THE EFFECT OF PRIMING HEALTHY RECIPE FLYERS ON THE
HEALTHINESS OF THE SHOPPING BASKET
Master Thesis, MSc specialization Marketing Management University of Groningen, Faculty of Economics and Business
January 14, 2019 FRATZESKOU DIMITRA Student number: S3443515 Tel: +31 (0)65-5551108 Email: d.fratzeskou@student.rug.nl Supervisor A M. van der Heide
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Abstract………1 Introduction……….2 Literature Review………4 Flyer promotion……….……4 Health claims………...5 Priming………..6 Recipes………..8Homemade food and cooking skills……….….9
Methodology………..……….13
Participants and design………...……….13
Procedure……….………13
Measures………..17
Results……….………17
Healthiness of the shopping basket………..18
Follow up analysis……….……….…………..20
Discussion………...……….23
Main findings……….………..23
Managerial implications………...……28
Limitations and Future research…………..……….…………...29
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Although making healthy food choices is of major importance, a significant number of individuals fail to choose the healthy option. Therefore, researchers try to find ways that will direct consumers to select the healthy choice. This study examines whether a healthy recipe flyer provided in a super market can prime healthiness in consumers‟ minds which will subsequently lead them to choose the healthy option compared to an unhealthy one and thus, lead to a healthy shopping basket. In addition, the study measures whether the
appearance of strong cooking skills and whether the interaction effect between exposure to a healthy recipe flyer and cooking skills will have a positive effect on the healthiness of the shopping basket. An online experiment is created where 148 participants make their weekly shopping in an online supermarket and then they answer a series of questions. Contrary to the expectations of the research the exposure to the healthy flyer, the appearance of strong cooking skills and their interaction effect (exposure to healthy recipe flyer × strong cooking skills) do not significantly affect the healthiness of the shopping basket. However,
2 INTRODUCTION
More than 30% of the United States population is obese while 64% is overweight followed by people from Central, Eastern and Southern Europe (Flegal etal., 2002). Moreover, childhood obesity is an expanding problem which can put children‟s health to a risk. Obese children have been found to be more likely to have cardiovascular disease in their adult life (Freedman et al., 1999). Obese and overweight humans also have the lowest rates of health quality in their everyday lives, a phenomenon which is noticed both in the US and in other countries (Jia et al. , 2005).
One of the reasons of the occurrence of obesity has been hypothesized to be the consumption of convenience food or the consumption of fewer vegetables than the
recommended intake. In a study conducted in UK, almost 50% of the consumers were found to have a positive attitude toward convenience foods (Bukley et al., 2007). For the majority of young adults, the most important characteristic for a food to be considered is its degree of taste followed by its convenience. (Hebden et al., 2015). The Netherlands is found to
consume much less vegetables than the recommended daily intake which accounts for 200 grams daily consumption (Hulshof et al., 2004).It is common for individuals to compromise on their food selection rather than consume their preferred food option (Holm et al.,1996). The above study can imply that consumers might select convenience food compared to a healthier alternative due to reasons that make convenience food easier to access such as the lack of time to cook.
In efforts to decrease the levels of obesity and promote a healthier lifestyle researchers try to identify interventions that could be applied in super markets and
restaurants. Health concept interventions can be defined as “practices that aim to affect or even force consumers‟ healthy over unhealthy choices in their daily lives” (Brennan et al., 2010). There is an important call for policy makers and marketers to intervene in grocery stores and restaurants so that consumers will make more healthy choices (e.g. Flegal et al., 2002, Chandon&Wansink, 2012, Wansink, &Chandon, 2006). For example, marketers and policy makers can intervene by increasing the price of unhealthy goods or by decreasing the price of healthy goods or by changing the environment where products are sold so that healthy products will stand out compared to unhealthy ones. Furthermore, the recommended serving portion could also be altered on the food packages (Chandon et al., 2012).
