0 Expats in the Netherlands
The Zuidas, the A10 and the Nieuwe Meer, credits: Siebe Swarts
Author Carlotta Eva Westra van Holthe
Student number 5731755
Date of Submission 26th of March 2016
Qualification Msc. Business Administration- International Management Track
University Amsterdam Business School (ABS) part of University of Amsterdam (UvA)
Supervisor 1 E. Dirksen MSc. Second reader Dr. I. Haxhi
1 PREFACE
I am very thankful for the support I received from my supervisor, MSc. Dirksen, who taught me both how to research as well as how to research in a field of which I am unfamiliar. His knowledge and experience as a researcher motivated me to think in a creative yet scientific way throughout the project.
I would also to like thank my family and friends, Eke and Hilde, who motivated me throughout the work, and especially all the participants who were so kind to
voluntarily complete the survey. I would further like to thank my colleagues, who shared their knowledge of expat networks with me, as well as the global mobility managers of other companies helped me to reach outside of the 'elite' group of people, who work mostly out of the office and often difficult to reach.
STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY
This document is written by Student C.E. Westra van Holthe who declares to take full responsibility for the contents of this document.
I declare that the text and the work presented in this document are original and that no sources other than those mentioned in the text and its references have been used in creating it.
The Faculty of Economics and Business is solely responsible for the supervision of completion of the work, not for the contents.
2 ABSTRACT
This study seeks to understand how expatriate work adjustment can best be stimulated in Dutch international firms, in order to successfully complete the international assignment. The basis of this research is a literature review about expatriate work adjustment in
conjunction with data and results drawn from surveys. The research question is as follows: "To what extent is the relationship between perceived ethnocentrism (PE) on expatriate work adjustment (EWA) moderated by perceived organizational support (POS)?” As
expected, this study found a negative relationship between PE and EWA. The data indicates a tendency toward high expatriate work adjustment in cases of low-perceived ethnocentrism and low expatriate work adjustment in cases of high perceived ethnocentrism. There was no evidence found for a positive relationship between POS and EWA. In contradiction to all expectations, there was no evidence found for the moderating effect of perceived
organizational support. From these findings, it may be concluded that organizations should focus on the 'welcoming' message to expats in order for them to feel integrated within the company's in-group family. It is important to motivate Host Country Nationals (HCNs) to become part of this welcoming group. An affiliation with expatriates benefits that
organization and leads to greater transparency about the differentiation between salaries. Ultimately, the adjustment process fosters financial gains
3 CONTENT
PREFACE ... 1
ABSTRACT ... 2
1
INTRODUCTION ... 5
1.1 Expats matters worldwide ... 5
1.2 The Dutch international firm ... 7
1.3 The expat ... 8
1.3.1 The broader definition ... 8
1.3.2 The smaller definition ... 9
1.3.3 Push and pull factors... 11
1.4 Context ... 11
2
LITERATURE
REVIEW ... 15
2.1 Expatriate Work Adjustment ... 15
2.1.1 Adjustment... 16
2.1.2 The adjustment stages ... 17
2.1.3 Social relationships ... 19
2.1.4 Language ... 22
2.1.5 Work floor dynamics ... 23
2.1.6 A new expatriate work adjustment scale ... 25
2.1.7 Women... 26
2.2 Perceived Ethnocentrism ... 27
2.2.1 Socialization ... 28
2.2.2 Transparency between groups ... 29
2.2.3 Responsibility ... 30
2.2.4 Subordinate influence of the host country. ... 32
2.3 Perceived Organizational Support ... 34
2.3.1 Mutual benefits ... 34
2.3.2 Reciprocity... 35
3
THEORETICAL
FRAMEWORK ... 37
4
METHODS ... 41
4
4.1.1 Networking ... 42
4.2 Materials ... 43
4.2.1 Expatriate Work Adjustment- scale (Hippler et al., 2014) ... 43
4.2.2 Perceived Ethnocentrism- scale (Neuliep & McCroskey 2013) ... 44
4.2.3 Perceived Organizational Support- scale (Eisenberger et al., 1986) ... 44
4.3 Procedure ... 44
5
RESULTS ... 46
5.1 Descriptive statistics ... 46
5.2 The linear model ... 47
6
DISCUSSION ... 49
6.1 Debate ... 50 6.2 Limitations ... 537
CONCLUSION ... 55
8
REFERENCES ... 58
9
APPENDIX ... 70
9.1 List of Abbreviations ... 70 9.2 Letter to expats ... 71 9.3 SPSS OUTPUT ... 72 9.4 SURVEY QUESTIONS ... 935
1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter introduces the problem within the field of Human Resources with respect to the expectations of perceived organizational support within international companies in the Netherlands. The following questions are critical and guide this research: "Can we expect expat failure to be prevented by perceived organizational support within international companies in the Netherlands?"; "What do companies learn from
international assignments in host country?''; "Who is responsible for the successes and what are important influences of expatriate work adjustment?"
When is one an expat? What motivated the author to write about expats in the Netherlands, and what are the challenges that organizations face these days? This chapter reviews research with respect to expat failure in the Netherlands. The Appendix includes a list of important abbreviations (Appendix 9.1, p. 69) used throughout this research.
1.1 Expats matters worldwide
In a world of globalization and the internet’s development, international assignments are a necessity for companies to compete on the market (Black & Gregersen, 1991). Today, international companies who own enough financial resources are able to send their employees abroad. On the one hand, globalization enables a positive trend, as great amounts of knowledge can be transferred from all over the world. On the other hand, it
6 also shrinks the number of available communication channels, which leads to a loss of obtained knowledge. To transfer knowledge without knowing how to implement it, will eventually leads to unnecessary information loss. Although the internet has rapidly developed, which made it possible to communicate and transfer knowledge on a global scale, there still exists a need for human capital to achieve a piece of the foreign market share (Takeuchi, 2010).
To have enough financial resources to send an employee abroad does not necessarily entail that the expected results of the international assignment will naturally be completed. Executives often have the false notion that the rules to run a business are universal. The consequences of this mindset lead expats to be unprepared to deal with cultural shock as well as the adjustments that accompany working with new colleagues who have different habits and thoughts. Expats sometimes fail to complete their
international assignment (Black 1988; Black & Gregersen, 1991).
No company benefits from expats’ failures or enjoys the financial losses of these failures. As expected, the problem of expat failure is often pinpointed on the expat group itself. This group, as well as the company as a whole, must deal with the consequences of the failure. On the other hand, HR departments of the international company and the HR managers who expect to guide the expat in foreign countries must provide feedback to the Top Management Team (TMT) in order to prevent expat failures. The question in this instance is whether the organization does enough to provide feedback and support for expats in challenging international assignments (Eisenberger, Hungtington, Hutchison and Sowa. 1986).
