Als pionier op het onderzoeksterrein van geheugen functioneren bij psychopathie is met huidige studie een essentiële eerste stap gezet: de eerste evidentie voor een hostiele geheugenbias bij psychopathie, en de relatie met agressie, is gevonden. De kracht van dit onderzoek zat hem echter niet enkel in het ‘op de kaart zetten’ van dit onderwerp. Er zijn een aantal punten die de resultaten van dit onderzoek kracht bijzetten, en het benoemen waard zijn.
Ten eerste is er belangrijke evidentie gevonden voor de hypothese dat een grotere mate van psychopathie gepaard gaat met een grotere vatbaarheid voor het creëren van valse, hostiele herinneringen. Bovendien leidt een toename in valse hostiele herinneringen tot een toename aan proactieve agressie; hetgeen kenmerkend is voor psychopathie. Ten tweede is de samenstelling van de deelnemers een enorme kracht. Met dank aan de participatie van zowel niet gedetineerde als gedetineerde mannen valt er te spreken over een diverse sample die de generaliseerbaarheid van dit onderzoek vergroot. Ten derde is al het gebruikte testmateriaal reeds bekend, gebruikt en veelvuldig gevalideerd in andere wetenschappelijke onderzoeken, hetgeen de betrouwbaarheid en validiteit van de onderzoeksopzet garandeert en replicaties eenvoudig mogelijk maakt. In aanvulling hierop heeft, ten vierde, de uitgebreide analyse van de mogelijke tekortkomingen van dit onderzoek, nieuwe inzichten en gerichte adviezen voor vervolgonderzoek opgeleverd. Als laatste dient benadrukt te worden dat de gevonden resultaten een groot maatschappelijk belang hebben en de therapeutische behandelmogelijkheden van psychopathie kunnen vergroten, waarbij meer aandacht wordt besteed aan het uitdagen van het geheugen. Tevens biedt het wellicht nieuwe kansen voor toekomstige diagnosticeer- en risicotaxatie methoden. Wellicht kan uiteindelijk het experimenteel testen van een vals hostiel geheugen bijdragen aan ondersteuning voor de diagnose psychopathie of het inschatten van recidive risico’s.
Al met al kan afgesloten worden met enthousiasme en hoop op nieuwe en relevante ontdekkingen op dit onderzoeksterrein. Ook kan er voorzichtig toewerkt worden naar een beter begrip van het prototype psychopaat en de mechanismen die mogelijk een rol spelen bij de karakteriserende gewelddadige gedragingen. Hetgeen leidt tot de veronderstelde conclusie van dit onderzoek; een gewelddadig geheugen, bij gewelddadig gedrag.
Referenties
Abbott, V., Black, J. B., & Smith, E. E. (1985). The representation of schema’s in memory. Journal of Memory and Language, 24(2), 179-199.
d’Acremont, M., & Linden, M. (2007). Memory for angry faces, impulsivity, and problematic behavior in adolescence. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 35, 313-324.
Allred, K. D., & Smith, T. W. (1991). Social cognition in cynical hostility. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 15(5), 399 – 412.
Anderson, C. A., & Bushman, B. J. (2002). Human Aggression. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 27-51.
Anderson, C. A., & Ford, C. M. (1986). Affect of the game player: short-term effects of highly and mildly aggressive video games. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 12(4), 390-402. Bales, D., Beek, N. V., Smits, M., Willemsen, S., Busschbach, J. J., Verheul, R., & Andrea, H. (2012).
Treatment outcome of 18-month, day hospital mentalization-tased treatment (MBT) in patients with severe borderline personality disorder in the Netherlands. Journal of Personality Disorders, 568-582.
Baron-Cohen, S., Jolliffe, T., Mortimore, C., & Robertson, M. (1997). Another advanced test of theory of mind: evidence from very high functioning adults with autism or asperger syndrome. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 38(7), 813-822.
Bateman, A., & Fonagy, P. (2006). Introduction to mentalization. Mentalization-based Treatment for Borderline Personality Disorder A Practical Guide, 1-10.
Bishopp, D., & Hare, R. D. (2008). A multidimensional scaling analysis of the Hare PCL-R: Unfolding the structure of psychopathy. Psychology, Crime & Law, 14(2), 117-132.
Bredart, S. (2000). When false memories do not occur: Not thinking of the lure or remembering that it was not heard? Memory, 8(2), 123-128.
