Characteristics of the new generation teachers in the educational sector

Characteristics of the new generation teachers in the educational sector

Master thesis, MSc Human Resource Management

University of Groningen, Faculty of Economics and Business

August, 2011

LOTTE DE BOER

Student number 1625543

Amalia van Solmsstraat 26B

9717 AN Groningen

Phone: + 31 620674285

L.J.deBoer1@gmail.com

Supervisors/ University

Dr. P.H. van der Meer

Prof. Dr. H.B.M. Molleman

Supervisor/ Field of study

H. Hof

Characteristics of the new generation teachers in the educational sector

ABSTRACT

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT 20

1. INTRODUCTION 50

2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 80

2.1 Changing work environment 80

2.2 Teachers’ profession is changing 90

2.3 Commitment 10

2.4 Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation 11

2.5 Attracting and retaining the worker 2.0, and public interventions in the

educational sector 13

2.5.1. Intrinsic motivational characteristics 13

2.5.2. Extrinsic motivational characteristics 18

3. METHODS 21 3.1 Procedure 21 3.2 Participants 22 3.3 Measures 22 3.4 Data analysis 25 4. RESULTS 25

4.1 Correlations and descriptives 25

4.2 Hypotheses testing 26

4.2.1. Mediation model intrinsic motivation 26 4.2.2. Mediation model extrinsic motivation 27

4.2.3. Model commitment 28

5. DISCUSSION 28

5.2 Limitations and future research 31

5.3 Theoretical implications 32

5.4 Practical implications 32

REFERENCES 35

1. INTRODUCTION

The young generation employees wants it all and wants it immediately; in terms of a rapid career development, a good level of pay and benefits, a well-balanced work-life relationship and an adequate level of interesting employment challenges (Broadbridge et al., 2009; Erickson, 2009; Ng et al., 2010, Meister & Willyerd, 2010). These (future) young generation employees, named the ‘generation Y’ or ‘millennium workers’ have now started entering the labour market.

As a result, there is a growing trend of non- standardized employment relations which is characterized by differentiation and individualization. Young employees strive for customization of the employment relation accompanied by more flexible working hours, a growing variation in rewards and more personal development opportunities (Huiskamp et al., 2002; Kessels & Poell, 2001; Morssinkhof, 2003,). The Dutch Centre for Social Innovation named this type of employee the ‘worker 2.0’ (Akkerman et al., 2008). However, not only employees have changing expectations of the employment relation and work environment. Also employers and the society as a whole increased the demand on different types of knowledge and skills (Huiskamp, 2004).

In order to ensure that future employers are able to attract the worker 2.0 and to be able to comply with the changing expectations of this new generation employees, a new organizational structure and a different approach for personnel policy is required. Therefore, more research is needed to get understanding of the expectations of the worker 2.0. Especially to the expectations of young (future) teachers, given that The Netherlands want to belong to the countries in the world with the highest educational level. Hereby it is important to notice that the quality of teachers is the most important modifiable factor for the quality level of education (Auguste et al., 2010; Hattie, 2009; Onderwijsraad, 2011). However, it is unknown whether the current young generation (future) teachers actually meet these requirements of this worker 2.0. Hence, this research paper focuses on the characteristics of the new generation teachers.

the advisory report ‘Teachers in The Netherlands’ (2007), improvements can be accomplished by encouraging a more rapid growth of teachers’ salaries and by providing additional training opportunities. This creates more career development options. Also, more time should come available for the guidance of starting young teachers. Because when young teachers enter a new organization they learn to adapt to the current dominant culture, rather than being innovative and applying their own knowledge (Coonen, 2005).

For these reasons, paying attention to the characteristics of young teachers is important for retaining them in the educational sector. Also import to know are the preferred employment conditions which make (future) teachers stay in the profession. In this perspective it is essential that employers set realistic job expectations, since setting realistic job expectations positively influences the level of job satisfaction (Brett et al., 1982; Phillips, 1998). If a job meets the expectation level of new employees, job attractiveness increases and the level of voluntary turnover decreases.

Altogether, these changing expectations of the young generation employees and the new public interventions in the educational sector by the Dutch government can be seen through the theoretical lens of organizational commitment (Mir & Mosco, 2002; Meyer & Allen, 1991;1997). Committed teachers in the educational sector are crucial in order to guarantee a certain quality level of education in The Netherlands and to ensure that the level of teacher shortage will be minimized. According to Meyer and Allen (1991; 1997), commitment is a psychological state of connecting employees to the organization. By stimulating creativity and initiatives of employees, more commitment is created towards the organizations’ mission. Also, committed employees are more likely to stay, given that commitment positively affects attendance at work, job performance, job fit and the level of investment (Meyer & Allen, 1997). In addition, a distinction can be made between intrinsic and extrinsic motivational characteristics of young teachers. Therefore, this research investigates to what extend the characteristics of the worker 2.0 explain commitment towards the (future) employer affected by intrinsic and extrinsic motivational factors.

someone who successfully completed education, with less (or without) teaching experience (Coonen, 2005). The following research questions were formulated:

1. Do (future) teachers in secondary education meet the standards of the new worker 2.0 and what do they expect from their new employer?

2. To what extend do the characteristics of the worker 2.0 explain commitment towards the (future) employer, mediated by intrinsic and extrinsic motivation?