7 The main reason that organizations do not provide sufficient support is that they too greatly emphasize knowledge transfer, the expat’s technical skills, the expat’s leadership skills, or other reasons (Black & Gregersen, 1991). A study from Black & Gregersen (1991) finds that expats are at times sent abroad in order to be rid from their home country. Furthermore, in cases in which technical skills are solely matched, expats also need to be able to acclimate to the new culture. It is expected that organizations underestimate the consequences of expat failure and the lack of a formal protocol or program to follow when expats are sent abroad. Prior research has shown that although international companies own the financial resources to send their employees abroad, they still lack an adequate protocol or internationalization program to educate their employees about another culture. It is expected that employees are to face difficulties in the process of forging a good and positive connection with their colleagues, as a starting point of their foreign career (Hall & Gudykunst, 1989)
1.2 The Dutch international firm
In order to protect the employment opportunities of Dutch citizens, companies must be listed on the referent list in order to receive a license that allows the company to employ expats. This listing costs about 5,000 Euros per license. For example, when a growing firm wants to expand its market share by building a subsidiary and some sub-firms, they are obliged to pay the 5000 Euro fee per subsidiary as well. To employ one expat, it costs companies around 1000 Euros per year. Every accompanying family member costs the company an additional 1000 Euros. A family from Italy, which consists of two parents and two children, would hypothetically cost the company at least 4000 Euros, excluding
8 the extension of the employee’s contract and the general license fee
(https://ind.nl/zakelijk/kosten-inkomenseisen).
1.3 The expat
There is not one clear definition of the term "expat". Definitions differ among texts. The thesis discusses the leading definition of what an expat is. It uses a combination of the small and broad definition. This thesis utilizes additional terms for expats, i.e.:
knowledge workers, knowledge migrants, science workers, and technology workers.
1.3.1 The broader definition
The section divides the term into its smaller and broader definition. The broader definition comprises, at minimum, of an achievement of the following two levels, the applied sciences (HBO: Hoger Beroeps Onderwijs) or the academic education (WO: Wetenschappelijk Onderwijs). Internationally, these levels are called ISED 5 and ISED 6 (Berkhout, Smit & Volkerink, 2010). Besides a high level of education, a work permit is required in order to become an expat in the Netherlands. For example, the IND
(International Naturalization Department) measures the amount of time that an expat works in the Netherlands, based on the criteria for salary compensation. In this thesis, income is not important because it is not a fixed amount of money and depends highly on exchange rates (Berkhout et al., 2010).
This broad definition is characterized by the fact that it does not distinguish between the professions of a technical skilled mechanical engineer, a researcher at an academic research center, a doctor who works at a prestigious hospital or a skilled HR-
9 manager. The authors of the social economical research report states that students may also be regarded as expats (Berkhout et al., 2010). An expat’s time to establish himself or herself within a foreign society can be viewed from two perspectives. On the one hand, their time may be a long international assignment, or alternatively, a shorter one
(Berkhout et al., 2010).
Why are people transferred around the globe? The OECD (1995) classifies knowledge workers into four categories. They can be categorized according to their qualification, their job activities, the industry or sector within which they work, or by their occupational activities (OECD, 1995). The reasons that expats relocate include the push and pull factors for certain professionals to swap countries, or rather, can be deeply rooted into the foreign policies that create opportunities for expats to flourish (Mahroum, 2000).
1.3.2 The smaller definition
Mahroum’s (2000) smaller definition is based on the distinction from the OECD (1995), which classifies expats into five different groups. These heterogeneous groups are as follows: accidental tourists, economy-class experts, explorers, pilgrims and passengers.
Accidental tourists are expats who are sent abroad at the Top Management Team’s request, (TMT) from the headquarters (HQ) of a particular company. These accidental tourists are useful in order to first establish a framework for a subsidiary overseas. The economy-class experts are people who possess technological or mechanical skills, such as engineers and technicians. These individuals can be profitable for a
10 group of experts visits countries where their quality is most acknowledged and where the compensation rewards their quality accordingly. Explorers are entrepreneurially-minded people who depend upon the opportunities and chances that the market creates. They also depend on the flexibility of the rules and regulations of a foreign government. Financial opportunities arise when investors believe in them and aspire to invest in their own range of ideas. Pilgrims are researchers who are connected to a certain prestigious institute, such as an academic research center or university. This group travels to other countries in order to find prestigious job titles within given institutes. Their salary and the country where the ultimately land are both of secondary importance. Prestige and their ability to publicize their research are more crucial. Mahroum (2000) also regards students as an expat group. He classifies them as passengers. At first, the passenger group was not of great importance to this thesis, although in fact, if they are part of an international organization based in the Netherlands where they complete their internship, they may also be regarded knowledge workers (Mahroum, 2000).
Within this research, the definition of expats is based on the aspects of the broader definition, as they are measurable. As the IND requires, expats must, at minimum, have a degree not lower than the applied sciences level as well as a valid working permit. Expats must spend at least half a year in the Netherlands, preferably several consecutive years. The individuals must be of a foreign nationality and must be born in a country besides the Netherlands. Expats with a Dutch nationality are not excluded from the research, i.e. when they own the Dutch nationality, but never lived in the Netherlands during their younger years or never worked in the Netherlands. The smaller definition, which is based
11 on Mahroum’s work (2000), is not used in this case, because the author does not provide a clear model to measure its classification.
1.3.3 Push and pull factors
There are many push and pull factors that lead expats to travel abroad. There may be attractive taxation opportunities, such as in the Netherlands, where at one time there was a 30%-income expat regulation. With respect to students or researchers, to study or work abroad because of a prestigious institute can be worthwhile. Other considerations may entail the openness in communication in The Netherlands or the fact that business expansion overseas can be quite attractive. In some poorer markets, where labor supply or demand signals are confusing or unfit, relocation can be quite important (Mahroum, 2000; OECD, 1995).
1.4 Context
Working and participating in an international consulting environment motivated the author of this study to explore whether expats are able to adjust to the Dutch working environment, a new workforce, and furthermore, whether they are able to achieve the goals of their international assignment. Do they feel at 'home' in their working
environment? Are there cases of expat assignment failures and successes, and if there are failures, why do they fail and what happens to the employee? Are they sent back to their home country or are they fired? What can be learned from all these findings? This study seeks to understand the point at which an expat steps out of his comfort zone and whether he or she could easily adjust to Dutch working culture, even when he or she is working in
12 an international company within the Netherlands. This study is more interested, however, in the question as to whether firms have established expat guidelines, and even if they have these guidelines, whether they invest in expat successes or not. Integral to this work, this research measures the moderating effect of perceived organizational support (POS) on the relationship between perceived ethnocentrism (PE) and expatriate work
adjustment (EWA). In other words, does organizational support accelerate the feeling of adjustment? Does this relation even exist?