Cima, M., & Raine, A. (2009). Distinct characteristics of psychopathy relate to different subtypes of aggression. Personality and Individual Differences, 47(8), 835-840.
Cima, M., Raine, A., Meesters, C., & Popma, A. (2013). Validation of the Dutch Reactive Proactive Questionnaire (RPQ): Differential correlates of reactive and proactive aggression from childhood to adulthood. Aggressive Behavior, 39(2), 99-113.
Cleckley, H. M. (1976). The mask of sanity: An attempt to clarify some issues about the so-called psychopathic personality. St. Louis: Mosby.
Coid, J., Yang, M., Ullrich, S., Roberts, A., & Hare, R. D. (2009). Prevalence and correlates of
psychopathic traits in the household population of Great Britain. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 32(2), 65-73.
Coid, J., Yang, M., Ullrich, S., Roberts, A., Moran, P., Bebbington, P., Hare, R. (2009). Psychopathy among prisoners in England and Wales. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 32(3), 134-141.
Crick, N. R., & Dodge, K. A. (1994). A review and reformulation of social information-processing mechanisms in children's social adjustment. Psychological Bulletin, 115(1), 74-101.
Crick, N. R., & Dodge, K. A. (1996). Social information-processing mechanisms in reactive and proactive aggression. Child Development, 67(3), 993-1002.
Deese, J. (1959). On the prediction of occurrence of particular verbal intrusions in immediate recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 58(1), 17-22.
Denson, T. F., Pedersen, W. C., Friese, M., Hahm, A., & Roberts, L. (2011). Understanding impulsive aggression: Angry rumination and reduced self-control capacity are mechanisms underlying the provocation-aggression relationship. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 37(6), 850-862.
Dewall, C. N., Twenge, J. M., Gitter, S. A., & Baumeister, R. F. (2009). It's the thought that counts: The role of hostile cognition in shaping aggressive responses to social exclusion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96(1), 45-59.
Dimaggio, P. (1997). Culture and Cognition. Annual Review of Sociology, 23(1), 263-287.
Dodge, K. A., & Coie, J. D. (1987). Social-information-processing factors in reactive and proactive aggression in children's peer groups. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53(6), 1146- 1158.
Dodge, K. A., Price, J. M., Bachorowski, J., & Newman, J. P. (1990). Hostile attributional biases in severely aggressive adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 99(4), 385-392.
Dodge, K. A., & Somberg, D. R. (1987). Hostile attributional biases among aggressive boys are exacerbated under conditions of threats to the self. Child Development, 58(1), 213.
Dodson, C. S., & Schacter, D. L. (2001). “If I had said it I would have remembered it: Reducing false memories with a distinctiveness heuristic. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 8(1), 155-161. Dolan, M., & Fullam, R. (2006). Face affect recognition deficits in personality-disordered offenders:
Association with psychopathy. Psychological Medicine, 36(11), 1563.
Epps, J., & Kendall, P. C. (1995). Hostile attributional bias in adults. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 19(2), 159-178.
Fabiansson, E. C., Denson, T. F., Moulds, M. L., Grisham, J. R., & Schira, M. M. (2012). Don't look back in anger: Neural correlates of reappraisal, analytical rumination, and angry rumination during recall of an anger-inducing autobiographical memory. NeuroImage, 59(3), 2974-2981.
Fite, P. J., Raine, A., Stouthamer-Loeber, M., Loeber, R., & Pardini, D. A. (2010). Reactive and proactive aggression in adolescent males: Examining differential outcomes 10 years later in early
adulthood. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 37(2), 141-157.
Friedman, R. (1971). The Relationship between intelligence and performance on the Stroop color-word test in second- and fifth-grade children. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 118(1), 147-148. Gallo, L. C., & Smith, T. W. (1999). Patterns of hostility and social support: Conceptualizing
psychosocial risk factors as characteristics of the person and the environment. Journal of Research in Personality, 33(3), 281-310.
García-Bajos, E., Migueles, M., & Aizpurua, A. (2012). Bias of script-driven processing on eyewitness memory in young and older adults. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 26(5), 737-745.
Gillund, G., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1984). A retrieval model for both recognition and recall. Psychological Review, 91(1), 1-67.
Gramann, K., Ferris, D. P., Gwin, J., & Makeig, S. (2014). Imaging natural cognition in action. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 91(1), 22-29.