This research was conducted on behalf of the Openbare Scholen Gemeenschap (OSG) Sevenwolden. OSG Sevenwolden is a public secondary educational network which includes seven locations in Heerenveen, Joure and Grou-Akkrum in The Netherlands. In total, OSG Sevenwolden provides education to 3100 students. OSG Sevenwolden offers different levels of education (in Dutch): Praktijkonderwijs, LWOO, VMBO, HAVO, Atheneum and Gymnasium. This dynamic and professional organization is characterized by small scale education.

At the moment, OSG Sevenwolden is developing a new strategy for creating challenging career opportunities for teachers within the organization. They want to stimulate young teachers to use their learned insights by setting up a ‘competence mix’ which contains development criteria, competence reviews and evaluation sessions about the individual development. Important here is the individual need versus the organizational need. Both goals, individual and organizational, should be served when developing personnel policy. In the end, the goal is to create an environment in which teachers think in competences. The recruitment and selection process of new teachers should be based on these competences in sake of creating one consistent development route. Therefore, it is important to know the expectations of new employment standards of the worker 2.0 for personnel policy at OSG Sevenwolden.

presented and discussed. This research paper will be concluded by discussing both theoretical and practical implications.

2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Nowadays, both employers and employees recognize the necessity of learning programs which give support and encourage a continuous creative learning process in the work environment (Shalley & Gibson, 2004; Kessels & Poell, 2001). Hereby, organizations face a challenge to create an environment in which working and learning go hand in hand. These changing thoughts about business and management practices have a widespread influence on the educational profession.

The changing thoughts can be classified as a shift from capitalism towards post- capitalism (Helsby, 1999). During the era of capitalism, a system of mass production and standardized work was widely accepted. But over time due to technological changes, work was replaced to countries with lower labour costs. At the same time, global competition forces countries to try to get competitive advantages by distinguishing their selves from the crowd. This new global working order is characterized by fast growing and changing economies as well as by a high level of political uncertainty. Also, communicational systems have been changed, leading to an overload of information (Bijl, 2007; Helsby, 1999). These new features require a labour population which is capable of giving quick responses in this new global working order.

As a result, the new challenge of this century is to increase the productivity of the knowledge worker. At the same time the aim is to make work more enjoyable, effective and efficient while making use of new communicational systems (Helsby, 1999). Here, the worker can be seen as the centre of the organization. This is in contrast to the working order throughout the capitalism period of mass production and standardized work. According to Helsby (1999), these changing patterns fundamentally change the framework in which teachers operate.

2.2 Teachers’ profession is changing

“Educational change is the outcome of a complex interplay between structure, culture and agency. Beliefs in restructuring of schooling will lead to the promised land of economic success” (Helsby, 1999; p.32).

Nowadays, secondary schools are a subject to the discipline of the market (Helsby, 1999). New demands and new conditions of services are necessary in order to meet the needs of the twenty first century society. Consequently, new public management has introduced business thinking in the public sector, and secondary schools are given more responsibilities due to new school based financial and performance management (Weibel et al., 2009).

In a world dominated by rapid changes and increasing complexity, the educational sector faces fast technological, economic and social changes. The rapid advancement of ICT supports lifelong learning and helps to gain understanding of new knowledge (Gu, Gu & Laffey, 2011). Not only the outcome of the learning process is important. Also the process itself, because no skill or knowledge remains static and universal in this fast changing world (Fenwick, 2006).

learning is a process of changing or transformation of knowledge and skills. In this research, knowledge can be defined as a broader construct which includes all forms of understanding. Skills can be interpreted as the performance of this gained knowledge (Fenwick, 2006).

Since the Netherlands want to belong to the countries in the world with the highest educational level, the educational sector is challenged to attract new teachers and to keep current teachers within the sector (Commissie Leraren, Ministerie OCW, 2007). Therefore, in the next paragraph attention is paid to the commitment level of young teachers.

2.3 Commitment

Commitment involves the willingness to stay in the organization by showing a high level of effort, and accepting the main values and goals of the organization (Chalofsky & Krishna, 2009; Porter, 1968). According to Meyer and Allen (1997) organizations are looking for committed employees. However, there is also a downside on highly committed employees. Blind commitment towards an organization leads to accepting the status quo. In that case, employees put less effort in the investment of new skills and opportunities. This implies that the organization looses the ability to innovate and adapt to new trends (Meyer & Allen, 1997; Randall, 1987). For that reason, turnover can be helpful and is not necessarily harmful for the organization. In this way, poor performers are removed out of the organization.

commitment creates the feeling they ought to remain at the organization (Meyer & Allen, 1997; 1990). These three components of commitment characterize the relationship employees have with the organization. It affects the decision to continue or discontinue the employment relationship (Meyer & Allen, 1990).

Thus, it is important to pay attention to the characteristics of the new generation workers 2.0, to know the expectations and their needs in order to commit highly qualified teachers to the educational profession. But before characteristics of the worker 2.0 are discussed, it is essential to acknowledge that commitment is a motivational concept which involves processes such as identification and internalization of norms (Meyer & Allen, 1997). Therefore, motivational differences between individuals need to be considered since they systematically differ in their motivational orientations towards work (Johnson et al., 2010).

