moreover, gender identity is considered an important part of identity.
“Well, for me [the development] was something personal. It is a huge part of me. Although, it does not define me.” Perceived by (close) others The development of gender identity is heavily influenced by opinions of people close to individual.
“My mum was the best. She defended me like a mother lion.”
In society The development and acceptance of the self and gender identity are influenced by society (e.g. strangers on the street).
“ the rigidness that is deeply rooted in society, still, is what made it easier for me to, you know, go against it.”
Branding
Consumerism Branding is perceived as something negative that is focused on consumerism.
“branding and all that, is still promoting consumerism. It is making us buy things.”
Debate Branding is perceived to be controversial at times and thus sparks conversation.
“if [branding] is what it is to keep the conversation going, you know, that’s a means to an end.”
Gender identity
The first topic discussed in the in-depth interviews was gender identity. The questions regarded how interviewees perceived their gender identity, what it meant to them and how they experienced the development of their gender identity. Gender identity had three
important sub-categories: gender-identity for oneself and gender-identity perceived by others and gender identity in society. Most of the interviewees reckoned that how others and society perceived them was different from how they felt about themselves. Moreover, they felt that the norms set by society were still based on a binary gender identity, which influenced how strangers reacted to them.
Gender identity for oneself
The interviewees viewed gender identity as a part of themselves. However, it was not something defining. Gender identity was something natural, that developed over the years. For those whose development started early in their childhood, they noticed that they were different as they played with other toys, did different sports ( “I went to a high school for dancers, all the boys in my class played soccer and attended a normal high school” int3) or liked to dress differently (“It [was] fun to play around. Who says I can’t wear heels?” int1). This process was usually mentioned in combination with the characteristics of “rebellion” (int2,3,6) and “curiosity” (all).
On the contrary, few of the interviewees started exploring their gender identity in their late teens or early twenties. Those individuals were influenced by their peers, as they usually found likeminded people as they moved out their home town (“Back home everyone has children and is married now. I’m not like that and I learned that as I moved away from that place.” int5). This does not mean that the individuals did not feel like they were different
when they were younger. However, their moving allowed them to experiment with their identity in their new surroundings (“Nobody knew who I was.” int4).
Most of the interviewees had difficulties coming to terms with their identity, but mentioned that living in Amsterdam had helped them accepting themselves. They also mentioned that they would deem it difficult to go through the same experience elsewhere. However, the important thing was that they felt safe to express who they are and that they were proud of who they are.
Gender identity perceived by (close) others
Unlike the ease they individuals feel with being themselves, albeit they had to struggle to get where they are, some of their close surroundings (e.g. friends and family) reacted differently to the expression of their gender identity. For some, family was very accepting, which made it easier to accept their gender identity (“My mum was the best. She defended me like a mother lion.” int1). For others, their resistant family members affected their development negatively (“Every family dinner was so awkward, it made me feel so bad for my parents.” int5). Among these individuals, a few saw the judgments of their family as an
encouragement, to prove them wrong (“It made it easier to go against it” int2).
When it came to friends, the stories were different. In early childhood most of the
interviewees played with kids the opposite sex or alone. Moving on to high school, “things got even more complicated” (int4), as some of them got bullied for either their sexual preference or their appearance. One of the interviewees (int3) attended private high schools for arts, which were more accepting. As the individuals look at their surroundings now, they seem to have found like minded people as friends.
Those who have a difficult family relationship rely heavily on their friends for understanding and “a shoulder to cry on” (int5). The interviewees mention that they have a sense of
community and belongingness. This because of the openness of their group of friends and like minded figures in their surroundings. Not only to feel accepted and safe, but also their friends strengthen them to face difficulties or strange looks on the street.
Gender identity in society
As might have become evident gender identity is more than an identity relevant for the self, the development and acceptance is also very dependent on the influence of others as well. All interviewees mentioned that they still struggle with how society looks at them. Society refers to people individuals encounter on a day-to-day basis outside of their inner circle. The
interviewees mention that doing day-to-day things can be very difficult because of “the looks [they] get and the things [they] hear from strangers on the street” (int3). Thus, this makes them “feel unsafe and unaccepted from time to time” (int4).
