The ‘Golden’ Athlete:
A Closer Look At The Dimensions Of Warmth And Competence Within
Athlete Endorsements
Graduate School of Communication
MSc Communication Science: Persuasive Communication
Master’s Thesis
Diederik Timmermans
10111727
Supervisor: M. Fransen
Abstract
This study aimed at investigating how brands could use the dimensions of warmth and competence of an athlete endorser for their best interest. More however, this study aimed at looking at the possibility to highlight or enhance dimension of warmth or competence to have an athlete endorser possess personality characteristics. Being perceived as both warm and competent can lead to admiration, which can be profitable for a brand. An experiment (N= 141) showed that trough moderation of image of an athlete endorser within an
advertisement on the effect of image of an athlete endorser on brand attitude and purchase intention, incongruence between the personality characteristics can lead to the golden quadrant. Ultimately the brand will be perceived both warm and competent.
Marketers frequently use celebrity and athlete endorsers for marketing purposes. This is because marketers hope that the positive associations that consumers may have about an endorser will transfer on to a brand or product. Endorsers have the potential to influence brand image, brand attitude and purchase intention (Silvera & Austad, 2004). Athletes differ from other celebrity endorser because performances on the pitch by an athlete next to lifestyle are dominant determinants of the success of an endorsement whereas with celebrity endorsers lifestyle is the main determinant of a successful endorsement (Arai, Ko & Ross, 2014). This gives athletes more variety in possibilities for endorsements. In that fashion two of the biggest sport stars in the world, Lionel Messi and Cristiano Ronaldo are employed to promote various brands and products. They are not just being employed by sport brands that sponsor them because of their obvious accomplishments in sport areas, like Adidas (Messi) and Nike (Ronaldo). Numerous non-sport brands use the marketing potential of the two super stars to endorse their products. Nike’s athlete Ronaldo is also the face of Italian fashion brand Armani. Lionel Messi is the main endorser for Lays chips. These are two examples of athletes endorsing various brands instead of only sport-brands.
Athletes, certainly the more famous ones, have already a strong established image among consumers. Based on that image, consumers already have certain feelings and knowledge towards and about athletes. This image is among other things based on personality factors (Arai, Ko & Ross, 2014). Personality traits can be categorised in two main dimensions of social interactions: Warmth and Competence. These two dimensions determine the way people perceive other people. The two dimensions give people an indication of the capability and intentions of other people. In short, this means: people who are perceived warmer are known to have good intentions to other people and people with high levels of competence are known to have more capability (Fiske et al., 2002). The same principle is also applicable to brands. Brands are evaluated and judged by consumers
on their levels of warmth and competence (Cuddy, Fiske & Glick, 2008). Previous studies showed that brands that are perceived warmer are being higher evaluated then brands with lower levels of warmth (Bernritter, Verlegh & Smit, 2016). An ideal scenario for a brand would be that both elements transfer from endorser on to the brand. This would make the brand symbolic and of high quality (Ivens et al., 2015). This can be reached when an athlete possesses both dimensions and transfers them on to the brand (Dwivedi et al., 2015). Whereas Lionel Messi is often perceived as a warm and competent person, Ronaldo is often perceived as just a competent person. When a brand or person is being perceived as both warm and competent, the brand or person is placed in the golden quadrant (Aaker, Garbinsky & Vohs, 2012; Zawisza et al., 2015).
Image and personality of endorsers is not a new theme within the endorsement literature. A previous study by (Mishra, Roy & Bailey, 2015) showed that in order for an endorsement to be successful, there must be some kind of perceived congruence between the personality of the endorser and the personality of the brand. Whereas this study showed the importance of personality factors of endorsers, it neglects providing options for brands to use the current image of an endorser for their best interests. This research aims to study if brands should highlight the existing image of an athlete endorser or try to tweak this image for the purpose of the brand. Influencing the perceived levels of warmth and competence of an athlete could be beneficial for a brand. It could be possible to reach the golden quadrant, the situation where a person or brand possesses both the elements of warmth and competence, by influencing the perceived warmth and/or competence of an athlete endorser. When both elements transfer from the athlete endorser on to the brand, the golden quadrant can be reached. This will lead to admiration towards the brand, which in the end will lead to beneficial outcomes in terms of brand image. Advertisements can be used to highlight or alter the image of an athlete endorser. By portraying an athlete in
advertisement in a way that enhances or decreases levels of warmth and competence, the overall evaluation of that athlete and the brand could possibly change.
It is interesting for managerial implications to see how the image of an athlete endorser can be used best for the interest of a brand in terms of brand image, brand attitude and purchase intention. This study could hand marketers with information on whether it is beneficial to enhance or highlight certain personality traits of an athlete endorser.