For the author's experience of her employer, it is apparent that expats feel neglected and even ignored throughout meetings or during after-work activities. The author spoke to one of her colleagues and they told her that expat assignments, for example an IT case within the banking industry, can be quite difficult to fulfill. From here onward, during meetings with the CEOs of international Dutch-based banks, meetings are still conducted using the Dutch language. This personal anecdote can be considered a ‘misfit case’, which became the motivation of this study. What measures do companies take to prevent themselves and their employees from misfit cases such as this one? It is also evident, that within Dutch offices, hierarchical boundaries are not stringent and Dutch employees are able to freely tell their superiors the truth (Hofstede, 1984). The well-known "Polder Model" is quite famous in this instance. This model reflects the typical Dutch approach to issues. Dutch people have a voice and are not afraid to let this voice be heard during meetings in which their superiors are present as well. The power distance and masculinity are characterized as quite low in Dutch international companies in comparison to other cultures, such as , for example, in Asian cultures (Hofstede, 1984). Hofstede divided the cultural dimensions into six different ones. One may ask expats if
13 they perceive cultural differences in the same way that Hofstede described them in his theory of dimensions. The survey contains six questions related to Hofstede’s cultural dimensions (1984). In the survey, expats are asked to rate the cultural differences that they experienced. The expats answered questions such as the following: “Do you
experience a power distance between you and your colleagues?”; “Do you consider your company as individualistic?”; “From your point of view, is your company a masculine or more feminine company?”; “Is your company oriented to avoid uncertainty?”; and “Are they oriented more toward the long-term or short-term?”.
The next chapter, 'literature review', contains a discussion of related literature in the past. First, it discusses the dependent variable, EWA, and a discussion of the two independent variables, PE and POS, follows. The 'theoretical framework' explains the relationship between the variables as well as the research question that accompanies the hypothesis. The expected moderating effect that perceived organizational support (POS) has on the relationship between perceived ethnocentrism (PE) and expatriate work adjustment (EWA) is discussed her first. It is expected that POS has a moderating effect on the relationship between PE and EWA. The 'method' chapter explains the method of measurement employed within this research, a survey. It explains the participants’
characteristics within this research, the way in which they were approached, the materials and scales employed, and finally, this research’s procedure. The 'results' chapter
demonstrates the results and explains how they were gathered. First, the research design and evidence are outlined here. The 'discussion' chapter examines whether the data collection corresponds to the prior literature within the 'literature review'. It furthers
14 demonstrates the similarities or differences between this work and prior research. It also describes the expected and unexpected outcomes. Based on the evidence found from the data, the research question and the hypothesis is either accepted or rejected accordingly. The 'limitations', indicates what could have been done differently and in what areas further research is necessary. The final chapter 'conclusion' summarizes the research process.
15
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter outlines the prior research of authors regarding the variables Expatriate Work Adjustment (EWA), Perceived Ethnocentrism (PE) and Perceived Organizational Support (POS). The following paragraphs: 2.1 Expatriate Work Adjustment; 2.2
Perceived Ethnocentrism; 2.3 Perceived Organizational Support, discuss not only prior research, but also discuss the formal definitions used in theoretical framework.
2.1 Expatriate Work Adjustment
This subparagraph describes this research’s dependent variable: expatriate work
adjustment. Over the past several years, scientific knowledge with respect to expatriate work adjustment (EWA) has greatly elaborated. As mentioned already, many researches followed Black's (1988) first steps into the expatriate field. Some research claims the importance of the multiple stakeholder view. Despite the interesting outcomes of research conducted from the multiple stakeholder perspective, this subparagraph demonstrates the evolution of EWA over time. The following sections explain the different forms and aspects of expatriate work adjustment: 2.1.1. Adjustment, 2.1.2. The adjustment stages, 2.1.3. Social relationships, 2.1.4 Language, 2.1.5. Work floor dynamics, 2.1.6. A new EWA- scale, 2.1.7. Women.
16 2.1.1 Adjustment
Black & Stephens (1989) researched cross-cultural adjustment and divided this concept into three separate views: general adjustment, work adjustment and interactional
adjustment. General adjustment may be defined as the integration, whereby a sense of psychological comfort is reached. The host country environment may be deem very comfortable from an environmental perspective, whereas food, the general living conditions and the weather all contribute to the expat's quality of life. The focus of this research lies on work adjustment, whereas expats’ psychological comfort is crucial to the success of the international assignment. A successful international assignment can be defined as the expat’s process of adjustment, in which the expat feels that they have adjusted to the new values of the host country. The expat is situated in an environment where he is able to meet the host company’s expectations. In such an environment, the expat is able to work as efficiently and effectively as possible in a foreign corporate culture, in accordance with the host company’s requirements.
The interactive aspect of adjustment entails the expat's ability to manage the different communication styles and the interpersonal communication that he is able to have (Black & Stephens, 1989; Takeuchi, 2010).
Within the process of adjustment, Selmer (2001) found psychological barriers as well as the way they affected coping strategies. Selmer's (2001) focus group consists of Western business expatriates who were placed on an international assignment in China. Psychological barriers may lead to an increase or decrease in the social involvement with Host Country Nationals (HCNs). Difficult barriers lead to either an increase or decrease in the social involvement of HCNs. When the barriers are great, the expatriate faces an
17 inability to adjust. Psychological barriers are divided into two variables: problem-focused coping strategies and system- focused coping strategies. The problem-focused coping strategy entails three sub variables: showing tolerance and patience, responsible problem-solving, social involvement with HCNs. System-focused coping strategies entail parent-county escapism and/or expatriate refuge. In order to operationalize the psychological barriers, these barriers were measures through questions with respect to two
operationalized terms: perceived inability to adjust and unwillingness to adjust (Thorbiörn, 1988). The perceived ability to adjust is similar to surrender. Employees ignore a situation in which they cannot change in order to adjust, and consequently, they become more withdrawn from the situation, in cases in which they fail to make the situation somewhat constructive (Selmer 2001). The unwillingness to adjust leads people to not get engaged with the new culture. People disassociate themselves from the
organization as a result of the lack of commitment they display. Their lack of motivation to accept a foreign assignment does not better the situation in which employees feel the need to adjust to the host culture (Selmer 2001; Thorbiörn, 1988).
2.1.2 The adjustment stages
Expats on international assignments face many challenges. Not only must they move physically, but also mentally. The focus group within Black's (1988) research showed that the transitioning work role, from America to Japan, does not depend on the change in location. The evidence indicates that in overseas transfers, within the same country or related intercompany, role ambiguity and role discretion are the factors that significantly
18 influence the EWA (Black 1988). This important information is elaborated upon at later points in this study. Thorbiörn (1982) explains that EWA in comprised of a couple of stages that the expat experiences. The degree of adjustment becomes greater when adjusting the expat more to a new environment. The first stage is the honeymoon stage. In this stage, expats are quite curious to know and experience the differences between the new culture and their own. The expat finds that some of his behavior can be quite
appealing to the other employees (Thorbiörn, 1982). The second stage can be filled with hostility and frustration. The newcomer must manage new behavior and is still unsure how to alter his old habits. Thorbiörn (1982) states that between stages 2 and 3, culture shock emerges. The expat’s awareness of the culture shock begins once the expat
receives negative feedback and continues to struggle to adapt to the appropriate behavior of daily life. Thorbiörn (1982) characterizes the third stage as the point at which the newcomer learns the language and can independently navigate the culture. The expat begins to adopt appropriate behavior . The fourth stage is the stage in which the
individual adjust himself or herself. He or she pursues appropriate behavior and is able to reduce the fear and anxiety that accompany a strange environment.