2.4 Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation

Employees act in different interests (Prendergast, 2008; Amabile et al., 1994). Hence, it is essential for school managers to take into account the motivation of teachers. Teachers motivation influences students motivation and it is also important for the progression of educational reforms (Nevus de Jesus & Lens, 2005). Besides, it affects the level of satisfaction of teachers themselves. The Work Preference Inventory theory by Amabile et al. (1994) was designed to assess those differences between individuals. This theory distinguishes two kinds of motivational orientations: intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.

commitment, which represents the psychological bonding and involvement of employees with the organization (Chalofsky & Krishna, 2009; Eisenberger et al., 1986). According to Chalofsky & Krishna (2009), affective commitment was found to have the strongest positive effect on the level of commitment towards the organization.

Contrary, employees mainly driven by extrinsic motivation are highly valuing aspects such as rewards, competition and recognition. These individuals are more control oriented while intrinsic motivated employees are more autonomy oriented (Deci & Ryan, 1985). Money and other material incentives positively influence the performance level of extrinsic motivated employees. This refers to the continuance component of commitment by Meyer and Allen (1997), since the extrinsic features results in building up an investment in the organization that precludes quitting (O’Reilly & Caldwell, 1980). Those extrinsic motivational factors show how much the organization values their employees (Kuvaas, 2006; Moon, 2000).

Vermeulen and Van der Aa (2008) found that the levels of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation both have an effect on the level of commitment of young teachers. However, hereby should be noticed that previous research by Moon (2000) showed that public organization have lower expectations of extrinsic motivational factors than organizations in the private sector. Less value is placed on monetary incentives in the public sector. For that reason, the level of commitment of public organizations is more affected by intrinsic motivational factors (Moon, 2000). In addition, highly educated knowledge employees expand their level of affective commitment without the expectation of receiving a higher level of pay in return. For them, the key to job satisfaction is found in intrinsic motivational factors such as fun and an interesting work environment (Kuvaas, 2006; Thomas, 2002).

In line with the above reasoning, the following hypotheses were formulated:

Hypothesis 1: Young teachers are stronger intrinsic than extrinsic motivated. Hypothesis 2: Both intrinsic and extrinsic motivations affect the level of commitment of young teachers towards the (future) employer, but commitment is stronger affected by intrinsic motivational factors.

2.5 Attracting and retaining the worker 2.0, and public interventions in the educational sector.

Mainly agreed is that generation Y is born between 1980 and 2000 (Clare, 2009; Ng et al., 2010; Herbison & Boseman, 2002; Twenge et al., 2010). The new generation employees differ from the baby boomers (born between 1946- 1963) and generation X (born between 1964- 1980) in their ambitions and possibilities (Clare, 2009; Erickson, 2009; Ng et al., 2010; Herbison & Boseman, 2009). This new generation employees grew up in a world full of opportunities in which they have a need for flexibility and new challenges. Here, knowledge is a collective form of property which is easily transferred by new networks, because of growing ICT facilities (Akkerman, Van Der Roest & Marshall, 2008).

Akkerman et al. (2008) distinguish different management and organizational aspects which are important for attracting and retaining this worker 2.0. The opportunities different generations offer in terms of skills and knowledge have to be recognized by employers, given that different generation employees do not necessarily adapt to each other. Hereby, it is important to acknowledge that the worker 2.0 requires different working standards. Organizations can only take advantage of these talented new employees by treating them as a source of innovation. Hence, employers need to take risks by investing in young employees.

Following, the characteristics of the worker 2.0 are distinguished in two categories: intrinsic and extrinsic motivational driven characteristics. First, intrinsic driven characteristics are discussed, where after extrinsic driven characteristics are described.

2.5.1. Intrinsic motivational characteristics

making money and prefer an environment in which managers give them clear and frequent feedback (Dul & Ceylan, 2011; Ng et al., 2010; Herbison & Boseman, 2009). For those intrinsically motivational reasons, the worker 2.0 attaches great value to the vision of their (future) employer. Therefore, organizations should recognize and support employees’ work and leisure needs. Because when there is an alignment between organizational values and individual preferences, a high level of commitment is created towards the organization (Chalofsky & Krishna, 2009). The following hypothesis was formulated:

Hypothesis 3a: Young teachers attach great value to organizational values which positively affect the level of commitment to the (future) employer.

Flexible workplace. Another feature of the worker 2.0 is the importance they attach to the quality of the working conditions and work environment. The work environment is essential for retaining the worker 2.0, since these are on the top of the list of the new generation employees (Akkerman et al., 2008). Thereby, the new worker 2.0 wants to gain expertise and learn of experiences of other employees constantly (Dul & Ceylan, 2011; Akkerman et al., 2008). In this situation, a flexible workplace is essential in order to increase the effectiveness and performance level of employees. It fosters more communication with colleagues and helps to exchange knowledge easier (Van der Voordt, 2004). This enhances enjoyment at the job and creates a higher level of job satisfaction. Also, offering a flexible workplace to employees is related to fewer absences (Halpern, 2009). Besides, employees are more likely to stay within the organization by building a psychological contract instead of tangible benefits such as a fixed workplace. This intrinsic motive refers to the affective form of commitment, which indicates the psychological bond employees have with the organization. It entails strong emotional attachment to the employer (Chalofsky & Krishna, 2009; Johnson et al., 2010; Meyer & Allen, 1990).