Further more this study expands the current literature on athlete endorsements by adding the concepts of warmth and competence. Whereas (Bernritter at al., 2015) already showed that brands that are perceived warmer score higher on various brand related outcome variables, this study aims to see if it is possible to affect the perceived levels of warmth and competence of a brand by influencing the image of an athlete, endorsing the brand. Consequently this leads to the following research question:
What is the effect of warmth and competence of an athlete endorser combined with warmth and competence of the athlete endorser highlighted in an advertisement on brand attitude, brand image and purchase intention?
The remainder of this paper is structured as follows:
In the next section relevant literature about warmth and competence are discussed. Accordingly previous research on celebrity endorsement and athlete endorsement in particularly will be discussed in that context. Hypothesis will be presented throughout the next section.
Theoretical framework
Personality: Warmth and Competence
People make judgements about other people based on two social dimensions: Warmth and competence (Fiske et al., 2002). These elements describe the intention
(warmth) and capability (competence) of a person. The different levels of warmth and competence people perceive, influences their judgement and consequently their attitude and behaviour (Fiske et al., 2002). Openness, kindness and loyalty etc., can make a person being perceived as warm, whereas elements of expertise and prestige can make a person being perceived as competent (Fiske et al.,). The dimensions of warmth and competence can be seen as a matrix. People with a high score on warmth but a low score on
competency can evoke a feeling of pity. Scoring high on competence but low on warmth can lead to envy among other people because of the effect of perceived arrogance
(Bernritter, 2016). However being perceived as a warm and competent person can lead to admiration among other people (Fiske et al., 2002; Shuart, 2007).
People have the tendency to judge brands, the same way as they judge other people. Just as with people brands’ personality can be divided in stereotypes of warmth and competence (Ivens et al., 2015). These two stereotypes influence the attitude and behavioural attention towards brands (Cuddy, Fiske & Glick, 2008; Ivens et al., 2015). The same matrix of warmth and competence applies for brands. In general, non-profit brands are perceived as more likeable warm brands in comparison with for-profit brands. However, brands that are perceived as being both warm and competent are positioned in the matrix in the golden quadrant. The golden quadrant describes a brand, as being highly symbolic. This symbolic nature of a brand has positive effects on brand related consumer intentions and attitudes (Aaker, Garbinsky & Vohs, 2012). Athletes in their manor are human brands on their own (Arai et al., 2014). Therefore are not just endorsing a brand, but are actually co-branding. Associations about the athlete can influence the brand with whom they are co-branding (Ambroise et al., 2014).
Personality characteristics of an endorser, such as warmth and competence, are important judgement measures for consumers (Roy & Moorthi, 2012). Athletes will
already have established a certain image in the mind of consumers based on knowledge or a feeling (Arai, Ko & Ross, 2014; Dwivedi et al., 2015). Therefore it is interesting to see for brands how they can use the current image of an athlete, based on perceived warmth and competence, for brand related goals as: affecting brand image, brand attitude and purchase intention.
Personality traits such as kindness and openness, which are elements of warmth (Fiske et al., 2002), are essential in athlete endorsements (Simmers et al., 2009; Choi & Riffon, 2012; Pokrywczynski, Brinker & David, 2012). Because of the sceptics against brands (Kervin, Fyske & Malone, 2012) people are most of the times more appealed to brands that extract high levels of warmth (Ivens et al., 2015). This leads to higher
behavioural intentions (Bernritter, Verlegh & Smit, 2016).Therefore it is expected people will have higher brand related intentions and attitudes towards an association between a warm athlete and a brand than between a competent athlete and a brand. This lead to the following hypothesis:
H1: Brand attitude (h1a), brand image (h1b) and purchase intention (h1c) will more positive with a warm perceived athlete endorser than a competent perceived athlete endorser
Endorsement literature overview
Athlete endorsement finds its origin within the field of celebrity endorsements. To understand athlete endorsements, there should be certain knowledge about the concept of celebrity endorsement. Celebrity endorsement is an often-used marketing technique by brands. Celebrity endorsements give brands the possibility to introduce a brand and/or change the image of a brand (Erdogan, 1999; Amos et al., 2008). The idea behind this phenomenon is that when a brand is associated with a well-known and liked celebrity,
these positive associations will rub of on to the brand (Erdogan, 1999). When a celebrity shows a positive feeling towards the endorsed brand and has an attractive lifestyle in the perception of consumers, the endorsement can be successful in terms of brand attitude and purchase intention (Erdogan, 1999; Silvera & Austad, 2004). An example is the
endorsement of George Clooney for Nespresso.