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and offline ways. For example, promotion can be made by the use of shelf labels, posters and flyers or by television and movies or series as well as by in-store tours and events (Cameron et al., 2016, Chandon & Wansink, 2012).Marketing communication familiarizes consumers with product attributes, for example percentage of fat or product price (Chandon & Wansink, 2012). Health promotion aims to increase consumers‟ knowledge regarding nutrition or to foster healthier goods choices (Cameron et al., 2016). For instance, food marketers inform consumers regarding the elements of a product by the use of health claims as a form of promotion (Chandon&Wansink, 2012).
Health claims can help consumers understand the healthiness of a specific product, for example, by giving information about the existence or not of a component like gluten or sugar. Health claims are most often a combination of words or small phrases, most of the times showed on a product. Some examples of health claims are “low fat”, “low in calories” and “no sugar added” and they have captured the interest of researchers (Balasubramanian ,2002, Wansink, &Chandon ,2006, Roe et al. ,1999, Van Trijp et al. ,2007, Williams ,2005). A promotion intervention that few studies have investigated is the use of recipes in super markets which can be communicated via a flyer (Papies et al., 2014). A small body of research on the use of recipes suggests that recipes have a positive impact on the healthiness of consumers‟ purchases (Papies et al., 2014, Kristal et al., 1999).
Even if research has focused substantially on interventions that can help consumers choose the healthy option compared to the unhealthy or less healthy one, evidence is still limited on the effectiveness of certain kinds of interventions. For example, little is known about the effect of a recipe flyer as a means of a promotion intervention in super markets. My study aims to answer three questions. The first question is: Can a healthy recipe flyer distributed on a shopping trip increase the healthiness of the shopping basket? The second question is: Can the strength of cooking skills of individuals increase the healthiness of the shopping basket? And the third question is: Does the effect of a healthy recipe flyer on the healthiness of the basket depend on the shoppers‟ cooking skills? Those research questions are examined by the use of an online experiment. In this study I chose to use an online experiment due to the fact that responses are saved automatically, namely information given from respondents does not get lost and due to the ease it provides on data collection.
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do affect consumers‟ basket positively. The above practitioners can get motivated to include more healthy recipes in grocery stores environment.
The structure of the thesis will be as follows. In the next chapter the literature review, the conceptual model and the hypothesis will be analyzed. Then the methodology and data collection will be discussed. The thesis will end with the results of data collection and a discussion chapter.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Food choices of individuals reflect attributes like the degree they consider their health important, their level of health literacy, their diet consideration or the strength of their cooking skills. From simple observations one can speculate that people tend to indulge more into sweet and salty flavors. Indeed, research has proven that humans due to their genetics they have a greater preference over sweet and salty food while they like sour and bitter tastes less. The United States have taken advantage of this phenomenon and have introduced high amounts of sweet and salty products where substantial levels of sugar, salt and fat is contained (Birch ,1999). Thus, supermarket interventions by the usage of
promotion materials like flyers which promote healthy eating could be examined for their effectiveness. Flyers could introduce a healthy recipe or could try to motivate people to choose a healthier diet by the use of health claims. Psychological mechanisms which are expected to affect individuals‟ thinking, like priming, could also be examined for their effectiveness. Below it will be discussed the reason that I propose that these elements could create an intervention which can affect consumers‟ food choices.
Flyer promotion
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as a waste of money and they also propose that they receive more flyers than they need. The third cluster consisted of consumers who had more similar views to the first cluster
(Schmidt & Bjerre, 2003). Furthermore, more than half of consumers do not seek promotion flyers; however those who seek them are those with a higher chance to respond positively to promotions (Miranda et al., 2007).
Due to the fact that flyers are materials that are used by marketers for their practices it is imperative for them to know the kind of the flyers which are most successful in
influencing consumer behavior. In a study conducted in retail super markets it was found that individuals that are shown an advertising sale flyer tend to buy the products exhibited on the flyer, to spend money on these products, to redeem coupons related to the flyer and to make more purchases in total. Consumers were exposed to the flyer either a little time before their shopping trip started or right before the begging of their shopping trip. They also found that compared to the condition where products were not advertised from flyers, products that were advertised were purchased more than 100%. However, in their paper it is also shown that half of the households did not pay attention to the flyers they were exposed to (Burton et al., 1999). In the Netherlands most of promotion flyers promote unhealthy food options and in order for the consumers to achieve the offer promoted in the flyer most of the times they have to make purchases of other unhealthy choices as well (Ravensbergen et al., 2015). It can be suspected that the Netherlands uses this kind of promotion flyers to an important extent due to the fact that they are highly successful on influencing consumers‟ purchases.
