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¡U N A B A N D ERA !
(On e f l a g !)
A r es ear c h o n t h e c ul t u r al in f l u en c es o n a s er v ic e c en t r e f o r
M exic o , C o l o mb ia an d Ven ezu el a
¡U N A B A N D ERA !
(On e f l a g !)
A r es ear c h o n t h e c ul t u r al in f l u en c es o n a s er v ic e c en t r e f o r
M exic o , C o l o mb ia an d Ven ezu el a
A. N. Bone
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¡U N A B A N D ERA !
(On e f l a g ! )
A r es ear c h o n t h e c u l t u r al
in f l u en c es o n a s er v ic e c en t r e f o r Mexic o , C o l o mb ia an d Ven ezu el a
F ac ul t y o f Managemen t and o r gan isat io n Rij ksun iver sit eit Gr o nin gen
F ir s t Men t o r : Pr o f . D r . G. J . E. M. San d er s Sec o n d Men t o r : D r . J. J. B r o ek h uis
Apr il 2 0 0 3
Al exan d r a N at al ie B o n e
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Preface
Growing up in two different countries, I ascertained at a young age the effects even small differences in culture can have on daily routines and interactions between people, be it in business, on the street, or between family members. Ever since I can remember, I have been interested in Latin America; the scenery, the people, their culture, and last but not least, the differences in culture between Europe and Latin America, and the effects these differences could have. This thesis therefore was the perfect opportunity for me to satisfy my curiosities and start on an exciting journey to get to know those people that interest me most and discover their culture.
Firstly and most importantly, my gratitude goes out to Willis for giving me the opportunity to carry out this research. Within Willis, I am very grateful to the employees with whom I held interviews. Often these people were extremely busy, but still gave me all their time and attention during those interviews. Furthermore, I would like to thank the employees in Mexico and Colombia who all took time out to complete the questionnaire. In addition my thanks goes out to my first and second mentor at my university in Groningen (The Netherlands): Prof. Dr. Sanders and Dr. Broekhuis. The meetings with Prof. Sanders were always very interesting and often provided new insights. My second mentor, Prof. Broekhuis, I would like to thank for his effort in this thesis.
Finishing this thesis also entails finishing my student life in Groningen. Therefore I would like to thank all my friends who made my student time a very enjoyable and rewarding one, thus making studying and finally writing a thesis a more pleasurable experience.
Without the incredible support of my friends, I could not have done it. The most support however I found from my parents (all three!). Thank you all for the financial support provided enabling me to study. Daddy, thank you for the opportunity within Willis and not giving up hope in the hard times. Papa, without your critical remarks and insights, this thesis would never be what it is today. Mama, nobody could have been given more emotional support than I received from you.
Thank you to everyone!
Goor, April 2003 Alexandra Bone
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Executive Summary
The objective of this research is to inform Willis London on the cultural characteristics of the UK, Mexico, Colombia and Venezuela that could influence the feasibility of the service centre for Latin America, and give recommendations for implementation of the service centre. The service centre is a centre that offers administrative service to the offices in Mexico, Colombia and Venezuela, based on 100 percent locally placed risk.
The research question based on this objective is:
‘Which cultural characteristics of the UK, Mexico, Colombia and Venezuela influence the cooperation between employees in Latin America and the UK and the service centre for Latin America, and which cultural characteristics of the UK, Mexico, Colombia and Venezuela influence the communication between employees in Latin America and the UK and the service centre for Latin America?’
To answer this question, first culture and communication were described. The description on culture was given on the basis of the theories by Hofstede (dimensions of culture) and Hall (polychronic vs. monochronic time and high vs. low context). The description on communication was given on the basis of theories by Mead (communication parameters) and Bennett (communication barriers). Following this description, the theory by Fishbein and Ajzen was used to develop a quantitative method for answering the research question. In summary, this theory calculates the intention to behaviour by using a formula consisting of two factors: the attitude and subjective norm.
For the execution of this research, various data collection methods were utilised.
Firstly interviews were held with Willis employees in the UK, Mexico and Colombia. Also interviews were held in Mexico and Colombia with employees from other companies, namely Willis’ clients, international insurance companies and local insurance companies. The interviews were focussed on generating perceived cultural characteristics of the Mexicans, Colombians and Venezuelans. These characteristics (in this thesis named attributes) were used to determine the cooperation and communication between Willis employees from the three countries of Mexico, Colombia and Venezuela. This was accomplished by developing questionnaires containing the attributes. The attributes contribute to part of a calculation of a behavioural intent (the intent being cooperation). The other part of the calculation is contributed by a perceived social pressure. By using the theory by Fishbein and Ajzen, calculations could be made with the obtained results from the questionnaires and conclusions could be drawn.
The intent of behaviour that was measured in the questionnaires was if the respondents would like a Mexican, Colombian or Venezuelan handling their business at the service centre. To measure this intent of behaviour, the attributes applied in the questionnaires were:
1. Trustworthy 2. Loyal 3. Intelligent 4. Work hard
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5. Flexible
6. Pay attention to details
7. Easy to develop a working relationship
8. Takes a short time to develop a working relationship 9. Share all information
10. Easy to do business with 11. Consistent to deal with
The questionnaires were completed by Willis employees in Mexico and Colombia.
The results of the questionnaires were positive, meaning that the respondents would not mind a person from Mexico, Colombia or Venezuela handling their business at the service centre.
From the interviews and questionnaires the most essential conclusions that can be drawn are:
• The UK does not have much trust in the Latin American’s capacity to perform well, and thus does not have much faith in the implementation of a service centre.
• The Mexicans feel more positive towards the Venezuelans. There is a feeling of dislike between Colombia and Venezuela, this is especially apparent in Calí.
• For the employees working at the call centre, the most preferable language is Colombian.
• Sharing of information is a problem that will affect all lines of communication from the service centre
These main conclusions form the basis for the following main recommendations:
• Research should be done in Venezuela, to crosscheck results from this research.
• Research should be done on the company culture in different countries, especially on the employees’ prevailing feelings and behaviours towards employees from other cultures.
• Employees in the UK should receive training on how to deal with the cultural differences between the UK and Latin America that affect communication.
• Employees in Latin America should receive training on sharing information and on the differences between the Latin American culture and the culture in the UK.
• For the sharing of information between the offices and the service centre an information platform should be implemented.
• A standard of terms should be implemented when communicating on the information platform, and between countries. The language spoken by the employees at the call centre should be Colombian.
• The final recommendation is on the location of the service centre. This depends on certain factors mentioned in detail in chapter 7. It is up to Willis to determine the importance of each factor, and consequently choose the suitable location.