Athlete endorsement is the most used form of celebrity endorsement worldwide (Carlson & Donovan, 2013). Not least because athletes have the most potential to influence consumer decision processes (Dix, Phau & Pougnet, 2010). This potential stems from the fact that, they are more often perceived as role models compared to other celebrity
endorsers (Dix et al., 2010). In line with other celebrity endorsers, their behaviour in their personal lives determines the way the personality of athletes is perceived. However this perceived personality is influenced by the behaviour they show in their field of sports (Fink et al., 2009). Over the last decades numerous studies have been conducted on endorsements. Three major streams of theories and study’s are present in the endorsement literature. The next subsections will briefly describe these streams and discuss them in the context of warmth and competence.
Source credibility model. Several models and theories have been used to explain the use and success of endorsements. One of them is the source credibility model
(McGuire, 1985 as found in Mishra, Roy & Bradley, 2015). The source credibility model predicts the potential of an endorser based on three dimensions. The three dimensions in the model are: attractiveness, expertise and trustworthiness (Dix, Phau & Pougnet, 2010; Spry, Pappu & Cornwell, 2011). Attractiveness can be described as physical and personal attractiveness (Spry et al., 2011) An athlete can be an attractive endorser by having a warm personality, however the athlete can also portray levels of competence by displaying an imposing physique. Levels of expertise and trustworthiness can be used to explain the
success in using athletes to endorse sport brands. An athlete can be expected by consumers to be an expert on sport brands because of his job. The level of expertise is influenced by the perceived competence of the athlete endorser. Trustworthiness can be based on both warmth and competence elements. In different situations people have the tendency to trust warm or competent people depending on their involvement and needs (Fiske et al., 2002). In that case a warm and competent athlete endorsement can be trustworthy be being likable and competent.Attractiveness can be used to predict the success of an athlete endorser on non-sport brands. Endorsers can be attractive by both personal and physical dimensions of warmth and competence. That is an explanation why a trained athlete can endorse fashion brands like Cristiano Ronaldo does. Where the source credibility model describes the fit of an endorser to a brand based on credibility it fails to explain how athlete endorsers with no visible credibility on a brand/product, for example Roger Federer endorsing Gilette, can be successful. Choi & Riffon (2007) use similar dimensions to determine the credibility of an athlete as the source credibility model, however they added dimension like genuineness and competence. Genuineness and competence are personality traits (Fiske et al., 2002). Personality traits are in those way predictors of perceived credibility (Arai, Ko & Ross, 2014).
Match-up hypothesis. Another theory frequently studied in the endorsement research is the match-up hypothesis. The match-up hypothesis is based up on congruence (Till & Bussler, 2000). There must be a perceived fit among consumers between endorsers and brands or products (Koernig & Boyd, 2009), to make endorsements be successful (Thompson & Strutton, 2012). However this model does not fully elaborate on which levels a fit between endorser and brand or products should occur. Studies on the match-up hypothesis have focused on different elements of congruence between endorser and brand (Mishra, Roy & Bailey, 2015). Congruence can be found in the relation between the
endorser and the product, the image of the endorser and the image of a brand. In the case of athlete endorsements the most obvious fit would be an athlete endorsing a sport brand. Previous examples, like Ronaldo endorsing Armani, already showed that athletes are able to endorse various brands effectively. Fit between brand and endorser can also be achieved based on personality factors. Consumers link the ideal self with the perceived image to determine the fit between endorser and brand (Choi & Riffon, 2012). The need for a seemingly perfect fit is contradicted by the effect of rogue athletes (Pokrywczynksi & Brinker, 2012). Those kinds of athletes don’t seem to posses any kind of fit to a brand, but based on their personalities they can enhance brand image among consumers. This indicates that personality traits of an athlete endorser are important factors of predicting the success of such an endorsement. A study by (Roy & Moorthi, 2012) elaborates further on this concept. Congruence between the personality of an endorser and personality of the brand proved to be a decent indicator of endorsement success on consumer’s brand intention. However based on the possibility of a brand possessing both elements of warmth and competence, an incongruity on personality can be positive for the brand. Because the match-up hypothesis is not able to explain and predict successful athlete endorsements, there is need for an alternative approach. Considering personality based on the elements of warmth and competence could lead to new insights about athlete endorsements. The focus on only specific endorser characteristics of both the source credibility model and the match-up hypothesis, is pointed out, among others by Mishra et al., (2015). The third stream of endorsement literature takes a more comprehensive approach towards endorsements.
Meaning transfer theory. Developed by McCracken (1989) the meaning transfer theory is about a cultural transfer of meaning, developed from the associative network theory. Endorsers are capable of transferring their associations as determined by other
people on to brands and products among other things. Walker, Langmeyer and Langmeyer (1992) were the first one to find the transfer of image from an endorser on to a brand. They found that consumers evaluated the quality of the brand, the same as the image of the endorser.