Health claims
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claim results to a higher consumption of products that utilize this claim (Wansink,
&Chandon, 2006). Health halo effects or in other words the fact that goods are assumed to be healthier due to other elements that are not remarked in the claim can occur due to health claims on products (Roe et al., 1999). However, the results of health claims on consumers‟ intake can be considered as vague as the effects of health claims differ from one country to another (Van Trijp et al., 2007). Contradictory research has shown that health claims result to higher health awareness and selection of healthier foods (Williams, 2005).
Priming
Priming has been researched widely for the assessment of marketing interventions (North et al., 1999, Mors et al., 2018, Tal & Wansink, 2015, Minas et al., 2016, van der Laan et al., 2017) as a psychological mechanism that can affect consumers‟ thinking and acting. Priming can also be used in the promotion of a flyer as an underlying process for the consumer behavior to be influenced. A prime can be defined as a short activation of a human‟s mental representations due to exposure to a stimulus. After the individual has been exposed to these stimuli, mental functions related to these stimuli are activated and
subsequent brain processes are influenced by those mental functions (Bargh& Chartrand 2000). Priming can occur in many ways. For example, in conceptual priming an individual is unaware that they act upon or think upon an irrelevant concept due to the fact that a previous manipulated mental representation occurred to them so that they will think or act someway. Another differentiation is supraliminal priming. In supraliminal priming an individual is presented to a priming stimulus consciously, however they are not aware of the concept behind the prime. In subliminal priming the individual is not aware of the priming stimuli nor are they aware for the processes happening after being exposed to the stimuli (Bargh& Chartrand 2000).
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need for a thirst quenching product and considered Lipton Ice thirst quenching (Karremans et al., 2006). Moreover, a study that examined consumers‟ behavior over repeated incidental exposure to a specific brand resulted to a higher choice of this brand on consumers. Those consumers were not aware of being exposed to the brand (Ferraro et al., 2008).
I suspect that priming not only it can affect the selection of a product directly but also indirectly for example by manipulating the environment where products are sold. There is some evidence which verifies my statement. It has been shown that the presence of French music in a super market led consumers to buy much larger quantities of French wines compared to German wines. Also German music resulted on a greater purchase of German than French wines (North et al., 1999). However, a study that examined cucumber and bread odor as a priming method for choosing healthier food found evidence that those odors can affect the mood of consumers but not their food choices (Mors et al., 2018). Therefore, it might be questionable if smells can be used in an environment (e.g. grocery store, restaurant) as a prime for selecting healthy products.
If priming is a technique which can be used by marketers successfully to influence consumers‟ products selection then it can be expected to work effectively in leading consumers to purchase healthy products. Research has found evidence that priming techniques on healthy products can increase consumption of healthy over unhealthy products. For instance, product samples were found to be used successfully as a way to prime a positive attitude on healthy products. A study found that individuals who were given a healthy product sample made more healthy choices compared to individuals who were given an unhealthy sample. Both groups had to consume the sample before choosing among some pairs of products. The researchers suggested that samples can work as primes in the sense that they can affect the purchase of products which have common attributes with the prime. In their case they suggested that a healthy prime can create mental processes related to health which would make consumers choose the healthy option (Tal & Wansink 2015).