In this case, it is important to note that pre-departure knowledge has a negative relationship with work adjustment, as according to the survey, expats state that they became aware of the cultural differences with respect to job responsibilities (Black, 1988; Thorbiörn, 1982). Black (1988) concludes that the people who scored low in terms of expatriate work adjustment would score higher if they did not have the pre-departure knowledge, as their focus would be more on the familiar aspects, rather than the
19 adjustment. The explanation of this correlation is evident in this context. The expat’s context may still be the same as it was prior to the assignment. When a person is expected to keep the same responsibilities, the context can change independently of their job (Black, 1988). Practical knowledge, as indicated from this research, finds that superiors should schedule an overlap time between the returning manager and the new
replacement. Clear job descriptions should be provided in advance in order to reduce the amount of job ambiguity and clarification. Pre-departure knowledge has a positive effect on the general adjustment, although it does not guarantee successful work adjustment. Therefore, trainings to increase the overall expatriate adjustment may be necessary.
2.1.3 Social relationships
An often misunderstood aspect of spending time abroad is that the adjustment process is only 'perfectly' achieved once the expat had made deep and broad friendships with locals. Johnson, Kristof-Brown and Klein (2003) researched the effect that the breadth and depth of relationships that individuals have with host country nationals on their expatriate work adjustment. Within this field, earlier research found evidence that the number of HCN contacts that expatriates have has a significant effect on EWA. As a rebuttal to this evidence, Johnson et al. (2003) entered into the field of expatriates relationships.
The authors found that core self-evaluation (CSE) has an important influence on expats’ behavior. CSE stands for the emotional stability of the expat within which their self-esteem, self-efficacy and their internal locus of control are enclosed (Johnson et al., 2003). Expats who scored high in terms of CSE were found to have a higher number of social ties than individuals who scored low on CSE. Contrary to what one may expect,
20 research does not argue that an expat must be characterized as an extraverted person. Moreover, extraversion has been deemed positively, as someone sociable and liked by other colleagues. In this research, Johnson et al. (2003) were convinced by the research of Costa and McCreae (1992) that extraversion also includes two negative aspects, namely assertiveness and dominance (Costa & McCrae, 1992). Therefore, extraverted expats do not require more expatriate or HCN friends.
The most important influence Johnson et al. (2003) found was the amount of social support that came from expatriate colleagues, rather than HCNs. This support facilitated the expat’s feeling of adjustment. This information sheds new lights on the field, as Mendenhall & Oddou (1985) found evidence for the importance of the
relationship with HCNs. Furthermore, the conclusions from Black & Gregersen's (1991) are in need of an update. These authors made an allusion in their analysis that it is important for the significant effect of general adjustment that it is critical for expat’s to generally develop social relationships (Black & Gergersen, 1991; Johnson et al., 2003). Johnson et al.'s (2003) study shows different results for the number, breadth and depth of relationships that cannot be overlooked. Adelman (1988) illustrates that for individuals going on an international assignment daily practical facts of living in a new culture can be guided by information from 'weak ties', the so called taxi driver, the hairdresser, the barista where you buy your coffee to go every morning. What has not been researched is what the effect would be of the transitory community of expats that changes all the time and the effect on their social relationships (Johnson et al. 2003).
The new aspect concerns the aspect that the adjustment on the field of interaction with the HCNs became really important for spouses’ as well as families’ adjustment to
21 the new culture. This aspect is the opposite of what expats experience in their working environment, as they tend to receive more valuable information from their expatriate colleagues.
On the other hand, spouses often have more time to interact with the local community (Shaffer & Harrison, 2001). The success of the overall adjustment is found to be highly influenced by the spouses’ adjustment in the local community (Black & Gregersen, 1991; Shaffer, Harrison and Gilley, 1999). Evidence predicts that as EWA increases, the
breadth of relationships with other expats and the total number of relationships with HCNs increases. Expatriates must mainly face the challenges and ambiguous information when they enter a new culture. All these findings reveal the following pattern: expats logically turn to their expatriate colleagues for advice, who have already spent quite some time in the foreign culture. As soon as the expatriates gain more information and
knowledge about the foreign culture's norms and values, their social interactions increase with the HCNs. Social ties with HCNs cannot be neglected unless one is willing to allow the overseas assignment to fail (Johnson et al. 2003).
Johnson et al. (2003) suggest that the adjustment process may be before the departure of the assignment. Companies should inform their expatriates beforehand of what activities or other support groups outside of the company are available in the new country. A further suggestion may be that HCNs organize informal welcoming parties for the new foreign employees. Expatriates adjust quicker to a foreign environment in
instances in which they are engaged into volunteering activities outside of the company, as diverse information and knowledge are shared within such groups. More knowledge leads to the expats to interact with more people, which leads them to succeed in their
22 assignment abroad. On the financial side, this form of success satisfies the company; the employee feels emotionally attached and ensures that he has succeeded as a result. Johnson et al. (2003) advise companies to further investigate the nature and function of external activity, in order for them to provide indirect success (Johnson, 2003).
2.1.4 Language
Gao & Gudykunst (1990) state, that the expat’s ability to speak the language of the country overseas, enables them to have rewarding and interpersonal exchanges with the locals (Bhaskar-Shrinivas et al. 2005). It is important not only to look at the length of the international experience, but also to assess the density or quality of experiences that expatriates face. Even the cross-cultural experiences within a host country can determine the course of the adjustment process (Bell & Harrison, 1996). It should not be overlooked that prior international assignments can also influence the success of an assignment abroad. An expatriate’s progress through the adjustment process can lead them to
successfully adjust (Bhaskar-Shrinivas et al. 2005). Shaffer et al. (1999) find it necessary that because the expatriates are always challenged as a result of uncertainty regarding objectives, goals and role requirements, the clarity or their role should be as explicit as possible. The greater the structure, the clearer the expected and necessary outcomes to perform, is. Shaffer et al. advises expatriates to become as informed as much as possible, for example, via realistic assignment previews (1999). The work uncertainty decreases once organizational support is properly designed. Coworkers and resources assist these individuals to minimize uncertainty, both with respect to work-related activities and
23 others as well. Although all this information has been tested, Bhaskar-Shrivinas et al. (2005) found that expatriate adjustment has many influences, which can have important outcomes for expatriates. The assignment follows a complex pattern over time (Black et al., 1991). Bhaskar- Shrivinas et al. (2005) state, in opposition to the evidence of Gao & Gudykunst (1990), that when one is able to speak the host language and/or has prior experience abroad, the environment has fewer effects on the adjustment process. Prior research finds that specifically the non-work and job inputs such as the spouse-family adjustment, role clarity and relational skills are extremely important and crucial for the expatriate’s adjustment process (Bhaskar- Shrivinas, 2005).