Competencies. In response to the changing thoughts of business and management practices, and the increased expectations about education; the Dutch government has experimented with ‘the new learning’. The aim was to produce and develop a new kind of learning process, new learning outcomes and a new organisation of education (Ros, 2008). The new learning attaches value to gaining conceptual understanding of knowledge, self regulation and communication skills.

In order to meet these new standards of the society and the requirements of the competitive market, the new learning is characterized by competence based learning. Competencies are defined as a cluster of related knowledge, skills and attitudes which affect a major part of a role or responsibility that comes with the performance of a task. It is the ability to apply knowledge in a certain domain (Buskermolen,1999; Onderwijsraad, 2003). According to Campion et al. (2011), competencies refer to a collection of knowledge, skills, abilities and other characteristics (KSAO’s). The combination of KSAO’s is a set of competencies which are often defined as observable job behavior. Competence models are deductive for the reason that they start with outcomes and refer to KSAO’s. It is a way in which organizations pay attention to information related to the job and skills of employees. Therefore, it is important that young (future) teachers are also equipped with different competencies in order to be able to motivate their students continuously. Essential here is encouraging the personal development of students, the ability to be creative and thinking along about issues of school design. It provides young teachers with the opportunity to be more responsible for their own actions and improving their KSAO’s (Social Economic Counsil, 2002).

To meet the new requirements of competence based learning, the Dutch government has set up a list of seven competencies in the ‘law on educational professions’ which should be met by teachers (Advisory report Leerkracht, 2007; Weinhoven & Eilander, 2004). These new requirements are in line with the new developed view on education in the knowledge society and consistent with the new working standards of the worker 2.0. The competencies are shown in figure 2.1.

Central in this approach are the importance of the context of learning and the development of competencies such as motivation, creativity, cooperation and communication skills (Coonen, 2005; Buskermolen et al., 1999; Ros, 2008; Schlusmans et al., 1999). ‘Learning to learn’ is the central concept. According to Buskermolen et al. (1999), the added value of competence based thinking is the impulse to redefine goals in organizations within the fast changing economy.

Figure 1. Dutch law on educational professions (Weinhoven & Eilander, 2004; p. 10)

Thus, it not only involves primarily the development of specific knowledge and skills, but it coverage’s a larger field of application (Merriënboer et al., 2002). Teachers are expected to take more responsibility for their own actions by paying more attention to these competencies. Thereby, having trust in these competencies influences the duration of employment andcreates a higher level of job autonomy (Vermeulen & Van der Aa, 2008). Here, the level of job autonomy is the amount of freedom an individual has in performing the assigned tasks. In turn, a higher level of job autonomy results in more successful interactions based on their own decisions which creates stronger affectionate ties towards the organization (Langfred, 2005). In line with the above reasoning, the

a. Interpersonal competencies

Dealing with leadership, creating a good atmosphere in collaboration with students b. Pedagogical competencies

Promoting personal and social development of individual students c. Professional and educational competencies

Provide a powerful learning environment, promotion of learning d. Organizational skills

Provide a clear, orderly and task-oriented structure in the learning environment e. Competencies in working with colleagues

Work aligning with colleagues, contribution to smooth functioning of the organization f. Competencies in interacting with school environment

Maintain a good relationship with parents, neighbourhood and institutions g. Competencies in reflection and development

Hypothesis 3c: Young teachers have trust in their own competencies which positively affect the level of commitment towards the (future) employer.

Coaching. In a report commissioned by the Dutch Ministry of Education, Culture and Science the future shortage, the position and quality of teachers have been determined. In order to attract and retain young teachers in the educational sector, more time should come available for the guidance and coaching of starting young teachers (Advisory report Teachers in The Netherlands, 2007; Coonen, 2005), since the most valued support for new teachers is the coaching by a mentor, support by other colleagues and the organizational culture (Kottke & Sharafinski, 1988; Flores, 2004; Levinson, 1965). Contrary to training, coaching is an uninterrupted process which helps individuals to face new challenges and investing in their personal growth. In this way, personal development opportunities are created (McGuffin & Obonyo, 2010). Therefore, support by the school and department leaders is an important motivational factor and creates recognition for teachers work (Muller et al., 2009). According to McGuffin and Obonyo (2010), coaching on the job significantly increased employees intrinsically motivational level and commitment to the organization.

Hypothesis 3e: Young teachers attach great value on receiving coaching frequently of their employer which positively affects the level of commitment to their (future) employer.

and explores the individuals self concept on their performance. Personal Development Plans are a concept of self- evaluation of own personal characteristics, self-esteem and emotional stability (Joo, Jeung & Yoon, 2010). Joo et al. (2010) showed that self- evaluations are influenced by the level of intrinsic motivation of performing activities. In turn, if individuals are intrinsically motivated by the work itself, it creates commitment to the job such as affection and loyalty (Chalofsky & Kishna, 2009; Chung-Yan, 2010).

Hypothesis 3f: Young teachers hold a positive attitude towards the use of a Personal Development Plan which positively affects the commitment level towards the (future) employer.