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Table of Contents
Preface………...i
Executive summary………..ii
Table of contents………..…..………..iv
Table of Figures ………...………..vii
Table of Tables………..………viii
Chapter 1: Introduction ………..1
1.1 INTRODUCTION………..……….………1
1.2 RESEARCH MOTIVATION……….……….………...1
1.3 WILLIS……….………...…………..……….1
1.4 EXPLORATION OF THE PROBLEM………..………...………….2
1.5 GUIDE TO THIS THESIS……….………..…………..2
Chapter 2: Research method……….………..………4
2.1 INTRODUCTION………...……...4
2.2 RESEARCH CHARACTERISATION……….…….4
2.3 PROBLEMDEFINITION………..………4
2.4 DATA SOURCES………..…………..…………..6
2.5 DATA COLLECTION METHOD………..……….………..7
2.6 ANALYSIS AND REPORT………...…………7
2.7 RISKS AND MITIGATION……….…….……….8
2.8 TIME SCHEDULE……….………8
Chapter 3: Theory………..……..9
3.1 INTRODUCTION………...………9
3.2 CULTURE……….………..………..……….9
3.2.1 Hofstede……….…………9
3.2.2 Hall………..……….12
3.3 COMMUNICATION………….………14
3.3.1 Cultural influences on communication ……….………14
3.3.2 Communication barriers………..……..15
3.4 THE THEORY OF REASONED ACTION……….………..……….16
3.4.1 Fishbein and Ajzen………...………..………….16
3.4.2 Behavioural criterion………...………..……….20
3.4.3 Attributes instead of outcomes………..………...…20
3.5 CONCEPTUAL MODEL………...………....21
3.6 RESEARCH PROCESS………...21
3.7 DESIGN OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE………...………...…….22
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Chapter 4: Willis………..………..………25
4.1 INTRODUCTION……….…25
4.2 THE COMPANY……….………..……….25
4.3 STRATEGY………….………...…25
4.4 STRUCTURE………..……….…….….26
4.4.1 Business unit Reinsurance………..……….26
4.4.2 Business unit Global Risk Solutions……….……….27
4.4.3 Business unit Specialities………...…..27
4.4.4 Business unit Willis International Holdings ……….……….…………28
4.5 WORK PROCESSES……….……….……...28
4.6 THE SERVICE CENTRE……….……….…….29
4.6.1 Mumbai service centre …….…………..……….……….29
4.6.2 Service centre for Latin America ……….……….…29
Chapter 5: Results……….………….31
5.1 INTRODUCTION……….………..……..31
5.2 INTERVIEW INFORMATION……….……….………31
5.3 RESULTS FROM INTERVIEWS IN THE UK……….………..…………32
5.4 RESULTS FROM INTERVIEWS IN MEXICO…….………..………..….33
5.4.1 Willis’ employees…………..………….……….33
5.4.2 Local companies……….………...….34
5.4.3 Clients………...………...…..35
5.4.4 Mexicans on the service centre ………...………..……35
5.5 RESULTS FROM INTERVIEWS IN COLOMBIA ….………...…...36
5.6 CHOICE OF ATTRIBUTES AND IMPORTANT OTHERS………..……….37
5.7 RESULTS FROM QUESTIONNAIRES………..………...…38
5.7.1 Assessment of attitude and subjective norm according to Fishbein and Ajzen…38 5.7.2 Remarks of Mexicans and Colombians on the service centre………...………42
5.7.3 Results from questionnaires on communication………42
5.8 RESULTS FROM OBSERVATIONS……….43
Chapter 6: Discussion………..…………..………45
6.1 INTRODUCTION………..………...…45
6.2 INTERVIEWS………45
6.3 QUESTIONNAIRES……….……….………..………..…47
6.3.1 Evaluation of the modified Fishbein and Ajzen model………47
6.3.2 The influence of education on attitude……….……49
6.3.3 The influence of gender on attitude………..….……50
6.3.4 Correlations between attitudes calculated for two countries, and between subjective norms calculated for two countries………..………51
6.4 OBSERVATIONS………….………..………..…………52
Chapter 7: Conclusions and Recommendations ……….………53
7.1 INTRODUCTION………53
7.2 CONCLUSIONS………53
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Bibliography………59 Table of Appendices………..……….61 Appendices……….………I
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Table of Figures
FIGURE 1.1: READING GUIDE………3
FIGURE 2.1: PHASES OF THE RESEARCH………..……..…8
FIGURE 3.1: MANIFESTATIONS OF CULTURE AT DIFFERENT LEVELS OF DEPTH…………...……..10
FIGURE 3.2: MEANING CONSISTING OF HIGH AND LOW CONTEXT INFORMATION…………...….13
FIGURE 3.3: FACTORS DETERMINING A PERSON’S BEHAVIOUR……….…….…17
FIGURE 3.4: FACTORS DETERMINING A PERSON’S BEHAVIOUR IN MORE DETAIL……….…19
FIGURE 3.5: THE CONCEPTUAL MODEL (MODIFIED FISHBEIN AND AJZEN MODEL)………...21
FIGURE 3.6: RESEARCH PROCESS………..22
FIGURE 6.1: CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS AND WEIGHTS FOR MEXICAN RESPONDENTS ON COLOMBIA………..………….……48
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Table of Tables
TABLE 3.1: SCORES ON THE FOUR DIMENSIONS OF CULTURE FOR MEXICO,
COLOMBIA, VENEZUELA AND THE UK………..…11 TABLE 5.1: INTERVIEW INFORMATION PER COUNTRY
………...………31 TABLE 5.2: AVERAGE Bi AND EiFOR MEXICAN RESPONDENTS
………...………39 TABLE 5.3: AVERAGE Bi AND EiFOR COLOMBIAN RESPONDENTS
……….………..…40 TABLE 5.4: AVERAGE Ai AND IiFOR MEXICAN RESPONDENTS
………..……….……40 TABLE 5.5: AVERAGE Ai AND IiFOR COLOMBIAN RESPONDENTS
………..……….…41 TABLE 5.6: AVERAGE ATTITUDE AND SUBJECTIVE NORM
………...………41 TABLE 6.1: SCORES ON THE FOUR DIMENSIONS OF CULTURE FOR MEXICO,
COLOMBIA, VENEZUELA AND THE UK……….………..45 TABLE 6.2: AVERAGE ATTITUDE AND SUBJECTIVE NORM
………..……….47 TABLE 6.3: CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS AND WEIGHTS FOR MEXICAN
RESPONDENTS………...49 TABLE 6.4: CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS AND WEIGHTS FOR COLOMBIAN
RESPONDENTS………...…49 TABLE 6.5: CORRELATIONS BETWEEN EDUCATION AND ATTITUDE AND
SUBJECTIVE NORM FOR MEXICAN RESPONDENTS………..………...…50 TABLE 6.6: CORRELATIONS BETWEEN EDUCATION AND ATTITUDE AND
SUBJECTIVE NORM FOR COLOMBIAN RESPONDENTS………...…50 TABLE 6.7: AVERAGE ATTITUDES FOR MALE AND FEMALE RESPONDENTS
IN MEXICO………..50 TABLE 6.8: AVERAGE ATTITUDES FOR MALE AND FEMALE RESPONDENTS
IN COLOMBIA………...……..…………51 TABLE 6.9: CORELATIONS BETWEEN ATTITUDES IN TWO COUNTIRES AND BETWEEN
SUBJECTIVE NORMS IN TWO COUNTIRES FOR MEXICAN RESPONDENTS………51 TABLE 6.10: CORELATIONS BETWEEN ATTITUDES IN TWO COUNTIRES AND BETWEEN
SUBJECTIVE NORMS IN TWO COUNTIRES FOR COLOMBIAN RESPONDENTS…..52 TABLE 7.1: PROS AND CONS FOR THE LOCATION OF THE SERVICE CENTRE
………...……57
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Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 Introduction
In this chapter the research described in this thesis will be introduced. Paragraph 1.2 expresses the motivation for this research. Subsequently, in paragraph 1.3, a short description will be given of Willis. Paragraph 1.4 explores the problem central to this research. Finally, in paragraph 1.5, the guide to reading this thesis will be provided.