2.1.5 Work floor dynamics
In cases in which Host Country Nationals (HCNs) are brought together in a Multinational Enterprise (MNE), discrimination between groups on the work floor is automatically triggered (Toh & Denisi, 2007). From the authors' point of view, the HCNs are the
socializing agents who provide an informative role to expats and offer social support with respect to the working environment. The socializing agent behaves positively towards the other group member, which in this case, is the expat. Section 2.2 provides further
information about the interaction between expats and HCNs, with respect to perceived ethnocentrism.
Based on social identity theory, the socializing agent is expected to exhibit the willingness to provide information and social support (Tajfel, 1978; Turner & Reynolds, 2004). The socializing agent’s role is to close the gap between the members from outside
24 the group and the local employees (Javidan, Stahl, Brodbeck & Wilderom, 2005). This role is crucial for the adjustment of the expatriate manager, and more importantly, in regard to the success rates of the managers sent abroad on international assignments in MNEs.
The model from Toh & Denisi (2007) further highlights the social dynamics concerning expatriates, such as their often overlooked partners. This aspect is not
addressed in this study, in as the author is specifically interested in the social dynamics of the work floor environment. To offer a salient note here, the authors do consider the expatriate work adjustment as a process in which HCNs guide the expatriate. The salience of nationality and the categorization of the outside group decreases in instances in which HCNs are motivated to support newcomers. The motivation helps spur the following activities: employees receive rewards for helping, they become part of the supporting organizational culture, employees gain a greater understanding of the differentiation in salaries, the differentiation between salaries is more transparent and regarded as fair, and finally, the employees feel the desire to become affiliated with the outside group (Toh & Denisi, 2007).
The social agent’s role is of great importance for the success of the international assignment, as the expat faces new challenges in his new environment. Companies must establish the social agent’s role in order to ensure that the expatriate’s basic needs are met so that they may accomplish their given tasks. The social agent must teach the expatriate the structure and culture of the company, the salient characteristics of the host culture, and the necessary knowledge and social needs to perform his or her role in the most effective and optimal way possible (Furnham & Bochner, 1982; Osland, 1995). Osland
25 (1995) mentions the social transformation of the expatriate, whereas Caligiuri & DiSanto (2001) view the expatriate work adjustment process as an achievement of global
competences. Gregersen & Black (1992) described this aspect as the sense of comfort. Toh & Denisi (2007) state the management of the expatriate’s success can be addressed through feedback sessions of ordinates and subordinates.
2.1.6 A new expatriate work adjustment scale
Hippler, Caligiuri, Johnson and Baytalskaya (2014) stress the importance of further investigation into EWA via a theoretically-based model. The research from Hippler et al. (2014) is crucial for multiple stakeholder groups with respect to expats. The authors argue that adjustments can be accomplished through a good P-E relationship, which entails an adequate person-environment relationship. In their research, Lazarus & Folkman (1984) and Ady (1995) conclude that expats who adjust well to their
environment experience a psychological comfort. This psychological comfort means that they are able to function in the best and most moral way possible, from the point of view of their society, work and health (Ady, 1995). The new scale from Hippler et al. (2014) makes it easier to measure and monitor an expatriate’s success and effectiveness on their international assignment.
The model can be practically used as a dashboard for managers who are allowed to give them feedback. From now onward, expatriates may be monitored from different locations. This ability provides their supervisors with insights to their superiors on how the geographically transfer process functions across the world. A further advantage is that supervisors are able to stay updated with their job titles. This system establishes a better
26 way to tailor support practices and it assures supervisors to intervene when possible, before the situation becomes uncontrollable and likely leads to early returns. Superiors in the home country are able to proactively support the expatriate, tackle the risks and are even able to make necessary suggestions. Moreover, in the future this model will be very useful for superiors to manage the of international assignment process. Superiors feel pressure when they send people abroad. Through the use of this 'dashboard', they can proactively intervene when it is necessary (Hippler et al., 2014).
2.1.7 Women
Caligiuri, Joshi and Lazarova (1999) entered the field of the adjustment for expatriate women, regarding the cultures of new work floors. The authors found that companies should persist in the facilitation of their female expatriates throughout the whole assignment process. Cross-cultural training and relocation assistance can be deemed positive drivers for the cultural adjustment of female expatriates. In this case, it is important to note that women were not perceived negatively because they were female. This aspect also led to an increase in the adjustment process. Although the perceptions of the host country nationals were not researched, the females did not have bad experiences because they were female. Women in higher positions of power tend to be better adjusted to the new environment. One shortcoming of this research is that it focuses only on women. Future research should research both men and women. The focus here lay especially on women on international assignments (Caligiuri et al., 1999). It may be noteworthy for future research to explore the differences in adjustment for men and woman.
27 2.2 Perceived Ethnocentrism
Ethnocentrism is: "The belief that the values and attitudes held in one's own culture are superior to those held by people of other cultures (Wortzel & Wortzel, 1985)". Hall and Gudykunst (1989) add to this definition: "It is a part of individual cultural conditioning, and like culture itself, is learned at an unconscious level (Hall & Gudykunst, 1989)". Stagner (1977) states that ethnocentrism can be considered a lack of empathy or an inability to see reality as it appears to others. Bizumic (2015) states that in 1870,
Gumplowicz was the first to explain the definition of ethnocentrism. Ethnocentrism is the composition of two Greek words: ethnos and center. Ethnos means an ethnic group, nation, and its people. Gumplowicz (1879) stated that ethnocentrism can be characterized by the belief that one's own ethnic group is more important, superior and better than any other group. Sumner (1906) also added: "The view of things in which one's own group is the center of everything and all others are scaled and rates with reference to it. (Sumner (1906)" LeVine & Campbell (1972) and Bizumic (2015) found that out group negativity, or in other words, hate toward an out group, and group positivity, in other words, in-group love, are highly interrelated concepts. To describe ethnocentrism in another way, Brewer states (1999): "In-group devotion and cohesion, rejection of the out-group, group superiority and exploitative integrated relations (Brewer, 1999)". Along the way, authors focused on intra, inter or out-group factors in order to define ethnocentrism.