Mishra, Roy and Bailey (2015) studied the role of personality in endorsements. However their study was based on a fit between brand personality and endorser
personality. They found that it is beneficial for a brand to select an endorser with
personality characteristics that matches the personality of the endorsed brand. Moreover, highlighting the personality match within an advertisement increased the positive effect from the endorser on consumer brand related intentions (Mishra et al., 2015). The
assumption that there should be congruence between brand and endorser personality makes sense at first sight. However it raises some practical challenges. Because most images from athletes are build on their competitive nature (Arai et al., 2014), consumers will most likely perceive this athletes as being competent. This would make it hard for a brand of which the personality is built on a warm image to effectively use an athlete endorser. Despite the focus on the sport performances of athlete endorsers, the most appreciated athlete
endorsers are so based on warm personality characteristics. Athlete endorsers that possess elements of warmth and competence can be the objects of heroism (Stevens, Lathrop & Bradish, 2003). Heroism is a form of admiration (Shuart, 2007), which in an endorsement context can lead to favourable consumer brand intentions and attitudes (Aaker, Garbinsky & Vohs, 2012; Zawisza et al., 2015). Therefore brands should aim to bond with athlete endorsers that can provide the brand emotional attachment on both dimensions of warmth and competence (Fournier & Alvarez, 2012). The emotional attachment the brand can gain from being placed in the golden quadrant leads to higher purchase intention (Aaker,
and competence that could be co-branded with a brand are not always available. Brands can overcome that issue. In their study Mishra, Roy and Bailey showed that they could show congruence between an endorser and a brand by highlighting this congruence within an advertisement.
Framing in advertisements. Brands can use the same principal as Mishra, Roy and Bailey (2015) used to highlight certain personality characteristics of an athlete endorsement. Athletes that are being used in advertisements are presented in such a way that their must beneficial qualities for brands are highlighted (Wu, 2013). The highlighting of certain characteristics within advertisement is based on the principal of framing in advertisements (Smith, 1996). Frames are used in advertisements among other branding strategies to highlight certain features that consumers should perceive and possible hiding other less beneficial qualities. Brands can use this framing technique to create a favourable image for an athlete endorser. The already established image based on warmth and
competence will stay intact, but can be highlighted or altered towards possessing possibly both dimensions trough the use of advertising frames. This leads to the following
hypothesis:
H2: The effect of image of an athlete endorser on brand attitude (h2a), brand image (h2b) and purchase intention is moderated by the image of an athlete endorser within an advertisement.
In which incongruence as warm image of an athlete endorser x competent image of an athlete endorser within an advertisement will lead to higher a) brand attitude, b) brand image and c) purchase intention than congruence between image of an athlete endorser and image of an athlete endorser within an advertisement. However congruence based on warmth will lead to higher outcomes on a) brand
attitude, b) brand image and c) purchase intention than congruence based on competence.
Because the personality of the athlete endorsers transfers on to the brand (Ambroise et al., 2014) the image of the athlete endorser based on warmth and competence will transfer on to the brand, based on the transfer of meaning (McCracken, 1989). This can lead to positive effects on brand attitude, brand image and purchase intention if in case the transferred personality appeals to consumers (Ivens et al. 2015). Such a transfer of meaning is beneficial for a brand because a strong brand should differentiate on personality (Aaker, 1997). This leads to hypothesis 3:
H3: The moderating effect from image of an athlete endorser within an advertisement on the effect of image of an athlete endorser on brand attitude (h3a), brand image (h3b), and purchase intention (h3c) is mediated by the perceived personality of the brand.
Personality of the brand is based on warmth and competence. This all leads to the proposed moderated mediation model as shown in figure 1.
Figure 1. Moderated mediation model
Image of athlete Brand personality Image of athlete highlighted in advertisement Brand attitude Brand image Purchase intention
Methods
To answer the research question and test the hypotheses, this study employed a 2 (image of athlete: warm vs. competent) x 2 (image of athlete in an advertisement: warm vs.
competent) between subjects design. A total of 141 people have participated in the experiment. Of this 141 people, 62.4 % were male (N=88) and 37.6 % were female (N=53). The age of respondents varied between 18 and 58 with an average of 22.93 (SD=6.79).
Independent Variables
Image of athlete. For both conditions the same picture of NBA player Derrick Rose was used. The template was a neutral full body picture. All signs of branding and possible sponsorships were deleted out of the picture trough the use of Photoshop. For both conditions, framing of a short text description (Smith, 1996) was used to highlight
personality characteristics.
The focus in the warm image condition lied on the fact that the athlete endorser participates in charity events in his hometown of Chicago. The athlete was introduced by using only his first name to make him more approachable. The picture used in the warm image athlete condition can be found in Appendix A.