2.5.2. Extrinsic motivational characteristics

Career opportunities. Contrary to the intrinsic motivational characteristics of the worker 2.0, promotions can also have a positive impact on employees’ motivation: it increases potential career development opportunities. But in order to offer different career opportunities to teachers, it is important that each job includes different tasks and responsibilities. The more active teachers are working on their professional development, the more positive attitude teachers have towards their career. This contributes to an enhancement of the capabilities of employees and increases the level of job satisfaction. In turn, satisfaction about career opportunities and personal development opportunities are positively related to the level of commitment towards the organization (Hall & Las Heras, 2000; Vermeulen & Van der Aa, 2008).

Hypothesis 4a: Young teachers obtain adequate career opportunities which positively affect the level of commitment to their (future) employer.

educational level and promote teachers profession. Expressed in terms of gross hourly wage, teachers earn less than employees with a similar educational level working in the private sector. This pay gap is partly explained by the length of the salary scale and the small differences in payment between the different levels of pay (Advisory report LeerKracht, 2007).

Critics on the old reward system argue that teachers have been rewarded too uniform (Goldhaber, Dearmond & Deburgomaster, 2010). Teachers were only rewarded based on experiences which made the educational profession unattractive for high achieving individuals. Because when employees consider the situation as unfair, it reduces the level of affective commitment towards the organization. This in turn diminishes performance and increases the level of absent. So, the higher level of payment, the more satisfied employees are about the employment relationship (Miceli & Mulvey, 2000).

Therefore, in 2009 the Dutch government has implemented the ‘function mix’ with the intention to improve teachers’ wage and career opportunities (Ministerie OCW, 2009). The function mix is a classification based on teachers’ salary scales. The government has increased the funding with the aim to promote a larger number of teachers to a higher wage scale. Hereby, also more career development opportunities are offered which retain (young) talented teachers in the educational profession. These promotions will be offered to teachers who spend more than 60 percent of their time to teaching (Ministerie OCW, 2009). According to Weibel, Rost and Osterloh (2010), pay for performance has a positive impact on performance of employees in the case of extrinsic motivational tasks.

Hypothesis 4b: Young teachers do not aspire pay for performance and it is negatively related to the level of commitment towards the (future) employer.

Hypothesis 4c: Young teachers do have expectations of constantly receiving

rewards which is negatively related to the level of commitment towards the (future) employer.

Employment for multiple employers. In addition, employees belonging to generation Y want to work for multiple employers throughout their career. For them, changing jobs is a good thing in the sense of gaining different experiences and facing new challenges (Felix, 2007). This indicates a low level of continuance commitment, which points on a low level of fear of losing investments made during previous employment relations. It also points on few concerns about the inability of finding suitable employment opportunities elsewhere. This extrinsic form of commitment is based on external driven behavior such as receiving rewards. (Johnson et al., 2010).

Hypothesis 4b: Young teachers expect to work for multiple employers throughout their career, which negatively affects the level of commitment towards the (future) employer.

Taking in consideration the above mentioned characteristics of the worker 2.0 and their relation to intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and commitment; a theoretical conceptual model was presented in figure 2. The final hypotheses were formulated:

Hypothesis 5: The importance of an organizational vision, a flexible workplace, trust in own competencies, coaching on the job and the use of a Personal Development Plan positively affect the level of commitment mediated by intrinsic motivation.

3a Vision of the organization 3b Flexible workplace

3c Competencies 5.Intrinsic motivation 3d Coaching

3e Personal development Plan

5/6 Commitment

4a Career opportunities 4b Pay for Performance

4c. Quick change of wage 6. Extrinsic motivation 4d. Expected number of jobs

within 10 years

Figure 2. Conceptual model

3. METHODS

In the previous sections research questions have been set and a theoretical frame-work was elaborated. This section focusses on how the research was constructed and conducted.

A questionnaire was developed in order to explore whether Dutch student teachers meet the standards of the worker 2.0 and to get insight in their motivations. In this way, quantitative data was collected about the expectations of the students’ future job and different intrinsic and extrinsic motives. The questionnaire contained questions about the values they assign towards topics as trust in own competencies, personal development opportunities within the organization, flexible work place, pay for performance and intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.

3.1 Procedure

First, the University Centre of Learning and Teaching Groningen (UOCG) was asked to spread the survey among their students participating in the second year of the educational Master program at the University of Groningen. Second, the Physical Education Teacher Training program (ALO) and NHL Hogeschool were asked to spread the survey among their first, second, third and final year students. Both institutions included students of all subject specializations. Finally, secondary schools participating in the Pompeblêd group were approached with the demand to disseminate the survey to their student teachers, and young teachers under the age of 30 who were recently employed The Pompeblêd cooperative group of schools is a partnership of seven public schools of secondary education in the province Friesland.

3.2 Participants

In total 124 respondents completed the online survey (a response rate of 26%). Two respondents had to be removed, because they did not completed a sufficient number of questions in the questionnaire. Another four respondents were removed out of the dataset, since they were older than 30 years and do not belong to the generation Y (Clare, 2009; Ng et al., 2010; Herbison & Boseman, 2002; Twenge et al., 2010). The respondent group (N=118) consisted of 32 first degree (Master) students teachers (27.1%) and 64 second degree student teachers (54.2 %), including six ALO students (4.3%). Furthermore, 22 (18.7%) respondents already graduated. With regard to the study background of the respondents before starting the teacher training program, a distinction can be made between VMBO (16.1%), HAVO (41.53%), VWO (24.58%) and other educational programs (17.8%). Finally, 34 men (28.8%) and 62 women (52.5%) completed the survey. The average age of the respondents was 24 years old (SD= 2.43).