Gretton, H. M., Hare, R. D., & Catchpole, R. E. (2004). Psychopathy and offending from adolescence to adulthood: A 10-Year follow-up. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72(4), 636-645.
Gretton, H. M., Mcbride, M., Hare, R. D., O'shaughnessy, R., & Kumka, G. (2001). Psychopathy and Recidivism in Adolescent Sex Offenders. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 28(4), 427-449.
Griffiths, M. (1999). Violent video games and aggression. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 4(2), 203-212. Häkkänen-Nyholm, H. & Hare, R. D. (2009). Psychopathy and homicide. Criminal Justice and Behavior,
in press.
Hare, R. D. (1980). A research scale for the assessment of psychopathy in criminal populations. Personality and Individual Differences, 1(2), 111-119.
Hare, R. D. (1991). The Hare psychopathy checklist-revised: Manual. North Tonawanda, NY: Multi-Health Systems.
Hare, R. D. (1999). Psychopathy as a risk factor for violence. Psychiatric Quarterly, 70(3), 181 – 195. Hare, R. D., & Mcpherson, L. M. (1984). Violent and aggressive behavior by criminal psychopaths.
International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 7(1), 35-50.
Harpur, T. J., Hare, R. D., & Hakstian, A. R. (1989). Two-factor conceptualization of psychopathy: Construct validity and assessment implications. Psychological Assessment, 1(1), 6-17. Harris, G. T., Rice, M. E. (2006). Treatment of psychopathy: A review of emperical findings. Clinical
and Aplied Issues. 555 – 772.
Harris, G. T., Rice, M. E., & Cormier, C. A. (1991). Psychopathy and violent recidivism. Law and Human Behavior, 15(6), 625-637.
Hart, S. D. (1998). The role of psychopathy in assessing risk for violence: Conceptual and methodological issues. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 3(1), 121-137.
Holt, S. E., Meloy, R. M. & Strack, S. S. (1999). Sadism and psychopathy in violent and sexually violent offenders. J Am Acad Psychiatry Law, 2 (1), 23 – 32.
Howe, M. L., & Malone, C. (2011). Mood-congruent true and false memory: Effects of depression. Memory, 19(2), 192-201.
Huesmann, L. R. (1988). An information processing model for the development of aggression. Aggressive Behavior, 14(1), 13-24.
Jensen, A. R., & Rohwer, W. D. (1966). The stroop color-word test: A review. Acta Psychologica, 25, 36-93.
Joormann, J., Teachman, B. A., & Gotlib, I. H. (2009). Sadder and less accurate? False memory for negative material in depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 118(2), 412-417.
Jørgensen, C. R., Freund, C., Bøye, R., Jordet, H., Andersen, D., & Kjølbye, M. (2012). Outcome of mentalization-based and supportive psychotherapy in patients with borderline personality disorder: A randomized trial. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 127(4), 305-317.
Kirsch, L. G., & Becker, J. V. (2007). Emotional deficits in psychopathy and sexual sadism: Implications for violent and sadistic behavior. Clinical Psychology Review, 27(8), 904-922.
Lenton, A. P., Blair, I. V., & Hastie, R. (2001). Illusions of gender: Stereotypes evoke false memories. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 37(1), 3-14.
Lilienfeld, S. O., & Andrews, B. P. (1996). Development and preliminary validation of a self-report measure of psychopathic personality yraits in noncriminal population. Journal of Personality Assessment, 66(3), 488-524.
Nentjes, L., Bernstein, D., Arntz, A., Breukelen, G. V., & Slaats, M. (2015). Examining the influence of psychopathy, hostility biases, and automatic processing on criminal offenders' Theory of Mind. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 38, 92-99.
Mitte, K. (2008). Memory bias for threatening information in anxiety and anxiety disorders: A meta- analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 134(6), 886-911.
Moradi, A. R., Heydari, A. H., Abdollahi, M. H., Rahimi-Movaghar, V., Dalgleish, T., & Jobson, L. (2015). Visual false memories in posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 124(4), 905-917.
Moritz, S., Gläscher, J., & Brassen, S. (2005). Investigation of mood-congruent false and true memory recognition in depression. Depression and Anxiety Depress. Anxiety, 21(1), 9-17.