In the competent condition, the athlete was introduced using his full name. The short text description added to the picture was framed in such way that it highlighted the athlete’s sports accomplishments to show his competence. For example Derrick Rose
being the youngest ever to win the MVP award in the NBA was specifically mentioned. The picture used in the competence image athlete condition can be found in Appendix B.
Image of athlete in advertisement. The moderator image of athlete in an
advertisement had two conditions: warm and competence. For both conditions Photoshop was used to make two advertisements with the athlete, Derrick Rose. Both advertisements were made as similar as possible in terms of size. However for each condition a different picture of Derrick Rose was used in order to highlight the warmth or competence image within an advertisement.
A warm image of an athlete endorser within an advertisement was manipulated by the use of red colour filter to enhance warmth. Furthermore, the
advertisement showed Derrick Rose during a basketball clinic with kids from Chicago. The advertisement was provided with a descriptive text, explaining what the advertisement was about. In the left top corner the advertisement was provided with the logo of the Adidas brand, to link Derrick rose with the brand Adidas. The advertisement for the warmth condition can be found in appendix C.
To highlight the contrast between the two advertisements, the competence condition advertisement was created with the use of neutral colours with shades of black and white. In the advertisement in which the image of the athlete is competence, Derrick Rose is showing his won MVP trophy. The advertisement features an imperative that says: Be an MVP, be like Derrick! Just as in the other advertisement condition, there is an Adidas logo displayed in the top left corner. The logo aims to link Derrick Rose to the brand Adidas. The competence advertisement can be found in Appendix D.
Participants were reached throughout social media. They could click on a link that directed them towards an online experiment embayed in a survey. The experiment was constructed with the qualtrics online tool. The participants were randomly assigned to one of the four conditions. After reading informant consent and agreeing to participate, the experiment started. The participants were told that they would see a set of two images (see Appendixes A & B), after which were questioned about brand personality, brand image, brand attitude and purchase intention with regard to Adidas as well as demographics (see Appendix C). The brand Adidas was chosen because it linked the athlete towards a sport brand and it made the manipulation easy to produce. The first image was either an image containing a warm athlete with description or a competent athlete with description. At the end of the experiment the participants were debriefed and thanked for participating.
A pre-test was conducted to determine if the images were suitable to use as manipulation of warmth and competence. In the pre-test participants were asked to evaluate the levels of warmth or competence of an athlete or an athlete within an advertisement. The levels of warmth and competence were different for the two sets of images, and therefore were used in the final experiment. Besides, the pre-test proved that portrayed athlete, Derrick Rose, was not known among the participants.
The images of type of athlete were basically the same. The difference between the two images was the descriptive text above. In the warmth condition the athlete was described by his first name and personality traits enhancing warmth (Fiske et al., 2002) were highlighted. The athlete was described as an open genuine person who helped a lot in the community in his hometown. In the competent condition, the athlete was named by his last name and described as the youngest most valuable player in the NBA ever, to highlight his competence. The advertisement based on Derrick Rose receiving the most valuable player title, with the text: Be an MVP, Be like Derrick! The advertisement also displayed
an Adidas Logo. The advertisement based on warmth showed Derrick Rose giving a basketball clinic to children at his teams trainings facility. The advertisement was shown with a red colour to highlight the warmth of the advertisement. In this advertisement there was also an Adidas logo displayed.
Measures
Brand personality: warmth and competence. Brand personality was measured by personality traits linked to dimensions of warmth and competence (Fiske et al., 2002). Several statements about personality traits were presented in the form: If Adidas was a person, it would be: Sincere, competitive etc. The full questionnaire can be found in appendix D. A 7-point Likert scale was used to measure the items, with scores varying from 1 (totally disagree) to 7 (totally agree). By a principal component analysis, two components were distracted. The component warmth is valid and reliable (EV=5.03, r2=. 42, a= .92, M= 5.29, SD= 1.12). The component competence is also valid and reliable (EV= 2.88, r2= .24, a= .83, M= 5.77, SD= .73).
Brand attitude. The 5 items for measuring brand attitude come from previous studies and were measured on a 7-point likert scale (See Appendix D) with scores varying from 1 (Totally disagree) to 7 (Totally agree). A principal factor analysis distracted one component. The component attitude proved to be valid and reliable (EV= 3.35, r2= .67, a= .87, M= 5.74, SD= .81).
Brand image. Items for measuring brand image were conducted from previous studies and were measured on a 7-point Likert scale (see Appendix D). Based on a principal factor analysis the items formed one component. The component proved to be valid a reliable (EV= 5.20, r2= .58, a= .90, M= 5.79, SD= .85).