1.2 Research motivation
The final stage of my study International Business (doing research and writing a thesis) gave me the opportunity to pursue one of my interests in the world of international business, namely the interaction between business and culture in different parts of the world.
As the world is becoming smaller by the day due to new technology such as Internet and reduced costs of travelling and communication, business organisations are becoming more globally orientated and are opening offices all over the world. Some business organisations are true global corporations such as meant by Christopher Bartlett and Sumantra Ghoshal (Bartlett and Goshal, 1990). People point to McDonald’s or Coca-Cola as examples of tastes, markets and hence cultures becoming similar everywhere. However, cultural differences between countries still prevail and companies should not fail to take these differences into consideration.
To be successful in multinational businesses, one must understand the cultures of other countries and learn how to adapt to them (Rugman and Hodgetts, 2000). Cultural differences are reflected in nationally differentiated consumption patterns: the way people dress or the foods they prefer (Bartlett and Goshal, 2000). This consequently affects the type of product that can be produced and sold by a company in a certain country (Bennett, 1997). Hofstede states that management practices in a country are culturally dependent, and what works in one country does not necessarily work in another (Hofstede, 1994). The influence of culture is seen in organisational processes such as planning and control, information processing and decision-making (Schneider and Barsoux, 1997). National culture also has its effect on the choice of entry mode that can be chosen by a company expanding into new countries (Kogut and Singh, 1988).
National culture also affects the communication between offices located in different countries over the world (Adler, 1986). This ‘intercultural communication’ often brings about many misunderstandings and problems, thus reducing effectiveness and efficiency and creating disadvantages for the company. The subject of intercultural communication within a company is therefore advantageous to investigate.
1.3 Willis
Willis Group Holdings (WGH) is a leading global insurance broker, developing and delivering professional insurance, reinsurance, risk management, financial and human resource consulting and actuarial services to corporations, public entities and institutions
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Willis has approximately 13,000 employees with offices in eighty countries, and correspondent offices in a large number of other countries. This makes it possible to serve 50,000 clients in 160 countries (for global presence, see appendix 1). Willis has particular expertise in serving the needs of clients in such major industries as construction, aerospace, marine and energy.
In June 2001 the Group returned to public ownership and is listed on the New York Stock Exchange. Willis has an annual revenue of approximately 1.3 billion US dollars.
1.4 Exploration of the problem
Over the last four years the Willis Group has invested in insurance brokerage businesses in Latin America and now owns more than half of the shares in those companies.
At the present moment Willis is undertaking a Business Improvement Program (BIP) in three counties in Latin America, namely Mexico, Colombia and Venezuela, to improve business efficiencies and lower costs. Preliminary research and analysis from the BIP led to the proposal of the implementation of a service centre for Latin America, with initial emphasis on Mexico, Colombia and Venezuela. The service centre, which Willis has recently implemented in Mumbai, India, serves as a model for this new centre. This centre provides services to offices all over the world and aims to increase efficiency and thus lower costs for the Willis group.
As the new service centre would provide services to the three countries, Mexico, Colombia and Venezuela, and would also communicate with the UK, differences in culture could cause various problems in the communication. Also due to these differences, the cooperation between the employees in the three countries and the service centre could be affected, resulting in partial or total lack of communication.
In January 2002 Willis formed the department Global Operations. The aim of this department is to increase efficiency by streamlining operations and sharing resources. This entails the implementation of a certain structure of the operations executed in the after sales service. The new service centre will also have to comply with this new structure.
My research forms part of the BIP, in that it will focus on the proposed new service centre.
The aim of my research is to identify cultural characteristics of the UK, Mexico, Colombia and Venezuela that could influence the feasibility of the service centre for Latin America, and give recommendations for implementation of the service centre.
1.5 Guide to reading this thesis
In this first chapter an introduction was given to the present thesis. In the following chapter, the research method will be explained, and the research goal and question will be defined. In chapter 3 the theories used to answer the research question will be portrayed. Subsequently in chapter 4 a description will be given of Willis in terms of the strategy, the structure and the work processes. Finally the service centre will be elaborated on. In the following chapter the research results will be presented in three parts, i.e. the results from interviews, from questionnaires and from personal observations. In chapter 6 the results stated in chapter 5, will be discussed in detail. Finally in chapter 7 conclusions will be drawn and recommendations will be given based on these conclusions. In figure 1.1 the reading guide can be seen.
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Figure 1.1: Reading guide
Chapter 1: Introduction
Chapter 3: Theories
Chapter 6: Discussion Chapter 5: Results
Chapter 7: Conclusions and Recommendations
Chapter 2: Method
Chapter 4: Willis Chapter 1: Introduction
Chapter 3: Theories
Chapter 6: Discussion Chapter 5: Results
Chapter 7: Conclusions and Recommendations
Chapter 2: Method
Chapter 4: Willis
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Chapter 2: Research method
2.1 Introduction
In this chapter the method used to do research will be described. To bring structure in this description, the model of the “ball tent” (see appendix 2) by De Leeuw (De Leeuw, 1996) will be applied. This model names the main activities of the research process. These activities are the problem definition, the theoretical concepts, the data sources, the method of collecting those data and finally analysis and report.