Moreover, priming words that lead to a healthy body were found to influence a healthy behavior. The study showed that women who were primed with words that implied a healthy body e.g. “slim” consumed less calories than women who were primed with words of a neutral meaning. However, the priming method did not affect the male participants of the study due to the fact that men indulge more to temptations and they put fewer
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In order for marketers to be able to use priming effectively to direct consumers to a specific choice they have to be aware of the senses that individuals use to select a product over another. I expect that due to the fact that marketers focus extensively in the creation of an appealing advertisement, of a product package or of any other marketing material they expect that vision can influence consumer behavior. Indeed, the above statement holds true for priming. Visual attention to a prime can be a main factor which explains why priming influences behavior (van der Laan et al., 2017, Mandel & Johnson, 2002, Janiszewski et al., 2013). There is evidence that repeated attention to a product with a simultaneous non-attention to another product will increase the possibility of selecting the product which received significantly more attention (Janiszewski et al., 2013). Moreover, van der Laan et al. (2017) showed that health primes can increase the visual attention to healthy compared to unhealthy products and can increase the selection of healthy over unhealthy foods. They also showed that the effect of the goal prime was mediated by higher attention to healthy products. The researchers proved the above statements by manipulating the goal priming by showing a couple of times a recipe banner either with words and colors related to health or words and colors not related to health.
Recipes
Consumers can be exposed to health related primes in many ways for example, via recipes. Food recipes may provide useful instructions on how individuals can prepare a healthy meal, however it is only a small body of research that has paid attention on their effectiveness. Technology can be thought to be able to contribute positively by the creation of online materials that can lead individuals choose a healthy recipe. A few studies have used technology for the aforementioned goal. For instance, a study tried to create a mechanism for personalized recipes that would be close to the eating habits of each individual and would provide them with healthy meal recommendation. This mechanism aims to help consumers who are willing to prepare healthy meals however they lack the time necessary to do it (Geleijnse, Wang & Li, 2010). A similar study tried to create an algorithm which counts how many grams of vegetables each recipe contains aiming to influence consumers select recipes high in vegetable quantity so that they will reach the recommended vegetables intake per day (Geleijnse et al. 2010).
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have been studied for their effectiveness on consumers‟ choices on healthy over unhealthy products on super markets. For example, a study conducted in a super market environment found that a point-of-purchase intervention which contained a flyer where fruits and
vegetables in promotion prices together with recipe and menu ideas were found to be able to increase the purchase of vegetables and fruits promoted among the consumers that they had received the flyer (Kristal et al., 1997). Another study aimed to check whether a healthy recipe indicated in a flyer would remind consumers of health and diet and whether it is the reminding that would influence healthier product choices. It was found that the distribution of a recipe flyer which contained health and diet claims in a grocery store decreased the purchase of unhealthy snacks among obese and overweight individuals. The research suggests that this behavior occurred due to the fact that healthiness had been primed, so health stimuli were activated which resulted to a subsequent action of choosing more healthy snacks (Papies et al., 2014).
To summarize the above discussion, research has shown that promotion of products by the usage of flyers on grocery stores can affect consumers‟ choices. There is evidence that health claims have an effect on consumers‟ mindset over products. Priming the healthy option via a recipe can result to the consumer finally select a healthy option. Therefore, in this study I aim to investigate whether priming a healthy recipe via a promotion flyer in an online super market environment can lead to a healthier shopping basket (Figure 1). My formal hypothesis is formed as follows.
Hypothesis 1: A healthy recipe flyer will have a positive effect on the healthiness of the shopping basket.
Homemade food and cooking skills
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compared to women (Hartmann et al., 2013). Nowadays, there are almost none mandatory cooking classes in school around the globe (Stitt, 1996).
Homemade food can be thought to contribute to a healthy diet as it is thought to be more reliable than eating food which is not prepared at home. Furthermore, one could argue that cooking skills act as a significant facilitator of a healthy diet. Indeed research has verified the above statement. Cooking dinner more often than two times per week can lead to the reception of lower number of calories, fat or sugar as well as to the diminishing of fast food, frozen food, convenience food consumption per week. Diet quality can be enhanced for individuals that are trying to lose weight and for individuals who do not actively try to when the amount of homemade food is increased throughout the week (Wolfson & Bleich, 2015). Moreover, a negative effect between cooking skills and pre-prepared meals is found in previous research implying that the higher the cooking skills the healthier the diet because of the preparation and consumption of homemade food rather than of the consumption of pre-prepared food (Van der Horst et al. 2011). Young adults who cook more often are more likely to have a healthier diet. However, other factors such as lack of time, money and cooking appliances can inhibit the meal preparation for the majority of the people of this age group (Larson et al., 2006). Taking into account older age groups, specifically for older men it is found that those with good cooking skills were healthier and consumed more vegetables (Hughes et al., 2004). Consumers with higher cooking skills are found to consume more vegetables and less convenient food per week (Hartmann et al., 2013). This study suggested that consumers with better cooking skills had a more substantial food variety which implies a healthier diet which is true especially for dishes with various vegetables. The study made the above conclusion due to the findings of Bucher et al. (2011) who showed that consumers who were able to pick vegetables from a wider variety of vegetables ended up receiving more energy from them and Wansink (2004) who showed that variety can lead to higher consumption which holds true for healthy nutrients as well. Overall, it was found that cooking skills lead to healthier food choices. Thus, I aim to investigate whether strong cooking skills will increase the healthiness of the shopping basket (Figure 1). My formal hypothesis is formed as follows.