Purchase intention. Items meant for measuring purchase intention are based on the same items as (Silvera & Austad, 2004) and were measured on a 7-point likert scale (see Appendix D). The items formed a valid and reliable component based on a principal factor analysis and reliability test (EV= 3.70, r2= .74, a= .91, M= 5.08, SD= .85).
Results Confound checks
Analyses showed that the four conditions did not differ significantly on average age. However there was a significant difference between sexes in the athlete image conditions (X2= 11.99 (1), p=. 001, M= 1.38, SD= .49). Therefore, gender was used a covariate in all conducted analyses.
Hypotheses
With respect to brand attitude, ANCOVA analysis with type of athlete, type of athlete within an advertisement, and their interaction as predictors and gender as covariate showed significant main effects of type of athlete, F(1, 136) = 7.04, p= .009, eta2= .05, and type of athlete within an advertisement, F(1.136)= 11.38, p= .001, eta2= .08, which were qualified by a significant interaction effect, F(1, 136)= 27.71, p= <.001, eta2= .17. Gender as
covariate had no significant effect, F(1.136)= .68, p= .411, eta2= .00. People who were exposed to an athlete endorser with a warm image scored significantly higher on brand attitude ( M= 5.94, SD= .09) than people who were exposed to an athlete endorser with an competent image (M= 5.52, SD= .08) This confirms hypothesis 1a. People who were exposed to an athlete endorser with an competence image and an athlete endorser with a warm image within an advertisement scored significantly higher on brand attitude (M= 6.09, SD= .14) than the other three conditions (See Table 1.) This confirms hypothesis 2a.
For brand image, ANCOVA analysis with image of an athlete endorser, image of an athlete endorser within an advertisement, and their interaction as predictors and gender as covariate showed significant main effects of type of athlete, F(1, 136)= 8.45, p= .004, eta2= .06, and type of athlete within an advertisement, F(1, 136)= 12.01, p= .001, eta2= .08. People who were exposed to an athlete endorser with a warm image scored
significantly higher on brand image (M= 5.97, SD= .09) than people that were exposed to an athlete endorser with a competent image (M=5.57, SD= .10) This confirms hypothesis h1b. However they were not qualified by a significant interaction effect, F(1, 136)= 1.39, p= .241, eta2= .01. Gender as covariate had a significant effect on brand image, F( 1, 136)= 10.11, p= .002, eta2= .07. This rejects hypothesis 2b.
ANCOVA analysis for purchase intention, with image of an athlete endorser, image of an athlete endorser within an advertisement, and their interactions as predictors and gender as covariate showed significant main effects of type of athlete within an
advertisement, F(1, 136)= 4.74, p= .031, eta2= .03, and a interaction effect between type of athlete and type of athlete within an advertisement, F(1, 136)= 4.03, p= .047, eta2= .03. There was no significant main effect of type of athlete on purchase intention, F(1, 136)= .88, p= .351, eta2= .01. This rejects hypothesis 1c Gender as covariate had no significant effect either, F(1, 136)= .00, p= . 989, eta2= .00. Therefore hypothesis h1c is partially accepted. An athlete endorser with a competent image in combination with an athlete endorser with a warm image within an advertisement had the highest outcome on purchase intention (M= 5.36, SD=.21) This confirms hypothesis 2c. People that were exposed to an athlete endorser with an competent image x an athlete endorser with a warm image in an advertisement showed the highest purchase intention.
For perceived competence of a brand, ANCOVA analysis with image of an athlete endorser, image of an athlete endorser within an advertisement as the predictors and gender as covariate showed a significant interaction effect, F(1, 136)= 9.82, p= .002, eta2= .07. The covariate gender had no significant effect on brand competence, F(1, 136),= .15, p= .698, eta2= .00. People who were exposed to an athlete endorser with a warm image x an athlete endorser with a competent image within an advertisement had the highest score on perceived competence of the brand (M=6.02, SD=.10) Whereas, competent image of an athlete endorser x athlete endorser with a warm image within an advertisement had the second score on perceived competence (M= 5.93, SD= .13) before competent x competent (M=5.92, SD= .12). An athlete endorser with a warm image in combination with an athlete endorser with a warm image within an advertisement scored last at perceived competence of the brand, as expected. (M=5.30, SD=.10)
For perceived warmth of a brand, ANCOVA analysis with type of athlete, type of athlete within an advertisement as the predictors and gender as covariate showed a significant interaction effect, F(1, 136)= 7.58, p= .007, eta2= .05. The covariate gender had no significant effect on brand warmth, F(1, 136) = 1.84, p= .177, eta2= .01. People that were exposed to an athlete endorser with a warm image x an athlete endorser with a warm image within an advertisement scored significant higher (M=5.74, SD= .15 on perceived warmth of the brand than people that were exposed to a athlete endorser with a warm image x an athlete endorser with a competent image within an advertisement (M=5.50, SD=.16), an athlete endorser with a competent image x an athlete endorsement with a warm image within an advertisement (M= 5.46, SD=.19) and an athlete endorser with a competent image x an athlete endorser with a competent image within an
advertisement (M=4.30, SD=.17). The results show that there is at least a partly mediation and therefor confirming hypothesis 3.