Moreover, the interviewees see the trend of surpassing dichotomous gender norms. However, they feel like “society is not quite there yet” (int2). The norms set by society a while a go (e.g. the binary norm) is still upholding. Even though people have become more accepting, they feel like the social norm has yet to change.
Branding
In discussing brand image and advertising, the interviewees mentioned two different topics: consumerism and the debate advertising and brands spark. The first questions regarded how the interviewees felt about the advertising and branding. The following regarded how they
felt about advertising and how they were represented in ads and how that affects them. In general, advertising is met with skepticism, but at the same time the interviewees yield positive attitudes towards the conversations sparked by the controversy of some ads.
Consumerism
Interviewees were sceptic towards advertising, as they mostly saw it as a way to promote consumerism. With that they meant that advertising and branding is a means “to get people to consume more unneeded products” (int3). Others formulated it as being “shallow” (int4) and “superficial” (int1). They mostly saw advertising and branding that lead to something
negative. The interviewees deemed branding and advertising necessary by products of today’s consumption behavior but were not necessarily positive towards the developments therein (“Too bad consumerism has to be a by-product” int2).
Debate
However, they were happy about the fact that advertising or brands could now take a stance in a conversation about important matters. As they saw brands “taking a stance against Trump” (int2), they reckoned that brands were “trying to speak out” (int2). Even so, few of the interviewees also mentioned examples of brands exceeding the binary: “Louis Vouitton that put Jayden Smith in a skirt” (int3) and “H&M with its gender neutral clothing line” (int3). Still, the majority of them are sceptic towards the motives and the sincerity of the brands. Most of them put their skepticism aside and welcomed the debate some ads started if advertising is what it takes to get the debate going, so be it.” (int3).
When asked what the ideal situation would be like for the interviewees, they answered that they would like to “feel normal” (all). Even though the advertising sparks conversation,
which hopefully leads to more acceptance from society, the conversations should eventually be about the advertised products. “It would be nice if the conversation was about the product, instead of who is promoting it” (int3).
Conclusion
To summarize the findings, the quantitative data shows that there is no significant interaction effect between gender identity and the gender portrayed in the ad. However, the gender portrayed in the ad had a significant effect on attitude towards the ad, which in turn affected the attitude towards the brand.
Furthermore, through in-depth interviews it became evident that consumers who identify as non-binary struggle with acceptance. The individuals struggle with the acceptance in their day-to-day encounters most. They regard to advertising as a by product of today’s
consumerism, but yield positive attitudes towards the conversation these ads spark.
6. Discussion
In the following section the results of both the online experiment and the in-depth interviews will be discussed. These results will be compared and integrated.
6.1. Results
As the results of the online experiment indicate, the only significant effect is that of gender displayed in ads on attitude towards the ad, which in turn affects attitude towards the brand. The non-gendered ad elicited more favorable evaluations of the ad than feminine or
masculine ads did. Furthermore, brand attitude was more positive if the attitude towards the ad was more positive and more negative when the attitude towards the ad was more negative.
Also, these effects did not differ between individuals that identified with non-binary or binary gender identities.
Thus, unlike the expectations, congruency theory did not predict the effect of displayed gender on attitude towards the brand. This is in contrast with what Feiereisen et al. (2009) found. Perhaps, individual characteristics are better determinants for congruency than gender identity as the interviewees mentioned. The non-binary individuals described themselves as curious and rebellious, these might be interesting characteristics to further explore in relation to gender identity and advertising. This is supported by their desire to be treated as regular consumers rather than a minority.
The results also show that gender matters in advertising. However, it does not matter in the way that was hypothesized. Displayed gender, rather than gender identity affected the evaluations of the ad. The insights from the in-depth interviews add to these findings. The interviewees mentioned that the controversy and displayed people were more the topic of discussion, rather than the advertised product. If displayed gender has the influence on the evaluations of the ad, it might be because of the interest and the discussion the interviewees mentioned.
Furthermore, the finding that non-gendered ads lead to more positive attitudes might imply that the tolerance for, or even liking of, non-gendered ads is starting to increase. Perhaps, this shift is the result of the ongoing debate on gender identity or it might be that people are starting to be more accepting. However, individuals that identify as non-binary do not feel like acceptance has become the social norm yet.