28 2.2.1 Socialization
Ethnocentric persons consider themselves as an in-group that holds attitudes and certain behaviors that differ from the habits of those outside the group. At the expense of the out-group, the in-group holds certain biased attitudes and behaviors in favor of the in-group (Hewstone & Ward, 1985; Islam & Hewstone, 1993; Weber, 1994).
In-group ethnocentric behavior stimulates in-group relations that are cooperatively based. At the same time, these behaviors support them against outer group members. Sharma, Shimp and Shin (1995) argue that despite the more often negative highlighted side of ethnocentrism, it can also foster in-group survival, solidarity, cooperation, loyalty and effectiveness (Neuliep & McCroskey (1997).
Studies from Neuliep & McCroskey (1997) and Neuliep, Chaudoir & McCroskey (2001) pose a new way to examine term ethnocentrism. People who are ethnocentric may have personality defects. In essence, they argue that ethnocentricity lies within everyone and exists along a given continuum. Hofstede, Hofstede and Minkov (1991) states that every newborn is born egocentric. People develop awareness by learning this from the people around then, which is known as socialization. From the years 2-3 onward, an individual’s social perspective is nurtured. Individuals who are born egocentrist become ethnocentrist through socialization. Socialization is the network that expands. First, the family fosters the newborn’s enculturation. From our maturation, we learn that our family and friends are not the center of the universe, but instead, a part of a larger network and so forth. The enculturation of people can also foster ethnocentrism in two ways. First, it can be very valuable to be ethnocentric, for example if a group is under a threat of an attack. It
29 stimulates patriotism and sacrifice to support one group (Neuliep & McCroskey, 1997). However, this explanation may be dangerous as well. It can foster into a pathological way of thinking whereby there is only one way of perception. This dynamic merges the
prejudice, discrimination and ethnic cleansing attitudes and behaviors (Neuliep, Hintz and McCroskey, 2005).
2.2.2 Transparency between groups
Expatriates fulfill a strategic role in which they support subsidiaries through the efficient control and coordination of global operations. The development and transfer of
knowledge are central activities between HQs and subsidiaries. Expatriates stimulate the international thinking within organizations.
Despite all the good work that expatriates deliver, there are still some down sides to international assignments. In most cases in which expatriates are sent abroad, for example to emerging Host Countries, the working conditions greatly differ in comparison to the parent company. Upon a close examination of the rewarding system of expatriates, we see that most of the reasons why expatriates are sent abroad are based on national culture models. In other words, the provided support has been based on the tradition to hire expats, rather than a strategic fit between the environment and the expat. Besides this failed motivation to hire expatriates, they receive different rewards then locals.
Expatriates may face high personal costs because they must cope with a culture shock, family disruptions and uncertain career prospects upon their returning to their home country. Locals are also rewarded in a different way. It is hard to combine different
30 groups of individuals who receive individual treatments in different ways. Oltra, Bonache and Brewster (2013) conclude that salaries and working conditions must be based on merit and not on nationality. A merit-based system increases the process’s fairness and the efficiency of sending someone abroad. This system also decreases the principle of discrimination and leads to a fair meritocracy in which everyone is treated equally (Oltra et al., 2013).
2.2.3 Responsibility
One underlying assumption from all previous literature is that adjustment problems are 'owned' by the expatriate or by the staff of the HQs' International Human Resoures
Management (IHRM). The parent company and the expatriate are deemed initiators when problems with respect to the assignment arise (Florkowski & Fogel, 1999).
Florlkowski & Fogel (1999) found that older persons, married individuals and people working at lower levels within the company faced more ethnocentric behavior from host individuals. Supervisors and technical support staff experience more resistance in their work because of the lack of legitimate authority in the eyes of locals. When sent abroad, expats face resistance because local employees doubt his or her authority, the urgency of his or her responsibilities, his or her sense of control over the work allocation, and even general work rules. Attempts to superimpose foreign managerial practices on host organizational systems leads the local employees to feel disenfranchised.
As expected, perceived ethnocentrism was negatively associated with expatriate work adjustment.
31 floor diversity as a serious competitive advantage, help to take the responsibilities of the parent company (PC) or the expatriate himself for the effectiveness of their work when employed abroad.
This argument may be especially helpful for host employees who display ethnocentric behavior that may impede the expatriate’s work adjustment.
We must view the hosting workforce as an extension of local capital. Vance, Wholihan and Paderon (1993) concluded that training cannot be avoided. It directs and influences the HCNs' attitudes towards different thoughts, perceptions, skills and knowledge, from which they can become supportive so that expatriates may optimally complete their assignments. Before the expatriates' arrival, Aycan (1997a) supports the idea that systematic cultural diversity training for local units can improve perceived ethnocentrism.
Gouttefarde (1992) advises MNEs to execute the preparation to decrease the amount of perceived ethnocentrism and establish a diverse and positive atmosphere. Firstly, the Host Country Company must to be informed when expats are coming, the reason as to why they are joining the host unit, as well as the envisioned impact of their international assignment. HCNs should provide trainings for host employees to create cultural awareness. Empowered
intercultural mediators must be appointed to create formal communication channels whereby employees can voice cross-cultural difficulties that arise. This process can be stimulated by host employee’s option to participate, leading them to be participant’s in the expatriates orientation and socialization process. An acknowledgement of the acculturation of host units enables them to easily adopt and to reward them with strong performance-reward incentives. Black & Gregersen (1991) found support that social support of the host country company had
32 a positive effect on expatriate adjustment. It even affected old host employees and influenced their ethnocentric attitudes and perceptions towards expatriates.
Aycan's study (1997a) became critical with respect to the amount of necessary expatriate adjustment. From his study, he found evidence that host units who received expats on their international assignment had an endogenous influence on expatriates' success. The
endogenous factor of the Host Unit came into the spotlight. The question as to who was responsible for the expatriate's success was no longer the parent companies and expatriates in particular. A shift has occurred.
2.2.4 Subordinate influence of the host country.
Templer (2010) investigates the significance of the relationship between subordinate ethnocentric behavior of local HR managers and the effect it has on expatriates’ work adjustment within international companies in Singapore. Expatriates’ strengths include their incredible high knowledge regarding the international assignment, the relational leadership skills and their cultural openness and adaptability. Templer’s study (2010) yielded data that indicates a significant negative relationship between subordinate ethnocentrism and the work adjustment, similar to the research of Florlikowski & Fogel (1999). Past literature tends to focus on the HR-managers from home countries, who decided that expats were necessary because of their job knowledge and technical competence (Anderson, 2005; Caligiuri, 1997; Sinangil & Ones, 2001). Templer’s research (2010) introduced the idea that HR-subordinates of the host country are the targeted group, rather than the expatriates or their HR-subordinates of their home
33 countries. Since subordinates have the closest contact with expatriates, these HR-subordinates from the host country should be research as well. These HR-HR-subordinates have a better view on the comprehensive and reliable impressions of the expatriate's behavior (Bernardin, 1986). Despite the great advantage of the fact that the hosts HR-subordinates facilitate the process surrounding the expert, they can also hinder the expatriate’s adjustment to the company and its culture.