Tabel 1.
Effects of type of athlete and type of athlete within an advertisement on brand attitude, brand image and purchase intention
Warm Athlete Competent Athlete Type of Athlete within advertisement
Warm Competent Warm Competent
Brand Attitude 5.78 (.11) 6.01 (.11) 6.09 (.14) 5.03 (.13) Brand Image 6.12 (.12) 5.82 (.12) 5.88 (.15) 5.27 (.14) Purchase
intention
5.18 (.16) 5.15 (.16) 5.36 (.21) 4.61 (.19) Note. Mean scores are portrayed with standard deviations between parentheses. All means are significant, a= .095
Conclusion and discussion
This study aimed at answering the question, what the effect would be of warmth and competence of an athlete endorser in combination with warmth and competence of an athlete endorser in an advertisement on brand attitude, brand image and purchase intention.
The confirmation of hypothesis 1 is in line with what was found by Bernritter, Verlegh & Smit (2016). Brands are more likely to interact with brands that they perceive as warm. A possible explanation can be found in the way that people deliberately choose to
interact with certain brands based on associations they like themselves to identify with (Aaker, 1997). The presentation of an athlete endorsement without an advertisement setting, only led room to identify with associations about warmth and competence. In line with earlier literature by Ivens et al. (2015) people have the tendency to interact with brands that are perceived as warmth. Because athlete endorsers can be seen as brands on their own (Arai, Ko & Ross, 2014), this study seems to acknowledge that statement.
However the partly acceptance of hypothesis 2, seems to suggest there is such a place as the golden quadrant. Incongruence between the dimensions of warmth and competence had the highest outcomes on brand attitude and purchase intention. This is of high value for practical implications. Marketers can use these outcomes to develop
effective marketing strategies build around their athlete endorsers. This study showed that it is possible to create the image of an athlete endorsing possessing both elements of warmth and competence. This does not just gives marketers more tools to use their athlete endorsers, it also provides the athletes themselves with marketing options.
Moreover this study contributed to the athlete endorsement literature by
incorporating personality factors as warmth and competence. Most literature until now about dimensions of warmth and competence were merely aimed at explaining social interactions and interactions with brands.
Limitations. This study had some limitations however. First of all this study used an existing brand in the experiment. It is possible that people already had a strong
established attitude towards the brand that could not be changed by an unknown athlete endorser. This is limitation number two; because an unknown athlete was used in the manipulation the affects cannot be transferred on to know athlete endorsements directly.
It would be interesting in the future to research the possibility to highlight and alter the dimensions of warmth and competence of a known athlete endorser and see for a long
period of time which effects this will sort. Because in this setting it can not be excluded that the advertisement with an endorser evoked short term attitudes and intentions.
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Appendix A
Meet Derrick Rose. Born in Chicago, Derrick is a basketball player for his hometown NBA team, the Chicago Bulls. Off the court, Derrick plays a huge role in the Chicago community. Derrick is head of his own Roses for children charity foundation. In that role he organizes and attends workshops for children in the Chicago area. Besides being head of his own foundation, Rose funds social projects in the Chicago area with his own salary every year.