First, in paragraph 2.2, the research will be characterised. In paragraph 2.3 the problem definition will be given. Subsequently in paragraph 2.4, the data sources will be discussed. Paragraph 2.5 explains the data collection method and lastly in paragraph 2.6, the analysis and report will be described. The theoretical concepts will be portrayed in the next chapter. As research is always subject to certain risks, paragraph 2.7 will present these risks and offer mitigations. Finally the time schedule that has to be taken into account will be provided in paragraph 2.8.
2.2 Research characterisation
Characterising research guides the design of the research and aids in the choice of the research method (De Leeuw, 1996). To characterise research, two characterisations are possible: based on the intended product and based on the research method. Both of these characterisations will be explained below.
Research based on intended product can be characterised by two types of research, namely exploratory research and explanatory research. Exploratory research investigates ideas and forms ideas or hypotheses. In other words: it gives an answer to an open question.
Explorative research is usually used in situations where not enough is known to produce an intelligent hypothesis. Explanatory research gives an answer to a closed question. Specific information is searched for refutation of a hypothesis.
The research in this thesis aims to identify cultural differences, which will influence the feasibility of the service centre and the communication. Not enough is known to form an intelligent hypothesis; the two aspects of culture and communication will be explored by answering an open question. This characterises the current research as exploratory research.
Research based on research method can be characterised by for example desk research or field research. The research in this thesis will explore the differences between various cultures and their influence on the feasibility of the service centre and on communication.
Cross-cultural research is based on a comparison between two cases where the main concern of the comparison is chiefly based on cultural aspects. The usual product is insight into cultural similarities and differences. This characterises the current research as cross-cultural research.
2.3 Problem definition
The problem definition expresses the reason for the research (why) and the intended knowledge in this research (what). The reason is expressed by the research objective and the intended knowledge is expressed by the research question. The research question should result naturally from the research objective. The problem definition also encompasses
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boundaries relating to limitations (forced choices whether made beforehand or not) with regards to the method that will be followed and relating to restrictions incurred to make the research feasible.
Below, the research objective will be defined. Based on this objective, the research question will be identified. To aid transparency, sub questions are developed based on the research question. Lastly the boundaries to the research will be stated.
Research Objective
The objective of the research is the ‘why’ of the exploration. What does the researcher want to achieve? The objective of this research reads as follows:
‘To inform Willis London on the cultural characteristics of the UK, Mexico, Colombia and Venezuela that could influence the feasibility of the service centre for Latin America, and give recommendations for implementation of the service centre.’
Research Question
The research question is a type of product specification; it expresses the intended knowledge. Based on the aforementioned objective the research question can be defined accordingly:
‘Which cultural characteristics of the UK, Mexico, Colombia and Venezuela influence the cooperation between employees in Latin America and the UK and the service centre for Latin America, and which cultural characteristics of the UK, Mexico, Colombia and Venezuela influence the communication between employees in Latin America and the UK and the service centre for Latin America?’
Sub-questions
1. What is culture
2. What is communication 3. What is a service centre
Identify the cultural characteristics of employees of Willis in Mexico, Colombia and Venezuela, which may influence their acceptance of the proposed new service centre for Latin America and evaluate their acceptance of the new service centre on the basis of the identified cultural characteristics
4. How does the UK feel about Latin America 1. Mexico
2. Colombia 3. Venezuela
5. How do the Mexicans feel about the 1. Mexicans
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6. How do the Colombians feel about the 1. Mexicans
2. Colombians 3. Venezuelans
7. How do the Venezuelans feel about the 1. Mexicans
2. Colombians 3. Venezuelans
Identify the cultural characteristics of employees of Willis in Mexico, Colombia and Venezuela, which may influence the communication between the UK, Mexico, Colombia and Venezuela and the service centre and evaluate the communication on the basis of the identified cultural characteristics
8. How do the Mexicans, Colombians and Venezuelans feel about the language of Mexico, Colombia and Venezuela
9. Which characteristics found from questions 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 could influence the choice for the location of the service centre
Boundaries
The first type of boundary relates to the method followed in the research. The boundary applying here is the amount of time available to spend on the research for this project. This will be about six months. Due to this amount of time, only a limited number of respondents can be included in the research. These respondents also do not have an unlimited amount of time, thus shortening the length of interviews and questionnaires.
The second type of boundary relates to restrictions incurred to make the research feasible.
Only the countries Mexico, Venezuela and Colombia are included in the research. Also only the aspects of culture and communication are included. This will entail looking at those specific factors in depth instead of many aspects superficially. The perimeters of the service centre are that it will be for administration for one hundred percent locally placed risk. In addition it will be for insurance only at first, and later reinsurance will be incorporated.
2.4 Data Sources
In business practise research such as the current research, six kinds of sources can be distinguished: documents, media, reality (the field), the imitated reality, databanks and the researchers experience. Documents can then be subdivided into libraries, archives and secondary sources. In this research various sources were used to generate an answer to the research question. Firstly, the reality was researched in London, Mexico and Colombia. This was done through interviews and questionnaires, which will be discussed further in the next paragraph. Next to this, documents were used, from various libraries in the Netherlands and the UK and secondary sources. The media provided information through journals, Internet and Intranet.
2.5 Data Collection Method
To describe the organisation and the service centre in Mumbai, interviews were held and the Willis Intranet was used. Information on Latin America was found through private books as
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well as books from libraries and the company. The Internet was also used to provide information on Latin America. Next interviews and questionnaires in the countries themselves were used to go into the cultural and communicational factors at greater depth. In addition personal observation was used to gain familiarity with a different culture to the own.
The interviews in the UK were all unstructured or open interviews. An open interview means that there is minimal structure to the questions. Basically the interviews consisted of two parts. The two main questions were “Can you tell me something about the company, or your part of the company”, and “How do you feel about the Mexicans, Colombians, and Venezuelans”. This way the conversation could go any way possible and subjects could be elaborated on or skipped. The interviews in Latin America were also unstructured. The factors that were necessary to talk about were based on the interviews in the UK. The people interviewed came from all layers of the company, so that all business units were represented.
Finally based on the interviews, questionnaires were developed and given to employees from all levels of the company. This will be explained more thoroughly in the next chapter.