3.3 Measures

reduce response bias, because scale items then provide us with a fairly consistent indicator (Mowday et al., 1979). First, factor analyses were performed to determine the extent in which items relate to each other. Then final scales were created by the meaning of the factors.

Career opportunities were measured by 7 items. Example questions were “It is

important to me to rapidly be promoted to a new function” and “I want my work to provide me with opportunities for increasing my level of knowledge and skills”.

The Cronbach’s α for this scale was .76.

Coaching was measured by one item: “I think it is obvious that my future

employer offers training courses on a regular basis.”

Commitment towards employer was measured based on affective commitment literature of Meyer and Allen (1997; 1991). The measurement consisted of 2 items: “I

want to feel involved with my new employer” and “I intend to be faithful to my future employer”. The Cronbach’s α for this scale was .64.

Competencies. This construct was measured with 4 items in order to measure to which extend (future) teachers possesses the necessary competencies and their level of self-confidence towards these competencies. Example questions were “During my study I

learned how to apply problem-solving thinking” and “I often adopt a flexible attitude”.

The Cronbach’s α for this scale was .68.

Expected number of jobs was measurement by one question “Within 10 years

after I graduate, I expect…” and was scaled on a three point scale with the multiple

options 1 “that I am still working for the same employer in the same position”, 2 “I have

had multiple positions at the same employer” and 3 “I have had multiple positions at various employers”. To test whether (future) teachers deviate from option 1, the variable

was split up in 3 dummy variables. Only dummy variable 2 and 3 were used.

Flexible workplace was measured by two items, namely “I do not need a

permanent work place at school” and “I would like to have a fixed working place at school to review assignments”. The latter was reversed recoded before creating a new

Importance of organizational vision at the time of applying for a job was measured by one question “When choosing a potential employer, I think it is important to

consider the vision of the organization.”

Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation was measured by a 30-item scale of Amabile et

al. (1994). This instrument was scored on two primary scales. In this way more understanding of motivational behavior of individuals was obtained. Amabile et al. (1994) have shown that this scale had an adequate level of internal consistency and good test- retest reliability.

The concept of extrinsic motivation included components such as money rewards, competition, recognition and constraints by others. In total, 13 items measured the construct extrinsic motivation. Example items of the extrinsic motivation scale were “I

want other people to find out how good I really can be at my work”, “I am keenly aware of the goals I have for myself” and “I am strongly motivated by the money I can earn”(Amabile et al., 1994). The Cronbach’s α for this scale was .68.

The concept of intrinsic motivation included issues as enjoyment, challenges during work, self-determination, competences, curiosity and personal enrichment (Amabile, 1994). Here, 17 items were used to measure intrinsic motivation. Example items of the intrinsic motivation scale were: “I enjoy doing work that is so absorbing that

I forget about everything else” and “Curiosity is the driving force behind much of what I do”. The Cronbach’s α for this scale was .68.

Payment was measured by two different constructs. The first construct included 2 items. An example item which measured the attitude towards pay for performance was “I

do not find it a problem when there are wage differences between (future) colleagues based on difference in performance”. The Cronbach’s α of this scale was .67. The other

question concerned the expectations of promotion. This was measured by the question “Within how many years after you start working do you expect to move on to a higher

salary scale?” with the response categories 1-2 years (1), 2-5 years (2) and 5 years or

more (3).

development plan at my new (future) employer”. The Cronbach’s α for this scale was .90.

3.4 Data analysis

In order to test whether (future) teachers meet the standards of the new worker 2.0, descriptives and a Pearson correlation matrix were presented to get an overview of the consistency between various variables. In addition, three multiple regression models were presented. First, the mediating role of intrinsic motivation was tested on the relationship between the characteristics of the worker 2.0 and commitment. Second, the effect of extrinsic motivation on the relationship between the characteristics of the worker 2.0 and commitment was conducted. Finally, the complete mediation model was tested whether the characteristics of the worker 2.0 affect commitment through the mediator variables intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.

4. RESULTS

4.1 Correlations and descriptives

The means, standards deviations and Pearson correlations of the variables were presented in table 1. The higher the mean score on a variable, the more positive attitude (future) teachers hold towards these variables. Intrinsic motivation, expected commitment towards the future employer, self confidence in own competencies, the use of a personal development plan, coaching, the importance of the organizational vision and career opportunities all have an average score above the midpoint of the scale 3 ‘neutral’. This indicated that (future) teachers were holding a positive attitude towards these standards.

the negative correlation with ‘within 10 years I expect I have had several job positions for multiple employers’ (r=-.22, p<.05).

As can be derived from table 1, extrinsic motivation was only positive related to career opportunities (r=.31, p<.01) and expectations of number of job positions at same employer (r=.29, p<.01). Extrinsic motivation was negatively correlated with the expectations to have several number of job positions at multiple employers (r= -.31,

p<.05).

