Waiting Experience and Reversal Theory
Mark van Hagen, Mirjam Galetzka & Ad Th. H. Pruyn
Marketing Research & University of Twente Consultancy, NS
Environmental design generally based on aesthetics, practical considerations and intuition
BUT
Environmental effects depend on:
task/activity at hand (complex vs simple task, concentration or fun)
situational context (e.g., peak or off peak hours; supermarket or railway station, and the
consumer’s emotional and motivational state (e.g., are consumers looking for a specific goal or just enjoying the environment?)
MUST PASSENGERS:
run-shoppers, utilitarian shoppers, goal oriented shoppers, frequent visitors
task and time oriented (Kaltcheva & Weitz, 2006; Roelofs, 2010)
predictability, overview & control (Massara et al., 2010; Roelofs, 2010)
seek relaxation and overview & avoid excitement = telic motivational state (Apter, 2007)
LUST PASSENGERS:
fun shoppers, hedonic shoppers, recreational consumers, incidental visitors
no hurry (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Kaltcheva & Weitz, 2006; Van Hagen, 2011) sensitive to environmental stimuli (Ang & Leong, 1997)
fun & light hearted – looking for diversion, entertainment, stimulation = paratelic state (Apter, 2007)
Time
Value
Unpleasant Pleasant
Low Arousal High
• Too deserted • Too dark • Too quiet
• Too crowded, • Too much light • Too much noise
Optimal Arousal
Optimal arousal theory (Berlyne, 1971)
Comfort zone:
• In control, certain, safe • Different colours & light • Different music
Time value
Low pleasure High pleasure
Low arousal High
Reversal theory (Apter, 2007)
Time fasterTime flies, when you are having fun…..
….but a watched pot never boils
Atmospherics and customer experience of railway
stations: 3 lines of research
To investigate the (interactive) effects of environmental variables (also referred to as ‘atmospherics’ , cf. Kotler, 1973)
in a public transportation setting (i.e., a railway station)
on time perception and customer evaluation
Infotainment & advertisement Background music
Atmospherics and customer experience of railway
stations: 3 lines of research
• Field studies & virtual lab and/or online studies
Infotainment & advertisement Background music
Measures
Emotions: Pleasure, Arousal, Dominance (Mehrabian & Russell, 1977)
“At the station I felt dominant (1) – submissive (7)”
Station evaluation (12 items) , Platform score (“1 = very poor, 10 = excellent”) “This platform has a pleasant atmosphere”
Time perception (in minutes; 1 = very short, 7 = very long)
Hedonic appraisal of the wait
“The time spent on the platform was (1 = annoying – 7 = pleasing”)
Utilitarian appraisal of the wait
Music
Study 3: Online study Dutch Railways customer panel (Leiden central station)
2 (genre: stimulating vs calming) x 2 (density: off-peak vs peak hours) x 2 (motivational orientation: must vs lust) between subjects design
Study 1: Field experiment Dutch Railways (the Hague central
station)
2 (music no vs music) x 2 (density: off-peak vs peak hours) between subjects design
Study 2: : Field experiment Dutch Railways (the Hague central
station)
2 (music tempo: slowvs up-tempo x 2 (density: off-peak vs peak hours) between subjects design
• Interactions: music effects for motivational orientation
Results & Discussion
– Music
3,5 3,7 3,9 4,1 4,3 4,5 4,7 4,9 must lust T im e p e rc e p ti o n (i n m in u te s ) calming music stimulating music 4,5 4,6 4,7 4,8 4,9 5 5,1 must lust A ccep tab le w ai t calming music stimulating music (F(1,319)=4.79, p < .01) (F(1,349)=3.45, p < .04)
♪
♫
♪
♫
• 57.6% heard music
• Situational context: music effects for density (on pleasure, arousal and platform score
OFF PEAK > stimulating music (greater pleasure, arousal and platform score)
PEAK > calming music (greater pleasure & platform score, no effects arousal)
• State: music effects for motivational orientation (on time perception and acceptance of the wait)
LUST > stimulating music (shorter time perception, more acceptance)
MUST > -
Results
– Music
Colour & Light
Study 3: Virtual online study Dutch Railways customer panel (Leiden central station)
2 (colour: blue vs yellow vs red) x 2 (light intensity: high vs low) x 2 (density: off-peak vs peak hours) x 2 (motivational orientation: must vs lust) between subjects design
Study 1: Field study Dutch Railways (Leiden central station)
2 (colour: none vs rainbow) x 2 (light intensity: high vs low) x 2 (density: off-peak vs peak hours) between subjects design
Study 2: Virtual Reality Laboratory (Leiden central station)
2 (colour: red vs blue) x 2 (light intensity: high vs low) design
Study 3: Online study Dutch Railways customer panel (Leiden central station)
2 (colour: blue vs yellow vs red) x 2 (light intensity: high vs low) x 2 (density: off-peak vs off-peak hours) x 2 (motivational orientation: must vs lust) between subjects design
• Virtual lab study:Time in a blue environment appeared to pass faster than in a red one. This was not confirmed in this online study.
• State: colour effects for motivational orientation (on hedonic/utilitarian wait)
LUST > warm colours (hedonic and utilitarian wait) MUST > cool colours (hedonic wait)
Results
– Colour
3,2 3,3 3,4 3,5 3,6 3,7 must lust U tilit a ria n w a it blue red yellow 3,6 3,7 3,8 3,9 4 4,1 4,2 must lust H ed o n ic w ai t blue red yellow (F(2,1310)=6.77, p < .001) (F(2,1311)=3.28, p < .04)• Interactions: lighting effects for density (F(1,1320)=8.90, p < .003) (F(1,1315)=5.58, p < .02)
Results
– Lighting
5,2 5,3 5,4 5,5 5,6 5,7 5,8 5,9low density high density
A ccep tab el w ai t
low light intensity high light intensity
3 3,1 3,2 3,3 3,4 3,5 3,6 3,7 3,8
low density high density
T im e p er cep ti o n
low light intensity high light intensity
• 92.6% claimed to have a (cognitive) preference for a station with high light intentsity (despite positive affective evaluation of the lower light intenstiy)
• Time appeared to pass faster in a dimly lit environment than in a brightly lit environment. Dimmed lighting also enhanced pleasure, dominince, useful and acceptable wait.
• Ambient lighting is perceived subconsciously (fringe?)
• Situational context: lighting effects for density (on time perception and acceptance of the wait)
OFF PEAK > dimmed lighting (time perception)
PEAK > -