Interviews were held with employees in the UK, Mexico and Colombia. Questionnaires were handed to employees in Mexico and Colombia. Not only employees from Willis were interviewed, but also employees from other companies. This helps prevent a too one-sided approach to the cultural differences between the countries and also generates new insights and viewpoints.
2.6 Analysis and Report
The results of the interviews were of qualitative value. They were analysed by categorising and attentively studying and considering the material. Categorising such qualitative information is essential because this way associations and patterns in the material can be produced. The results of consideration and categorisation of the material were the generation of attributes, which served as input for the questionnaires. The results of the questionnaires were of quantitative value. They were analysed by using them as input in a formula provided by Fishbein and Ajzen (see next chapter). This formula is a calculation and provides answers to part of the research question.
The report of this research will be in various ways. First through this thesis, which will be handed to the first and second mentor at university. Willis will naturally receive various copies as well. Secondly two presentations will be given on Internet, through a virtual workshop. Finally this thesis will be defended verbally where it will be explained and motivated.
To write a thesis of high quality, there are three requirements the thesis has to meet. These are the verifiability, the reliability and the validity of the research (Baarda and De Goede, 1995). These three requirements will be discussed at the conclusion of the thesis in chapter 7.
2.7 Risks and Mitigation
The risks for this project are presented in appendix 3. In the same appendix the mitigation is formulated after consideration of the risks. The terminology used is explained in appendix 4.
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2.8 Time Schedule
The research can be divided into three phases. The first phase took place in London. There Willis, Global Operations and the service centre in Mumbai were described. The second phase took place in Mexico and Colombia. There the culture and communication were described. The final phase was bringing the two previous phases together; the descriptions on Willis and the service centre and the research done on local culture and communication.
Based on these two phases, recommendations can be given. The three phases have been depicted in figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1: Phases of the research Phase 1 in the UK:
Description of Willis and the service centre
Phase 2 in Mexico and Colombia:
Research on culture and communication
Phase 3 in Mexico and The Netherlands:
Writing recommendations based on phase 1 and 2
Indicates the direction of sequence Indicates the direction of influence Phase 1 in the UK:
Description of Willis and the service centre
Phase 2 in Mexico and Colombia:
Research on culture and communication
Phase 3 in Mexico and The Netherlands:
Writing recommendations based on phase 1 and 2
Indicates the direction of sequence Indicates the direction of influence
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Chapter 3: Theory
3.1 Introduction
This chapter focuses on the theoretical background and the research process of my thesis. First, an introduction to leading theories on culture and communication is given in paragraph 3.2 and 3.3. These theories are needed in the later part of the thesis, where the findings of the research are interpreted in a broader perspective. The theoretical basis including the conceptual model of the research will be discussed in paragraph 3.4 and 3.5. In paragraph 3.6 the research process will be explained. Finally, in paragraph 3.7, the design of the questionnaire will be illustrated.
3.2 Culture
In this paragraph I will introduce the theories by Hofstede (3.2.1) and Hall (3.2.2).
3.2.1 Hofstede
In his pioneering study Cultures and Organizations, Hofstede (Hofstede, 1991) defines culture as “the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from another”. Culture is learned, not inherited. It derives from one’s social environment, not from one’s genes. Culture should be distinguished from human nature at one side and from an individual’s personality at the other side.
Levels of depth
Cultural differences manifest themselves in several ways. Hofstede distinguishes between the following levels of depth: symbols, heroes, rituals and values. Symbols are words, gestures, pictures or objects that carry a particular meaning, which is only recognised by those who share the culture. Heroes are persons, alive or dead, real or imaginary, who possess characteristics which are highly prized in a culture, and who thus serve as models for behaviour. Rituals are collective activities technically superfluous in reaching desired ends, but which, within a culture, are considered as socially essential.
The symbols, heroes and rituals are subsumed under the term practices. They are
visible to an outside observer, but their cultural meaning is only interpretable by the insiders.
Values are broad tendencies to prefer certain states of affairs to others. They are among the first things a child learns and are thus deeply rooted in the culture. They deal with evil vs. good, ugly vs. beautiful, paradoxical vs. logical, etc. Figure 3.1 depicts the manifestations of culture at different levels of depth.
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Figure 3.1: Manifestations of culture at different levels of depth
Since almost everyone belongs to several different groups and categories of people at the same time, people unavoidable carry several layers of mental programming within themselves, corresponding to different levels of culture e.g.: a national level, a regional level, an religious level a gender level, a generation level, an organizational or corporate level.
Hofstede states that the need for cooperation between nations provides a strong reason for data collection and research at the level of nations. Therefore his research focused on cultural differences between nations.
Dimensions of culture
In the first half of the 20th century, social anthropology has developed the conviction that all societies, modern or traditional, face the same basic problems: only the answers differ. Building on this insight, Hofstede studied a large body of data about the values of people in more than 50 countries around the world and arrived at the conclusion that they all had common problems but with solutions differing from country to country. He distinguishes five problem areas:
• Power distance
• Individualism vs. collectivism
• Masculinity vs. femininity
• Uncertainty avoidance
• Long-term orientation vs. short term orientation in life
Power distance (PDI) can be defined as the extent to which the less powerful members of institutions and organisations within a country expect and accept that power, status and wealth is distributed unequally.
Individualism (IDV) pertains to societies in which the ties between individuals are loose: everyone is expected to look after himself or herself and his or her immediate family.
Symbols
Practices
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Collectivism pertains to societies in which people from birth onwards are integrated into strong, cohesive in-groups, which throughout people’s lifetime continue to protect them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty.
Masculinity (MAS) pertains to societies in which social gender roles are clearly distinct, femininity pertains to societies in which social gender roles overlap. Masculinity pertains to the extent to which societies hold values traditionally regarded as predominantly masculine or feminine. Examples of “masculine” values include assertiveness, respect for the super-achiever, and the acquisition of money and material possessions. “Feminine” values include nurturing, concern for the environment, and championing the underdog.
Uncertainty avoidance (UAI) is the extent to which the members of a culture feel threatened by uncertain or unknown situations. At one extreme, people in weak UAI societies tend to accept and handle uncertainty without much discomfort. People in these societies accept each day as it comes, take risks rather easily, and show a relatively greater tolerance for opinions and behaviours different from their own. The other extreme – strong UAI societies – feel threatened by ambiguity and uncertainty. Consequently such societies emphasise the strong need to control the environment, events and situations. This means for example that employees will avoid the uncertainty of making a decision and only employees in a high position in the company will make decisions.