Individuals, who identified themselves as non-binary, were less interested in the movement in which brands take a stance in these issues. They met advertising and brands with skepticism. However, they valued the discussion this movement started. Moreover, they wish the
normalization of the non-binary and a change in social norms. Even if advertising or
branding, which they regard as a negative byproduct of today’s consumerism, are the means to reach these goals.
To conclude and answer the research question, consumer experience is different for consumers who identify as non-binary. Gender identity does not influence the relationship between the portrayed gender and attitude towards the ad. However, consumers that identify as non-binary feel like they are not accepted. Acceptance is a big theme in gender identity. Individuals who identify as non-binary value acceptance more than they are skeptic towards ads.
6.2. Limitations
The participants in this study were relatively young of age. This can affect the external validity of these findings. The time in which the respondents grew up in, was different from that of older generations. Gender is more discussable and the strict social norms are
beginning to get shaky. Thus, if this research were to be replicated amongst older consumers, the results might be different. Older consumers might have a different attitude towards non-binary gender identities or feel differently about the expression of gender identity. On the contrary, a younger sample might lead to other biases, as they are still exploring their own identity.
Furthermore, the construct of gender identity as a median split is a convenient way to
manipulate data. However, it restricts the richness of the data by creating artificial boundaries that are based on an estimation.
Moreover, by using a median split the internal validity decreases. This decrease is even more evident when the item of self-identified gender identity is compared with the used construct of gender identity. In this item none of the participants indicated to identify with anything other than male or female.
Also, using Levi’s as focal brand might have its perils. Generally, non-existing brands are used to measure brand image. Or if an existing brand is used to measure brand image, it is a repeated measure. This, to avoid any pre-existing biases toward the brand. However, in this research none of the aforementioned precautions were taken.
In this research brand image was measured through a simplified scale of attitudes toward the brand and the attitude towards the ad. An extensive measurement of brand image as a larger construct would have increased internal validity. Moreover, it would have allowed for richer data to draw upon when speculating on the causal effects.
A mixed method approach was taken to ensure the validity of the results and robustness of the findings. However, the time limit restrained the richness of the in-depth interviews. The data could have been richer, by aiming for theoretical saturation. Moreover, ideally, the in-depth interviews would have preceded the online experiment. This to explore the field of research in an deductive way and testing the hypothesis inductively.
6.3. Implications
As indicated before, brands are increasingly taking a stance in the gender debate. However, little research has been done on this phenomenon. More importantly, little is known about how non-binary react to these outlets and what their consumer experience in general is like. The results of this study indicate that the controversy on gender and gender identity is needed to spark conversation about gender. Individuals that identify as non-binary do not have problems with being a consumer or feel like they are limited in their product choice. Despite the satisfaction, they feel like the gender issue more an issue regarding social norms
Even though non-binary individuals question the sincerity and motives of brands, they hold positive attitudes towards the debate that brands spark. Thus, for practitioners should focus on communicating genuine and altruistic motives, rather than self-centered and consumerism promoting motives. This might affect brand image even more than mere advertising,
campaigns and product lines.
Moreover, non-binary individuals wish to be treated as any other consumer. Meaning that they care less about being catered to, but rather value acceptance and not being the exception. Thus, brands and marketing practitioners would benefit from framing gender neutral as a social norm rather than a special feature.
6.4. Future research
As indicated, the internal validity of the gender identity measures is questionable. Future research should aim to develop an elaborate measurement that includes measuring non-binary gender identity. In doing so, this might lead to more valuable insights than this study
Furthermore, the in-depth interviews showed that non-binary individuals are suspicious and skeptical towards the motives of brands. This is an interesting finding that could be further explored. If brands would be perceived as sincere and altruistic, would non-binary
individuals be less reluctant to embrace brands?
7. Conclusion
The aim of this research was to explore the consumer experience of individuals with a non-binary gender identity. To quantify this issue, the reaction to gendered advertising was measured, resulting in the question: whether and how does non-binary gender identification of consumers influence the attitude towards the brand and advertisement and, if so, to what extent is this relationship influenced by congruency?