Templer (2010) concludes that HR-subordinates of host countries influence the amount of ethnocentric behavior within a company, which at the same time, can influence the expatriate’s work adjustment. To address this issue, Templer develops two arguments. First, a situation can arise in which the HR-subordinate of the host country has a bad relationship with the expatriate. If they do not get along, the HR-subordinate can become a hindrance. Secondly, local subordinates develop ethnocentric behavior when the
expatriate performs below the company’s standards. There are situations that occur based on a misfit between the international assignment requirements and the extent of the expat’s adjustment to the work floor. Both situations may occur simultaneously. Templer (2010) stresses the importance of cross-cultural training and the preparation of the staff who must interact with the expat. Not only does the expatriate and the parent company requires training, the host country subordinates must also become educated before interacting with expatriates. Without proper training, it is highly plausible that the
ethnocentric behavior of HR- subordinates in host countries will be nourished negatively, which can lead expatriates to fail to adjust in their working environment.
34 2.3 Perceived Organizational Support
2.3.1 Mutual benefits
Eisenberger et al. (1986) considers the concept of perceived organizational support as an organization that cares about the well-being of its employees, and furthermore, respects the values and contributions of its employees (Eisenberger et al., 1986). Employees develop affective commitment when they feel others care about them. Eisenberger et al. (1986) surveyed a group of school teachers and found a significant relationship between a strong social exchange ideology and a low absenteeism. The social exchange theory may be defined as the employees' feeling that the
organization is committed to their values and contributions to the organization and vice versa. One can view social exchange theory as a relationship between two parties in which they give and take the things they need and value each other for their mutual respect (Masterson, Lewis, Goldman and Taylor, 2000). When
companies establish organizational support, the affective attachment of the employee increases and their expectation to be rewarded if the company reaches its goals rises as well (Eisenberger et al., 1986). Gouldner (1960) explains that we are raised as reciprocate people. It is a moral obligation to show reciprocal behavior. This moral obligation can be turned into a strategic mechanism that can be mutually beneficial in a relationship between two parties (Gouldner, 1960). The authors' practical advice to firms is to demonstrate the organization's commitment through material and symbolic rewards. In this case, the firm can also be named 'the donor'. In this case, it is important that the donor has a specific role in the exchanging relationship with its
35 employees. The organization should not show too much affection for its employees because the situation may arise in which the employee no longer shares their
valuable resources, for which they were hired. Perceived organizational support has a significant influence on the affective commitment of employees, their identity and their status in the organization. Companies should treat their losses and gains in a more personal way. They want employees to experience these losses and gains as their own. Employees should be able to evaluate the activities and characteristics of the organization; they need to have the feeling that their voices are heard. These conditions ultimately lead to an increase in the internalization of the organization’s values and norms within the company. When the feel informed and heard, employees understand the actions and priorities of the organization much better (Eisenberger et al., 1986).
2.3.2 Reciprocity
Reciprocity is an important characteristic of perceived organizational support. Many authors discovered the importance of reciprocity in their research of perceived organizational support (Gouldner, 1960; Rhoades , Eisenberger and Armeli, 2001; Kraimer & Wayne, 2004; Kraimer , Wayne and Jaworski, 2001). For example, Kraimer & Wayne (2004) divided POS into three types of POS: adjustment, career and financial POS. The authors found a significant and negative explanation for the relationship between adjustment POS and a task or contextual performance. A company can overkill its employees with adjustment POS. Adjustment POS is the POS in which expats receive cross-cultural training, language training and family
36 relocation support. People who receive education about cultural differences become culturally aware of the differences that they face every day. The authors provide the possible explanation that people can lose their focus on their job tasks when they receive too much adjustment POS. In this instance, it is noteworthy that evidence was found with respect to the fact that adjustment enhancing activities should be undertaken. The research from Lui & Ipe (2010) found evidence in support of expats’ success through continuing employee assistance programs, trainings and psychological counseling activities provided by their parent company (Liu & Ipe, 2010). Two other authors stressed the importance of the daily assistance or one-side mentoring executed by subsidiaries (Aycan, 1997a; Feldman & Bolino, 1999; Kawai & Strange, 2014). The other variables from Kraimer & Wayne’s research (2004) include career POS and financial POS, which both led to positive effects from the parent company and the completion of the international task. They also demonstrated a positive effect on the commitment to the foreign facility and task performance. These findings may be explained similarly to the findings from Rhoades et al.'s (2001) research, whereby the reciprocal behavior of employees rises because of the beneficial gains that the employee receives from the favor of the company.
The literature review provides insight into all the differences and similarities between research conducted by many authors. The next chapter states the clear definition used and identifies how the research questions lead to the given hypotheses. It also demonstrates this thesis’s theoretical framework.
37 3 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
The first chapter provides a short overview of the world of expats on a global level, company level and individual level. The second section reviews past literature. In order to reach a better understanding of the researched topic, a connection is made between the literature on expatriate work adjustment, perceived ethnocentrism and perceived organizational support. In this theoretical framework, relationships between the variables are expected to occur that the remainder of this study subsequently addresses.
This research adopts Hippler et al.'s (2014) definition of expatriate work
adjustment, (EWA) as "a comfortable person-environment relationship of the expat in which the employee meets the required standard way of effective and efficient way of working within a foreign company". The definition of perceived ethnocentrism (PE) is based on the concept established by Neuliep & McCroskey (2013), whereby PE can be defined as "The belief that the values and attitudes held in one's own culture are superior to those held by people of other cultures." People learn beliefs and values from an early age, and therefore, this process may be termed socialization.
Ethnocentricity has been anchored in every human being and therefore exists along a given continuum (Neuliep & McCroskey, 2013). The perceived organizational support variable is defined as "an organization that cares about the well-being of its employees and respects the values and contributions of its employees (Eisenberger et al., 1986).
38 These definitions lead to the following research question:
To what extent is the relationship between perceived ethnocentrism (PE) on
expatriate work adjustment (EWA) moderated by perceived organizational support
(POS)?
This research expects POS to have a moderating effect on the relationship between PE on EWA. The following section operationalizes these variables. Before the
operationalization of the variables in the next chapter, this study’s hypotheses are first established.
Hypothesis 1: A negative relationship between perceived ethnocentrism and
expatriate work adjustment is expected. In the case of low perceived ethnocentrism, a high expatriate work adjustment is expected. In the case of high perceived
ethnocentrism, a low expatriate work adjustment is expected.
A low level of PE states the beliefs of other values and attitudes are not deemed superior to a foreigner, which makes it easier for an expat to adjust, because the foreign employee feels at home. A high level of PE indicates that the beliefs of other values and attitudes are felt superior to those of a foreigner, which makes it harder for the expat to adjust, as the employee will definitely not feel at home. The employee faces the challenges of feeling different in comparison to the locals (Neuliep & McCroskey, 2013; Hippler et al., 2014).