Long-term orientation vs. short-term orientation in life is a recently discovered 5th problem area, which describes the trade-off between long-term and short-term gratification of needs and desires. This point will not be discussed here, as this dimension has not been studied in the countries of interest (Mexico, Venezuela and Colombia).
Since these five problem areas have been identified in all national cultures, they are considered as the (five) dimensions of culture. Hofstede has developed a method to measure a national culture along those five dimensions. This method leads to the characterization of a national culture by one point in a 5-dimensional space. Details of the method will be explained while discussing the study described below.
Cultures of Mexico, Colombia, Venezuela and the UK
Since the list of national cultures investigated by Hofstede includes the cultures of Mexico, Venezuela, Colombia and the UK, his study is highly interesting for the present thesis. A relevant selection of his data is shown in Table 3.1. In this table each national culture scores between 0 and 100 along the four dimensions PDI, IDV, MAS, UAI.
Table 3.1: Scores of the four dimensions of culture for Mexico, Colombia, Venezuela and the UK
PDI IDV MAS UAI
Mexico 81 30 69 82
Colombia 67 13 64 80
Venezuela 81 12 73 76
UK 35 89 66 35
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From this table we can immediately see that the scores along the four dimensions of the three Latin-American countries are not very different. All three countries can be described as high power distance countries, with high collectivism, high masculinity and high uncertainty avoidance.
The UK scores differently on all dimensions except masculinity (MAS). The UK is a low power distance country, with high individualism, high masculinity and low uncertainty avoidance.
3.2.2 Hall
In his books “The dance of life”, “The hidden dimension” and “The silent language”, Edward Hall (Hall, 1959, 1966, 1983) distinguishes cultures by using two different dimensions:
• The attitude towards time along a dimension of polychronic time to monochronic time
• The way of communicating along a dimension of high context to low context
Time
Polychronic time, or P-time refers to doing many things at once. Monochronic time, or M-time, means doing one thing at a time; events are scheduled as separate items.
P-time stresses involvement of people and completion of transactions rather than adherence to pre-set schedules. Appointments are not taken as seriously and, as a consequence, are frequently broken. For polychronic people, time is seldom experienced as
‘wasted’. In a polychronic culture nothing is solid or firm, particularly plans for the future;
even important plans may be changed right up to the minute of execution.
Polychronic cultures are by their very nature oriented to people, human relationships, and the family, which is the core of their existence. Family takes precedence over everything else. Polychronic people are so deeply immersed in each other’s business that they feel a compulsion to keep in touch. Their involvement in people is the very core of their existence.
M-time has an iron hand. Time is thoroughly woven into the fabric of existence and it determines and co-ordinates everything. Social and business life is commonly schedule- dominated. Important things are taken up first and allotted the most time; unimportant things are left to last or omitted if time runs out.
M-time is oriented towards tasks, schedules, and procedures. They take a life of their own without reference to either logic or human needs. There are points at which M-time doesn’t make as much sense as it might.
High context and low context
Information, context and meaning are bound together in a balanced, functional relationship. All meaning has an important contextual component. A couple who knows each other very well, does not always have to spell everything out to each other. She knows from the way he moves what sort of day he has had, he knows from her tone of voice how she feels. In contrast, when one moves to a court of law, nothing can be taken for granted and everything must be spelled out. This idea is illustrated in Fig. 3.2: the more information is shared through other things than spelling it out, the higher the context. The more everything is spelled out (transmitted information), the lower the context. Reading from left to right, the
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left of the figure signifies high context, as there is only stored information. Moving to the right, the amount of transmitted information grows and thus the context becomes lower, till the utter right of the figure signifies only transmitted information and thus a low context.
Figure 3.2: Meaning consisting of high and low context information
The level of contexting requires a decision concerning how much information the other person can be expected to possess on a given subject. It appears that all cultures arrange their members and relationships along the context scale, and one of the greatest communication strategies, whether addressing a single person or an entire group, is to ascertain the correct level of contexting the communication. High context cultures expect intelligent human beings to be able to discover the point of disclosure from the context, which they are careful to provide.
Time and context in Mexico, Colombia, Venezuela and the UK
Mexico, Colombia and Venezuela are all P-time countries and use high context messages. A task related example of polychronic Latin Americans is that the control by the bosses of their employees consists of specifying all activities of a job, but the scheduling and planning in time of each activity is left up to the employee, as they would probably not finish it on the specified time anyway. In this way, it is felt that absolute control is maintained over the individual, as each task has been specified, so the boss knows the task will be done correctly. In contrast in M-time cultures the activity is scheduled by the boss, by giving dates and deadlines, and the analysis of the activities of the job is left to the individual.
Because the Latin Americans use high context messages, they will trust on stored information and give less explicit information. A long-term pattern exists in Latin America, where people depend more on human relationships, which they consider permanent, than they do on the wordings of a contract. Customers do not belong to the company but rather to the
High context, little transmitted information
Stored information (Context)
Transmitted information
Low context, much transmitted information
Meaning Meaning
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The UK is exactly the opposite of Latin America. It has a monochronic time orientation and works in a low context environment. An example of the differences can be seen in New Mexico, where the Anglo and Spanish cultures have lived side by side, but still maintain separate identities. One of the most difficult and basic problems faced by the working-class Spanish trying to adjust to the dominant Anglo culture, are those of polychronic individuals having to adjust to a monochronic culture.
3.3 Communication
The definition of communication that will be maintained in this research is the definition maintained by Nancy Adler (Adler, 1986). Communication is the exchange of meaning: it is an attempt to let the other person know what you mean. Communication includes any behaviour that another human being perceives and interprets: it is an understanding by one person as to what the other person means. Communication includes sending both verbal messages (words) and non-verbal messages (tone of voice, facial expression, behaviour, and physical setting). It includes consciously sent messages as well as messages that the sender is totally unaware of sending. What ever a person says or does, he or she cannot not communicate.
As stated in chapter 1, culture influences communication. To get a better understanding of the concept of communication and the influence culture can have on it, the cultural influences on communication will be gone into in paragraph 3.3.1. To check the final recommendations given in this thesis, they will be checked making use of the barriers to communication, as stated by Roger Bennett (Bennett, 1997). The barriers to communication will be explained in paragraph 3.3.2.