Besides, commitment was positive significant correlated with competencies (r=.43, p<.01), coaching (r=.41, p<.01), importance of organizational vision (r=.45,

p<.01) and career opportunities (r=.29, p<.01). Commitment was negatively correlated

with the expectation to have several job positions at multiple employers (r= -.19, p<.05). Other noteworthy consistencies between variables were the positive correlation between competencies and the use of a personal development plan (r=.20, p<.05), career opportunities (r=.35, p<.01) and competencies with the importance of the organizational vision (r=.40, p<.01).

At last, coaching was significant negative correlated with flexible workplace (r= -.27, p<.05) and positively correlated with competencies (r=.22, p<.05), organizational vision (r=.20, p<.05), career opportunities (r=.39, p<.01) and the use of a personal development plan (r=.36, p<.01). Furthermore, the importance of career opportunities was positively correlated to pay for performance (r=.27, p<.01) and the use of a personal development plan (r=.35, p<.01). Also, the expectation of having several jobs at the same employer was positive significant correlated with career opportunities.

Gender and age were investigated as variables that might have an effect on the variables in this study, but no significant effects were found.

[Insert Table 1]

4.2 Hypotheses testing

4.2.1. Mediation model intrinsic motivation

executed in order to test the relationship between intrinsic motivation and commitment. The results showed that intrinsic motivation significantly predicts commitment (β=.41, p<.01)). The second step indicated that competencies (β=.28, p<.01), coaching (β=.31, p<.01) and importance of the organizational vision (β=.23, p<.05) significantly predicted commitment, thus supporting hypotheses 3a, 3c and 3d. Out of the third step can be derived that competencies (β=.26, p<.01), the use of a personal development plan (β=.28, p<.01) and importance of the organizational vision (β=.24, p<.05) significant predicted intrinsic motivation. In the final analysis was tested whether the effect of the characteristics of the worker 2.0 diminishes or disappears after including intrinsic motivation. The results provided evidence that the model significantly predicted commitment with the mediating role of intrinsic motivation (ΔR² =.02, ΔF=8.01, p< .01).

[Insert Table 2]

4.2.2. Mediation model extrinsic motivation

In the second mediating model, the effect of extrinsic motivation between the characteristics of the worker 2.0 and commitment was tested. The results were presented in table 3. The first analysis was performed to test the relationship between extrinsic motivation and commitment. As can be derived from table 3, extrinsic motivation not significantly predicted commitment. Thus, extrinsic motivation was not involved as a mediating variable. But in order to explore the effects of the characteristics of the worker 2.0 on extrinsic motivation and commitment, these analysis were conducted as well. The second and third step of the analysis examined the effects of the characteristics of the worker 2.0 on commitment and extrinsic motivation. Only career opportunities significant predicted both commitment (β=.30, p<.01) and extrinsic motivation (β=.24, p<.05).These findings supported hypothesis 4a.

4.2.3. Model commitment

Finally, the total model was tested and presented in table 4. The first analysis assessed the effect of intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation on commitment towards the (future) employer (ΔR² =.16, ΔF=8.93, p< .01). Only intrinsic motivation was positive significant related to commitment (β=.40, p<.01). This implied that commitment was not an overarching concept for intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Thus, hypothesis 5 was supported. Next to this there was tested whether the characteristics of the worker 2.0 all together predicted commitment (ΔR² =.43, ΔF=6.23, p< .01). Competencies (β=.28, p<.01), coaching (β=.26, p<.01) and importance of organizational vision (β=.26, p<.01) significantly predicted commitment. Consequently, hypothesis 5 was partly confirmed. In the final step, after including intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, pay for performance was negative significant associated with commitment (β=-.19, p<.05) alongside to the other significant predictors. In this final model, both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation where not significantly related to commitment.

[Insert Table 4]

DISCUSSION

5.1 Findings

The aim of this research was to explore whether Dutch student teachers and young teachers recently employed meet the standards of the worker 2.0. Assumed was that young (future) teachers belonging to generation Y, place high value on the assumed characteristics of the worker 2.0 such as flexible working place, a growing variation in rewards and the yearn for career development opportunities. Besides this, the expectations of (future) teachers in relation to the employer were explored. Results were based on a questionnaire among 118 (future) teachers.

Also, the results indicated that (future) teachers have trust in their own skills and competencies. Besides, (future) teachers scored higher on intrinsic motivation compared to extrinsic motivation. This implies that those young (future) teachers are more intrinsically than extrinsically driven.

Second, the results of the mediation model of intrinsic motivation demonstrated that intrinsic motivated teachers are more committed to their new employer. Here, trust in own competencies, the use of a personal development plan and the importance of the organizational vision are the most important factors that influence the level of intrinsic motivation. Thereby, trust in own competencies, coaching and the importance of the organizational vision predicted the level of commitment teachers hold towards their (future) employer. In this context, trust in own competencies indicated that (future) teachers are confident about their own problem solving skills. This assumes that they are able to adapt an autonomous attitude. And also, these young (future) teachers are confident in getting started at their new job. Coaching implies that they expect to receive training courses on a regular basis.

Third, career opportunities explained the level of extrinsic motivation (future) teachers hold towards their (future) employer. Furthermore, the results indicated that extrinsic motivation does not contribute to a higher expected level of commitment of teachers towards the (future) employer. However, the level of commitment can be explained by career opportunities. Career opportunities signify that teachers find it important that employers provide them with sufficient development opportunities in order to increase their level of knowledge and skills. It also indicates that teachers want to be rapidly promoted to a new job position. This is in line with the advised policy by the Advisory report LeerKracht (2007).