As the results indicate, non-gendered advertising affects the attitude towards the ad most positively, regardless of the consumers’ gender. This confirms that there is a movement that moves beyond the binary boundaries society set for gender. However, the in-depth interviews show that non-binary individuals do not feel that the social norm has changed enough.
These insights contribute to the existing literature in several ways. First, non-binary is considered an option for gender identity. Whereas previous research mostly focused on feminine/female vs. masculine/male and very few added androgynous, there is now a third option that can be added. The first attempts of measuring non-binary gender identity is made. However, there is still room for improvement in the measurements. Secondly, the first steps in exploring non-binary individuals as consumers are made in a qualitative study. Yet, there is a lot of ground still to be covered.
In practice, this means that brands have to prove they care. As non-binary consumers are skeptical, brands still have to show that they have sincere and altruistic motives to take a stance in this debate. Also, if brands can contribute to the change in social norm and fueling the debate on gender, it would benefit them.
8. References
Ashforth, B. E., & Mael. F. (1989). Social identity theory and the organization. The Academy of Management Review, 14(1), pp. 20-39
Avery, J. (2012). Defending the markers of masculinity: Consumer resistance to brand gender-bending. Intern. J. of Research in Marketing 29, pp. 322–336
Balaji, M. S., Roy, S. K., & Sadeque, S. (2016). Antecedents and consequences of university brand identification. Journal of Business Research, 69, pp. 3023 – 3032
Bem, S. L. (1981). Gender schema theory: A cognitive account of sex typing. Psychological Review, 88, 354–364. doi:10.1037/0033- 295X.88.4.354.
Bryman, A. (2008). Social research methods. New York: Oxford University Press.
Butler, J. (1990). Gender trouble.
Chodorow, N. J. (1995). Gender as a Personal and Cultural Construction. Signs, 20(3), pp. 516-544
Deaux, K. (1985). Sex and Gender. Annual Review Psychology, 36, pp. 49-81
Feldman, J. (2016, October 11). Meet The First Ever Male CoverGirl, James Charles. Retrieved from:
http://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/cover-girl-boy-james-charles_us_57fbf36ee4b0b6a43034bd60
Gentry, J. W., & Haley, D. A. (1984). Gender schema theory as a predictor of recall. Advances in consumer research,11, pp. 259-264
Gonzales, E. (2017, March 10). H&M is launching a unisex collection. Retrieved from: http://www.harpersbazaar.com/fashion/trends/news/a21268/hm-unisex-collection/
Feiereisen, S., Broderick, A. J., & Douglas, S. P. (2009). The Effect and Moderation of Gender Identity Congruity: Utilizing “Real Women” Advertising Images.Psychology & Marketing, Vol. 26(9): 813–843
Flick, U. (2009). An introduction to qualitative research fourth edition.
Genderneutrale toiletten in stadhuis Amsterdam. (2017, February 9). Retrieved from:
Hines, M., Brook, C., & Conway, G. S. (2004). Androgen and Psychosexual Development: Core Gender Identity, Sexual Orientation, and Recalled Childhood Gender Role Behavior in Women and Men with Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH). The Journal of Sex Research, 41(1), pp. 75-81
Hormiga, E., & Pérez-Quintana A. (2015). The role of androgynous gender stereotypes in entrepreneurship. UB business working paper.
Howard, J. A. (2000). Social psychology of identities. Annual Review Sociology, 26, pp. 267 – 393
Jaffe. L. J. (1994). The Unique Predictive Ability of Sex-Role Identity in Explaining Women's Response to Advertising. Psychology and Marketing, 11(5); pp. 468 482
Kacen, J. J. (2000). Girrrl power and boyyy nature: the past, present, and paradisal future of consumer gender identity. Marketing Intelligence & Planning, Vol. 18 Iss 6/7 pp. 345 - 355
Neale, L., Robbie. R., & Martin, B. (2016). Gender identity and brand incongruence: when in doubt, pursue masculinity. Journal of Strategic Marketing, 24:5, pp. 347-359, DOI:
10.1080/0965254X.2015.1011203
Messerschmidt, J. M. (2009). “Doing Gender” The Impact and Future of a Salient Sociological Topic. Gender and Society, 23(1), pp. 85-55