Appendix B
Meet Derrick Rose. Born in Chicago, Rose is a basketball player for his hometown NBA team, The Chicago bulls. Rose is a 6’3 ft Guard. Known as one of the most athletic players in NBA history, Rose became the youngest Most Valuable player in the history of the league. With his athleticism Rose attacked the basket fearlessly and with ferocity. This led to Rose becoming one of the most efficient scorers of the league. During his MVP
Appendix E Master Thesis
Dear participant, With this message, I would like to invite you to participate in a research study to be conducted under the auspices of the Graduate School of Communication, a part of the University of Amsterdam. This survey will take five minutes of your time. For which I am very grateful. You will be exposed to two images. Furthermore, some questions will be asked about the image. At last some demographic questions will be asked. Your anonymity is guaranteed. For more information about the research you are welcome to contact me at my email account: diederik.timmermans@student.uva.nl
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Participation statement: I agree, fully and voluntarily, to participate in this research study. I am aware that I may halt my participation in the experiment at any time. If my research results are used in scientific publications or are made public in another way, this will be done in such a way that my anonymity is completely safeguarded. My personal data will not be passed on to third parties without my express permission. If i wish to receive more information about the research, either now or in the future, I can contact Diederik
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Q8 If Adidas was a person, Adidas would be: Strongly disagree (1) Disagree (2) Somewhat disagree (3) Neither agree nor disagree (4) Somewhat agree (5) Agree (6) Strongly agree (7) Kind (1) Efficient (2) Trustworthy (3) Dominant (4) Competitive (5) Sincere (6) Skillful (7) Friendly (8) Sensitive (9) Warm (10) Competent (11) Generous (12)
Q9 I think Adidas is: Strongly disagree (1) Disagree (2) Somewhat disagree (3) Neither agree nor disagree (4) Somewhat agree (5) Agree (6) Strongly agree (7) Domestic (1) Honest (2) Genuine (3) Cheerful (4)
Q10 I think Adidas is:
Strongly disagree (1) Disagree (2) Somewhat disagree (3) Neither agree nor disagree (4) Somewhat
agree (5) Agree (6) Strongly agree
(7) Daring (1) Spirited (2) Imaginative (3) Up-to-date (4)
Q11 I think Adidas is:
Strongly disagree (1) Disagree (2) Somewhat disagree (3) Neither agree nor disagree (4) Somewhat
agree (5) Agree (6) Strongly agree
(7) Reliable (1) Responsible (2) Dependable (3) Efficient (4)
Q12 I Think Adidas is: Strongly disagree (1) Disagree (2) Somewhat disagree (3) Neither agree nor disagree (4) Somewhat agree (5) Agree (6) Strongly agree (7) Glamorous (1) Pretentious (2) Charming (3) Romantic (4)
Q13 I Think Adidas is:
Strongly disagree (1) Disagree (2) Somewhat disagree (3) Neither agree nor disagree (4) Somewhat
agree (5) Agree (6) agree (7) Strongly
Tough (1) Strong (2) Outdoorsy (3) Rugged (4)
Q14 Answer the following statements: Strongly disagree (1) Disagree (2) Somewhat disagree (3) Neither agree nor disagree (4) Somewhat agree (5) Agree (6) Strongly agree (7) I like the personality of Adidas (1) Adidas has a nice personality (2) Adidas has an appealing personality (3)
Q15 I think the image of Adidas is: Strongly disagree (1) Disagree (2) Somewhat disagree (3) Neither agree nor disagree (4) Somewhat agree (5) Agree (6) Strongly agree (7) Strong (1) Favourable (2) Unique (3) Different from other sports brands (4) Q16 Adidas: Strongly disagree (1) Disagree (2) Somewhat disagree (3) Neither agree nor disagree (4) Somewhat
agree (5) Agree (6) agree (7) Strongly
Has a reputation for quality (1) Makes me look good in front of others (2)
Q17 Please answer the following statements: Strongly disagree (1) Disagree (2) Somewhat disagree (3) Neither agree nor disagree (4) Somewhat agree (5) Agree (6) Strongly agree (7) Adidas has a nice image (1) I like the image of Adidas (2) Adidas has an appealing image (3)
Q18 Adidas is: Strongly disagree (1) Disagree (2) Somewhat disagree (3) Neither agree nor disagree (4) Somewhat agree (5) Agree (6) Strongly agree (7) Appealing (1) Good (2) Pleasant (3) Favourable (4) Likable (5)
Q19 Please answer the following statements: Strongly disagree (1) Disagree (2) Somewhat disagree (3) Neither agree nor disagree (4) Somewhat agree (5) Agree (6) Strongly agree (7) I would recommend Adidas to friends and family (1) If anyone asks my advice on sport brands, i will advise Adidas (2) I have recommended Adidas to friends and family (3)
Q20 Please answer the following statements: Strongly disagree (1) Disagree (2) Somewhat disagree (3) Neither agree nor disagree (4) Somewhat agree (5) Agree (6) Strongly agree (7) I see myself share this brand on social media (1) I see myself giving likes or comments to this brand on social media (2)
Q21 Please answer the following statements: Strongly disagree (1) Disagree (2) Somewhat disagree (3) Neither agree nor disagree (4) Somewhat agree (5) Agree (6) Strongly agree (7) I definitely intend to buy Adidas (1) I have very high purchase interest in Adidas (2) I would definitely buy Adidas (3) I will probably buy Adidas (4) In Need of a sport brand, I will buy Adidas (5)
Q22 What is your gender? Male (1)
Female (2)
Q23 What is your age? (please use two digit to answer)
Q24 What is the highest level of education you have completed or are currently enrolled in?
High school or lower (1) Bachelor's degree (2) Master's degree (3) Phd (4)
Q26 I want to thank you for your time. For any questions, you can contact me at diederik.timmermans@student.uva.nlKind regards,Diederik Timmermans