Consequently, this raises the question whether the implemented ‘function mix’ by the Dutch government in 2009 was a good plan. With this new system the government wanted to improve teachers’ career opportunities. Also, the government intended to increase the attractiveness of the profession by increasing the funding aiming to promote a larger number of teachers to a higher wage scale. In this way, more career development opportunities were offered which retain (young) talented teachers in the educational profession (Ministerie OCW, 2009). According to this reward system, an employee in the educational sector receives a higher wage when fulfilling a higher level of performance. But since pay for performance produces hidden costs of rewards, a less important role should be assigned to extrinsic motivational factors.

Finally, only an association was found between intrinsic motivation and commitment towards the (future) employer. Commitment was not an overarching concept for both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. This was in contradiction to the assumptions of Vermeulen & Van der Aa (2008) who supposed that intrinsic and extrinsic motivations both have an effect on the level of commitment of young teachers. In the final mediation model of commitment, trust in own competencies, the expectation of receiving coaching frequently and the importance of the organizational vision positively contributed to the explanation of commitment towards the (future) employer. As assumed in this model, pay for performance was negatively related to commitment.

5.2 Limitations and future research

First, in this research study both reliability measures of the intrinsic and extrinsic scale were considerably lower compared to previous research of Amabile et al.(1994). An explanation for this can be, that it was due to differences caused by translation since the questionnaire was translated from English to Dutch. Also, Amabile et al. (1994) made use of a 4-point scale from “never or almost never true of me” to “always or almost always true of me”, while this study used a 5-point scale from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree”. The relative small sample size of this research might also provide a distorted picture. A final aspect to the reliability is an age effect that might have been occurred, because of the relative young population in this study; respondents have little or no work experience and therefore answers were based on expectations. for that reason, future research should include more respondents with teaching experience in order to increase the reliability of the results.

The second limitation of this study is the generalizability of the data. This study was performed in the northern part of The Netherlands, thus the potential homogeneity of the population of the north of The Netherlands should be taken in consideration compared to the rest of the country. For example, there is the possibility that Northern provinces offer different job opportunities for young teachers in comparison to other provinces. This in turn might influence the attitude individuals have towards several topics such as career opportunities and their opinion towards pay for performance. This all makes it difficult to generalize the results. Hence, future research could take into account young teachers from other provinces as well to improve the generalizability.

underlying motives, beliefs and needs of the new generation employees can be explored more deeply. Here, the main purpose will be to find out prevailing opinions and behavior in order to determine whether the concept of the worker 2.0 actually exists.

5.3 Theoretical implications

This study contributed to the understanding whether young (future) teachers meet the standards of the worker 2.0. It demonstrated that young teachers do not meet all the characteristics of the presumed worker 2.0. This indicated that teachers belonging to the generation Y are not necessarily interested in new kinds of employment relationships. Therefore, it should be questioned if the concept of the worker 2.0 actually holds for young employees in the educational sector. Hence, a more critical view on this topic should be developed within new theoretical frameworks.

In addition, an important theoretical implication of this study is that it provided more insight in the relationship between the characteristics of young (future) teachers and the expected level of commitment towards the (future) employer affected by intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. This while existing reports and studies mostly concerned about aspects such as guidance at the teacher’s job and motives to become a teacher (Taks, 2003). In this study, commitment was not found to be an overarching concept, but it was only explained by intrinsic motivation. This implied that young (future) teachers were more intrinsically driven. These results have theoretical implications for future research, governments’ policy and for organizational personnel policy.

5.4 Practical implications

minimizes the learning curve and facilitates a better start which helps them stay on the right track (Muller et al., 2009).

But providing frequent feedback also has advantages for OSG Sevenwolden. The feedback process it selves gives the mentor or coach of the young teacher a well-balanced perspective on the performance of the newcomer. It gives the coach direct understanding of the newcomers’ attitude and level of professionalism (Messler, 2004; Jokisaari & Nurmi, 2009). Next to this, OSG Sevenwolden should give teachers enough space to use their own competencies. Only then, young teachers are able to be innovative and will apply their knowledge. By doing this, OSG Sevenwolden makes sure that the organization is able respond to new challenges and changes in the environment.

Moreover, young (future) teachers indicated that they are interested in using their personal development plan. OSG Sevenwolden should make extensive use of this as they would like to set up a ‘competence mix’ which contains development criteria, competence reviews and evaluation sessions about the individual development. Using the personal development plan will stimulate young teachers to use their learned insights. It also encourages performance management in the sense of individual responsibility for learning, and it stimulates further development of competencies. Furthermore, it creates the possibility of being more responsible for its own actions (Vloeberghs & Berghman, 2003; Higson & Wilson, 1995).

Additionally, it appeared that young employees in the educational sector do not show much interest in flexible employment relations. Young (future) teachers do not want to have a flexible workplace to check home assignments and do not have the ambitions to quickly move to a better wage scale. This could indicate that young (future) teachers are looking for a stable (instead of flexible) work environment in which they know where to go and what they can expect. Within this stable environment, OSG Sevenwolden should give them the opportunity to develop their knowledge and skills.

By offering different level of payment, teachers will be stimulated to deliver better performances and it helps retaining young teachers in the profession.

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