Hypothesis 2: A positive relationship between perceived organizational support and expatriate work adjustment is expected.
39 This expected relationship is based upon the literature, as it indicated that
organizational support leads to an earlier adjustment among different work floors. The employee feels cared for and respected, and in return, they reciprocate this same behavior. It is a mutual beneficial relationship in which the organization shows a certain amount of affection to the employee and vice versa (Eisenberger et al., 1986).
Hypothesis 3: The effect between perceived ethnocentrism on expatriate work
adjustment is stronger in cases of low perceived organizational support than in cases of high perceived organizational support.
The outcome of this variable indicates whether company’s value organizational support and whether they provide it to their expats. The relationship of PE on EWA is stronger in cases in which there is a lack of perceived organizational support. The effect of the relationship between PE and EWA is lower in cases of a high POS.
40 The next chapter outlies which methods the theoretical framework uses to
operationalize. What kind of research method and which scales have been used? What do the participants look like, what kind of sampling has been used to reach the focus group, and what kind of procedure did the focus group need to follow?
41 4 METHODS
The last chapter explained the study’s theoretical framework. This chapter demonstrates the ways in which the theoretical model has been operationalized. Firstly, the most important information about the participants, their nationalities, their educational background, age, gender, their incentives to go abroad and their decision to go abroad are outlined. Secondly, the participants were asked to answer an online survey, which concerns available contemporary questions and scales. Thirdly, the explanation of the scales shows the reader the ways in which the research has been executed. Lastly, the procedure touches upon the in-depth instructions of the online survey. Further statistical outcomes can be found at the end in the Appendix chapter (Appendix 9.3, p. 71-119).
4.1 Participants
The participants are expats who work in international firms based in the Netherlands. Of the 155 respondents who entered the survey, only 73 completed the survey. The length of the survey may have led to this lower number of completed surveys. The participants have a foreign nationality and are non-Dutch. The respondent group contains expats on international assignments who interact with other expats and local Dutch employees on the work floor. The dominant group of expats who work in the Netherlands are expats from the United Kingdom, and the second and third more prevalent groups are from Germany and the United States of America (Appendix 9.3, Output 1, p. 71). The educational degree is also an important aspect to consider,
42 independently of whether an individual is an expat or not, in accordance with Dutch law (Berkhout et al., 2010). Most of the expats went to University (Appendix 9.3, Output 2, p. 73). The proportion of people with an educational background in the social sciences- economics, business and law was the highest (Appendix 9.3, Output 7a, p. 82). The biggest incentive for the expats to go abroad is the job and career option (Appendix 9.3, Output 3a and 3b, p. 73). The most common reason that expats went abroad was 'other', as the survey question clearly did not have enough options in this case (Appendix 9.3, Output 4a and 4b, p. 75-76). The distribution of gender is divided between 32 women and 41 men, respectively (Appendix 9.3, Output 5, p. 79). The age range between 28 and 34 had the greatest number of expats (Appendix 9.3, Output 6, p. 80-81).
4.1.1 Networking
This research utilized convenience sampling in order to reach respondents for the survey. The researcher approached individuals via her own business and private network. Her business network consists of colleagues at a company within the Management Consulting Industry. Furthermore, friends and colleagues of this
Management Consulting Company were invited via a live conversation and they were then invited by email. Facebook panel group pages such as 'Expats in The
Netherlands', 'Expats in Amsterdam', posts on panel websites such as Linkedin and Internations were also used to approach expats. An online list 'Recognised Sponsors (Referenten lijst)' of companies that employ expats from the website from Ministry of Safety & Justice was used as a first step for the researcher to find people who she
43 could approach from her own network. The researcher's first contacts with expats outside company X were mostly via mediators such as global mobility managers and the Human Resources departments. Both cold calling and emailing was used as part of this process. Neither the mediators nor the participants received any financial gains from this research; the mediators and participants participated voluntarily.
4.2 Materials
4.2.1 Expatriate work adjustment- scale (Hippler et al., 2014)
In order to measure the dependent variable, the EWA-scale was used, which consisted of 23 items. The participants were presented with four different topics based on the four factors employed in the study from Hippler et al. (2014): work environment, language, job or task characteristics and work–life balance. Respondents were asked how significant the change of their working and life environment was on a scale of 1-4. In the research of Hippler et al., 1 correlated with very insignificant and 4 correlated with very significant. The researcher chose to reverse these values to better align this question with others in the survey. After this question, it the survey asked the
participants whether this experience was positive (+1), neutral (0) or negative (-1). The significant ratings from 1 to 4 were first recoded to obtain the original answers, which were in line with Hippler et al. (2014) and multiplied in their given directions (-1,0,1) to calculate the variable for each participating expatriate. A value between -4 and 4 was obtained. The binary aspect of this question asked, which asked the
participants whether there was a change between their work/life environments, was not included in the survey.
44 4.2.2 Perceived Ethnocentrism- scale (Neuliep & McCroskey 2013)
The PE-scale contains 22 items on a five points Likert scale from "strongly disagree to strongly agree (Neuliep & McCroskey, 2013). Three questions were recoded and according to the instructions of Neuliep & McCroskey (2013), seven questions needed to be dropped in order to obtain the correct value for the independent variable, which was perceived organisational support.
4.2.3 Perceived Organizational Support- scale (Eisenberger et al., 1986) Eisenberger et al. (1986) developed a scale with 36 items, which in this case is a shorter version of Eisenberger et al.'s scale, whereby 8 items were used to measure the amount of POS. The researcher decided to use the short version of Eisenberger et al. (1986) to measure the independent variable. A 7 point Likert- scale was used, which ranged strongly disagree to strongly agree. Four questions were recoded and a mean of this variable was created afterwards.
4.3 Procedure
The participants did not receive a great amount of information beforehand. They received one email from the researcher, which was transferred via the global mobility manager to expats. Some participants were part of the researcher's network. They first received an invite for the survey. When they confirmed their participation, they received the same email that every expat received, which included a survey link (figure 1). The participants were instructed to choose the first option that suited best. The researcher was interested in the first opinion. The instructions in the invitation
45 email corresponded to the survey. Participants were instructed to choose the first option that came to mind. The participants were not able to press a reverse button to return to a question asked earlier. The reverse button was removed in order to prevent participants from giving the 'desirable answers', which would make themselves look good. The participants did have the opportunity to save their answers, and were provided a maximum one week after opening the survey to complete the answers. The potential participants were able to fill in the survey from the end of December of 2015 until the end of March 2016.
This chapter detailed the methods, scales and procedure used in this study. The next chapter provides an overview of the most important outcomes of the multiple hierarchical regression. The SPSS output can be found in the appendix at the end (Appendix 9.3, p. 69-91)