Newhagen, J. E. (1998). TV news images that induce anger, fear, and disgust: Effects on approach- avoidance and memory. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 42(2), 265-276.
Nouvion, S. O., Cherek, D. R., Lane, S. D., Tcheremissine, O. V., & Lieving, L. M. (2007). Human proactive aggression: Association with personality disorders and psychopathy. Aggressive Behavior, 33(6), 552-562.
Paunovic, N., Lundh, L., & Öst, L. (2003). Memory bias for faces that are perceived as hostile by crime victims with acute post-traumatic stress disorder. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 32(4), 203-214.
Porter, S., Woodworth, M., Earle, J., Drugge, J., & Boer, D. (2003). Characteristics of sexual homicides committed by psychopathic and nonpsychopathic offenders. Law and Human Behavior, 27(5), 459-470.
Poythress, N. G., Edens, J. F., & Lilienfeld, S. O. (1998). Criterion-related validity of the Psychopathic Personality Inventory in a prison sample. Psychological Assessment, 10(4), 426-430.
Raine, A., Dodge, K., Loeber, R., Gatzke-Kopp, L., Lynam, D., Reynolds, C., Liu, J. (2006). The reactive–proactive aggression questionnaire: Differential correlates of reactive and proactive aggression in adolescent boys. Aggressive Behavior, 32(2), 159-171.
Rerup, C., & Feldman, M. S. (2011). Routines as a source of change in organizational schemata: The role of trial-and-error learning. Academy of Management Journal, 54(3), 577-610.
Ridout, N., Astell, A., Reid, I., Glen, T., & O'carroll, R. (2003). Memory bias for emotional facial expressions in major depression. Cognition & Emotion, 17(1), 101-122.
Roediger, H. L., & Mcdermott, K. B. (1995). Creating false memories: Remembering words not presented in lists. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 21(4), 803-814.
Rubin, D. C. (2006). The basic-systems model of episodic memory. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 1(4), 277–311.
Ruci, L., Tomes, J. L., & Zelenski, J. M. (2009). Mood-congruent false memories in the DRM paradigm. Cognition and Emotion, 23(6), 1153-1165.
Salekin, R. T. (2008). Psychopathy and recidivism from mid-adolescence to young adulthood: Cumulating legal problems and limiting life opportunities. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 117(2), 386-395.
Salekin, R. T., Rogers, R., Ustad, K. L., & Sewell, K. W. (1998). Psychopathy and recidivism among female inmates. Law and Human Behavior, 22(1), 109-128.
Salekin, R. T., Worley, C., & Grimes, R. D. (2010). Treatment of psychopathy: A review and brief introduction to the mental model approach for psychopathy. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 28(2), 235-266.
Sanford, L. C., & Fisk, J. E. (2009). How does the extraversion personality trait influence false recall with the Deese–Roediger–McDermott (DRM) paradigm? Journal of Research in Personality, 43(6), 972-977.
Schacter, D. L., & Dodson, C. S. (2002). Misattribution, false recognition and the sins of memory. Episodic Memory: New Directions in Research, 71-85.
Schönenberg, M., & Jusyte, A. (2013). Investigation of the hostile attribution bias toward ambiguous facial cues in antisocial violent offenders. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 264(1), 61-69.
Skeem, J. L., Monahan, J., & Mulvey, E. P. (2002). Psychopathy, treatment involvement, and
subsequent violence among civil psychiatric patients. Law and Human Behavior, 26(6), 577-603. Skeem, J. L., Poythress, N., Edens, J. F., Lilienfeld, S. O., & Cale, E. M. (2003). Psychopathic personality
or personalities? Exploring potential variants of psychopathy and their implications for risk assessment. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 8(5), 513-546.
Smeets, T., Otgaar, H., Candel, I., & Wolf, O. T. (2008). True or false? Memory is differentially affected by stress-induced cortisol elevations and sympathetic activity at consolidation and retrieval. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 33(10), 1378-1386.
Smith, R. E., & Hunt, R. R. (1998). Presentation modality affects false memory. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 5(4), 710-715.
Smock, C. D., & Holt, B. G. (1962). Children's reactions to novelty: An experimental study of "curiosity motivation" Child Development, 33(3), 631.
Steyvers, M., & Hemmer, P. (2012). Reconstruction from memory in naturalistic environments. Psychology of Learning and Motivation, 125-144.