3.3.1 Cultural influences on communication
Where power distances are large, the superior’s rights to delegate are associated with social and political authority. Members of the group in general perceive it in their interests to preserve the superior’s authority. Hence the subordinate gives little feedback and comments and suggestions are often interpreted as a challenge to superior authority. Even a request for clarification may suggest that the superior has failed to explain adequately the first time, and thus be interpreted as criticism. This means that the subordinates work to make sure that they interpret correctly. They observe the behaviour of the superior and predict appropriate responses in part on the basis of past experience. In turn, the superior tries to avoid ambiguity and unpredictability. Where power distances are small, a failure to make a correct interpretation costs less in terms of losing face and can be easily repaired by asking for clarification. The way subordinates convey criticism to the superior in high power distance cultures is either through after-hours activities or anonymously passed to a third person.
According to Jablin (Jablin, 2001), it is probable that in high power distance cultures, more so than in low power distance cultures, communication will be mostly downward, sources will be more influential if they are higher rather than lower in status, and low-status audiences will yield to high-status sources more unquestioningly. In Mexico people will work harder for you if they can see you; if work becomes a personal thing between you and them.
It is also likely that in high power distance cultures elegant style will be much more effective than clumsy style, while the effect of style will be non-significant in low power distance cultures.
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In collectivistic cultures, even when these conditions prevail, communication may be minimal because people are strongly attached to different colectivities, such as family, friends and co-workers, and information is viewed by them as a resource not to be shared with out- groups. When familism is high there may be very little communication with members of the organisation who are not part of the family.
In a culture where personal relationships (between peers, the same levels of the hierarchy) are of paramount importance, the apparent advantages of efficient communication (such as memos are efficient for Anglo cultures) are delusory. The memo suggests coldness, aloofness, and a deliberate distancing from the other person, and achieves far less than a personal meeting – despite the greater investment in time that this entails.
In high context cultures, the non-verbal messages are more important while decoding the communicated message. Also the gestures, stance, eye movement and voice quality can mean different things in different cultures.
In contradiction to high power distance cultures such as Mexico, Colombia and Venezuela, low power distance cultures such as Anglo cultures, have totally different views concerning communication. Anglo cultures place a premium on both the quantity and the quality of information communicated to the subordinate.
The Anglo manager relies relatively heavily on memos when communicating within the organisation. Anglo communication priorities are:
• Speed and efficiency as criteria of performance
• Relatively high individualism and narrow power distances
• A legalistic approach to relationships
• The importance of planning the future
Important information may be withheld because the sender mistakenly interprets the information needs of the other person. This will happen frequently in intercultural communication. The information may also be withheld through choice. The sender protects his information and restricts communication in order to protect his status and control. This happens in high power distance cultures. In Anglo terms, withholding information makes inefficient use of organisational resources; but in the cultural context, it signifies a privileged use of significant information to reflect and enhance legitimate status.
3.3.2 Communication barriers
These communication barriers will be referred to after giving the recommendations at the end of this research, to crosscheck those recommendations to determine all barriers have been eliminated.
A communication barrier is an obstacle that prevents the smooth flow of information through organisations. Roger Bennett (Bennett, 1997) mentions seven barriers to good communication. These are:
• Message distortion
This can be caused by the length of the communicational chain, the many levels between top and bottom and the probability that the message will be lost or distorted
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• Information overload
People can be easily immersed in messages and consequently decisions about which messages to take seriously and which to ignore can become difficult
• Suitability of messages for a particular audience
This can be style of writing, or speech, which should be understandable for the recipient
• Semantic imprecision
Vague, meaningless words and sentences should be avoided.
Repeating, however, can emphasise important issues
• Lack of opportunities for communicating
Long chains prevent different levels to communicate with each other.
Also, embarrassment when communicating with seniors can sometimes prevent juniors the initiation of a necessary conversation
• Inability to listen
This depends on the person and can involve hearing only what they want to hear and disregarding all critical or hostile comment
• Membership of a reference group
Messages favourable to the reference group (group with which the individual identifies) will be received more willingly than others
3.4 The theory of reasoned action
In this paragraph I will introduce the theory used to develop the conceptual model and research process. This theory is an adapted version of the theory of reasoned action by Fishbein and Ajzen (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1980).
3.4.1 Fishbein and Ajzen
Generally speaking, the theory of reasoned action is based on the assumption that human beings are usually quite rational and make systematic use of the information available to them. People consider the implications of their actions before they decide to engage or not engage in a certain behaviour. This is why the theory is called the theory of reasoned action.
The goal is to predict and understand a person’s behaviour.
An outline of the theory is shown in Fig. 3.3. According to this theory, a person’s intention to perform a certain behaviour is a function of two basic determinants, one personal in nature and the other reflecting social influence. The personal factor is the individual’s positive or negative evaluation of performing the behaviour; this factor is termed attitude towards the behaviour. It simply refers to the person’s judgment that performing the behaviour is good or bad. The second determinant of a person’s intention to perform a certain behaviour, is the person’s perception of the social pressures put on him to perform or not perform the behaviour in question. Since it deals with perceived pressures, this factor is termed subjective norm.
According to the theory, attitudes are a function of beliefs. Generally speaking, a person who believes that performing a given behaviour will lead to mostly positive outcomes will hold a favourable attitude towards performing the behaviour, while a person who
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believes that performing the behaviour will lead to mostly negative outcomes will hold an unfavourable attitude. The beliefs that underlie a person’s attitude towards the behaviour are termed behavioural beliefs.
Subjective norms are also a function of beliefs, but beliefs of a different kind, namely the person’s beliefs that important others (specific individuals or groups who are important to him), think he should or should not perform the behaviour. These beliefs underlying a person’s subjective norm are termed normative beliefs. Generally speaking, a person who believes that the majority of important others think he should perform the behaviour, will perceive social pressure to do so. Conversely, a person who believes that the majority of important others think he should not perform the behaviour, will have a subjective norm that puts pressure on him to avoid performing the behaviour.
Note: Arrows indicate the direction of influence
Figure 3.3: Factors determining a person’s behaviour Prediction of behaviour from intention
Fishbein and Ajzen point out that the above model gives only reliable answers if the behaviour in all blocks has the same measure in terms of action, target, context and time.
Knowing that a person has the intention to donate money to a good cause, tells us little about his donating US $ 100 to United Funds in the next month. If a high correspondence between the measures of intention and behaviour is ensured, the intention to perform the behaviour is a reliable predictor of the behaviour.
The intention to be measured in this thesis will be if the respondent would like an employee of another culture than his own to handle their administration at the service centre (this will be explained more fully in paragraph 3.7).