Stroop, J. R. (1935). Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 18(6), 643-662.
Takarangi, M. K., Polaschek, D. L., Hignett, A., & Garry, M. (2007). Chronic and temporary aggression causes hostile false memories for ambiguous information. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 22(1), 39-49.
Trull, T. J. (2005). dimensional models of personality disorder: Coverage and cutoffs. Journal of Personality Disorders, 19(3), 262-282.
Tulving, E., Donaldson, W., & Bower, G. H. (1972). Organization of memory. New York: Academic Press.
Uzieblo, K., Verschuere, B., Bussche, E. V., & Crombez, G. (2009). The validity of the Psychopathic Personality Inventory-Revised in a Community Sample. Assessment, 17(3), 334-346. Vannucci, M., Nocentini, A., Chiorri, C., & Menesini, E. (2014). Brief report: Violent false memories
and engagement in aggressive and delinquent behavior: An investigation in adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 37(8), 1329-1333.
Vannucci, M., Nocentini, A., Mazzoni, G., & Menesini, E. (2012). Recalling unpresented hostile words: False memories predictors of traditional and cyberbullying. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 9(2), 182-194.
Vitale, J. E., Baskin-Sommer, A. R., Schmitt, W. A., & Newman, J. P. (2015). Experimental
investigations of information deficiencies in psychopatic individuals. Clinical Forensic, 6(9), 54 – 72.
Vitale, J. E., Newman, J. P., Serin, R. C., & Bolt, D. M. (2005). Hostile attributions in incarcerated adult male offenders: An exploration of diverse pathways. Aggressive Behavior, 31(2), 99-115. Willingham, D. T. (2007). Cognition: The thinking animal. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice
Hall.
Woodworth, M., & Porter, S. (2002). In cold blood: Characteristics of criminal homicides as a function of psychopathy. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111(3), 436-445.
Zhu, B., Chen, C., Loftus, E., Lin, C., He, Q., Chen, C., Dong, Q. (2010). Individual differences in false memory from misinformation: Cognitive factors. Memory, 18(5), 543-555.
A
P P E N D I X
A
Onderstaand worden de gebruikte woordlijsten behorend bij de DRM-taak gepresenteerd, verdeeld over de drie valenties; neutraal, negatief en hostiel. Het eerste, dikgedrukte woord, weergeeft de lure van de desbetreffende woordenlijst. Daaronder wordt de bron van de woordenlijst cursief weergeven.
NEUTRAAL
Stoel Voet Fruit
Tafel Schoen Appel
Zit Hand Groente
Poten Teen Sinaasappel
Zitplaats Schoppen Kiwi
Bank Sandalen Citrusvrucht
Bureau Lopen Schaal
Ligbed Enkel Peer
Sofa Arm Banaan
Kussen Laars Mand
Kruk Sok Boomgaard
Berg Koning Heuvel Koningin Vallei Kasteel Klimmen Kroon Piek Prins Top Paleis Toppunt Troon Gletsjer Schaken Mountainbike Regeren Klimmer Monarch Gebergte Vorstelijk NEGATIEF
Slaaf Gevaar Stank
Bediende Riskeren Reuk
Afhankelijk Risico Aroma
Onderdanig Oppassen Lucht
Neger Voorzichtigheid Walm
Mishandeld Waarschuwing Stinken
Vastgebonden Veilig Meuren
Gevangene Letsel Wierook
Opgesloten Help Ruiken
Gedomineerd Dreiging Parfum
Dood Ziek Levend Beroerd Kist Griep Lijk Misselijk Graf Virus Begraven Ziekenhuis Zwart Koorts Bleek Aandoening Skelet Gezond Begrafenis Braaksel Kerkhof Bacterie HOSTIEL
Moord Haat Vechten
Doodslag Verachten Ruzieën
Bloed Afkeer Gevecht
Politie Liefde Conflict
Eng Wraak Discussie
Moordenaar Vooroordeel Onenigheid
Misdaad Vijand Strijd
Bang Walging Vuisten
Dader Oorlog Rel
Pistool Moorden Gestreden
Overval Beledigen Boxen
Boosheid Doden Tieren Ombrengen Vijandigheid Zelfmoord Woede Geweld Frustratie Jagen Humeur Schieten Driftbui Steken Gewelddadig Aanval Gevecht Doodslag Ergeren Vernielen Ruzie Schot !