Attitude towards behaviour
The attitude towards behaviour and the subjective norm will now be described in more detail. Fishbein and Ajzen state that a person’s attitude towards a behaviour is governed by two determinants. The first one is the person’s evaluation of the outcomes of performing
Attitude towards behaviour
Subjective norm
Intention to perform behaviour
Behaviour The person’s beliefs that
the behaviour leads to certain outcomes and his evaluations of these outcomes
The person’s belief that important others think he should or should not perform the behaviour and his motivation to comply with the important others
Attitude towards behaviour
Subjective norm
Intention to perform behaviour
Behaviour The person’s beliefs that
the behaviour leads to certain outcomes and his evaluations of these outcomes
The person’s belief that important others think he should or should not perform the behaviour and his motivation to comply with the important others
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A person’s evaluation and strength of belief concerning a particular outcome are measured along the following bipolar scales:
Evaluation of a particular outcome:
+3 +2 +1 0 -1 -2 -3 good extremely quite slightly neither/
nor slightly quite extremely bad
(strength of) Belief that this particular outcome is likely to occur:
+3 +2 +1 0 -1 -2 -3 likely extremely quite slightly neither/
nor slightly quite extremely Unlikely
For each outcome i of the n possible outcomes, the evaluation Ei and the strength of belief Bi are measured along the above scales and multiplied giving Bi Ei. Finally all n values of these multiplications Bi Ei are added together to give the numerical value of the attitude towards the behaviour A0. In formula form this is:
i n
1 i
i
0 E B
A
∑
=
=
In other words, an attitude towards a behaviour equals the sum of the evaluation of the outcomes times the strength of belief that the outcomes will occur.
So far we have dealt only with predicting a person’s attitude from a consideration of his own beliefs. In order to make a comparison between the attitudes of persons in a group, it is necessary to devise a set of modal beliefs representative for the group as a whole. The recommended procedure is to make a provisional list of all the beliefs in the group and then to enter in the final set only the beliefs shared by 75% of the group members. Common sense is required here since no clear rules are available.
The attitude that will be measured in this thesis will consist of the belief that for example a Colombian possesses a certain attribute (he is trustworthy). Moreover it will consist of the evaluation of that attribute (being trustworthy is good or bad). This will be explained more fully in paragraph 3.7)
Subjective norm
Fishbein and Ajzen state that the subjective norm is governed by two determinants.
The first is the belief of the person that important others think he should or should not perform the behaviour. In other words, the person’s perception of the attitude of the important others towards performing the behaviour. The second determinant is the degree of importance of those important others to the person, and the person’s motivation to comply with them.
A person’s beliefs and motivation and his motivation to comply are measured along the following bipolar scales:
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Perception of attitude of important others (should I perform the behaviour):
+3 +2 +1 0 -1 -2 -3 I
should
extremely quite slightly neither/
nor slightly quite extremely I should
not
Motivation to comply
+3 +2 +1 0 -1 -2 -3 likely extremely quite slightly neither/
nor slightly quite extremely unlikely
For each important other i of the m groups of important others, the perceived attitude Ai and the motivation to comply Ii are measured along the above scales and multiplied giving AiIi. Finally all m values of these multiplications AiIi are added together to give the numerical value of the subjective norm S0:
i m
1 i
i
0 A I
S
∑
=
=
Thus far has been dealt only with predicting a person’s subjective norm. In order to make a comparison between the subjective norms of persons in a group, it is necessary to devise a set of important others for the group as a whole. As in the case of behavioural beliefs, the recommended procedure is to make a provisional list of all the important others in the group and then to enter in the final set only the important others shared by 75% of the group members. Also here, common sense is required here since no clear rules are available.
The model of Fishbein and Ajzen is illustrated in Fig. 3.4.
Note: arrows indicate the direction of influence Attitude towards behaviour
Subjective norm
Intention to perform behaviour
Behaviour Evaluation of
outcomes Strength of the belief that outcome will occur
Perceived attitude of important others
Motivation to comply with important others
Bi Ei
Ai Ii
i n
1 i
i
0 A I
S
∑
=
=
i m
1 i
i
0 E B
A
∑
=
=
Attitude towards behaviour
Subjective norm
Intention to perform behaviour
Behaviour Evaluation of
outcomes Strength of the belief that outcome will occur
Perceived attitude of important others
Motivation to comply with important others
Bi Ei
Ai Ii
i n
1 i
i
0 A I
S
∑
=
=
i m
1 i
i
0 E B
A
∑
=
=
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It should be stated here again that the model of Fishbein and Ajzen only gives reliable predictions if the measures of behaviour (action, target, context, time) are identical in each block.
Since attitudes are assessed in terms of expectations that behaviour leads to certain outcomes and the evaluations of these outcomes, the above model belongs to the class of expectancy-value models.
The subjective norm that will be measured in this thesis will consist of the attitude that important others have (most members of my family think that I should have a Colombian handling my administration). Moreover it will consist of the evaluation of the important other (Generally speaking I want to do what my family think I should do). This will be explained more fully in paragraph 3.7.
Prediction versus understanding behavioural and normative beliefs
Obviously, if one is only interested in predicting the behaviour, then it is sufficient to ask whether or not the person intends to perform the behaviour, but the explanatory value of such a procedure is very small. The detailed investigation of the determinants of attitude and subjective beliefs as sketched above provides insight into the behavioural and normative beliefs of the person leading to the behaviour.
3.4.2 Behavioural criterion
Only part of the research question will be answered by the Fishbein and Ajzen model:
‘Identify the cultural characteristics of employees of Willis in Mexico, Colombia and Venezuela, which may influence their cooperation in the proposed new service centre for Latin America and evaluate their cooperation on the basis of the identified cultural characteristics.’
From this research question the following behavioural criterions are derived:
For the Mexican Willis employees:
• To like a Colombian handling their administration in the service centre
• To like a Venezuelan handling their administration in the service centre This is the same for the Colombian and Venezuelan employees (mutatis mutandis).
3.4.3 Attributes instead of outcomes
In the present thesis the main interest is focused on the cultural characteristics of the Willis people in Mexico, Colombia and Venezuela and the influence of these characteristics on the cooperation in a service centre.
The implication of this approach is that the attributes (cultural characteristics) of the Mexicans, Colombians and Venezuelans are the determinants of the attitude instead of the possible outcomes of ‘cooperation with a Colombian etc’ as required in the Fishbein and Ajzen model. Although the research question has been explained thoroughly to all respondents and they all understood that only cultural characteristics should be mentioned, which are relevant for the cooperation in the service centre, it is clear that this research approach might result in attitudes, which have no correspondence with the behavioural intention (intention to cooperate in the service centre). This point will be addressed in