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It can be assumed that cooking skills can facilitate the cooking procedure in several dimensions. For instance, individuals with stronger cooking skills might be more willing to follow a recipe or they might be more able to understand the recipe instructions compared to individuals with lower cooking skills. Indeed, Individuals are found to have different attitudes towards recipes depending on the strength of their cooking skills. A study was conducted in order to observe cooking experience, recipe sources and food consumption of college students and nutritionists. The study consisted of a questionnaire asking college students and nutritionists questions regarding their cooking abilities, recipe sources and food consumption choices. College participants tended to overvalue their cooking abilities and were positive on making meals by the use of a recipe. Nutritionists were found to have strong cooking skills and to make substantial use of recipes in their meal preparation. In other words, the study found that both individuals with strong cooking skills as well as individuals with perceived strong cooking skills make use of recipes to cook a meal (Hertzler& Bruce 2002) .
Furthermore, a study aimed to create an intervention program out of which individuals in areas of depravation would make a more significant consumption of fish, fruits, vegetables and starchy products and less consumption of fat found that individuals with lower cooking skills do not make a significant use of recipes. Among other findings researchers found out that individuals participated in the intervention program increased their cooking abilities, they were more able to use a recipe and they had a more positive attitude towards the usage of a recipe compared to their counterparts that did not participate in the program (control group) who showed substantial fear to follow a recipe. Also,
participants with low cooking skills were mostly found to rely on convenience or “easy to cook” meals for their nutrition. Most of them were aware of simple cooking techniques like steaming and they were mostly using their microwave to cook. Most of them rarely used their oven. From the above findings it can be concluded that individuals with weak cooking skills did not make use of recipes as they did not cook often. Those participants were afraid to try new techniques because they assumed that they would fail to apply them and they were also not willing to learn to cook in a more proper manner. All, but one in the same group of participants thought of themselves incapable to follow a recipe not only because of the steps that they had to follow but also due to the fact that they were unable to understand the recipes (Wrieden et al. 2002).
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follow them for their food preparation. Consequently, for those individuals chances are lower to pay attention to the health claims and/or primes and therefore, the flyer will influence their food choices to a lesser extent. Contrary, individuals with strong cooking skills are likely to have more positive attitude towards recipes and follow them more. Consequently, those individuals are more likely to pay attention to the health claims and /or primes and therefore, the flyer will influence their food choices to a higher extent.
To summarize the above discussion, recipes receive a more positive attitude in the appearance of cooking skills. The stronger the cooking skills the more positive the attitude towards the usage of a recipe will be. That is to say to say that individuals with stronger cooking skills are more confident in using a recipe as they can understand the recipe and they are more inclined to try new methods and new foods. Therefore, as I discussed before a healthy recipe flyer will lead to a healthier shopping basket This relationship will be
stronger in the appearance of cooking skills (Figure 1). My formal hypothesis is formed as follows:
Hypothesis 3: The effect of a healthy recipe flyer on the healthiness of the shopping basket will be more pronounced for consumers with strong (versus weak) cooking skills.
FIGURE 1
Conceptual model of the thesis:
13 METHODOLOGY
Participants & Design
The participants that were used in this experiment were 148 individuals who live in the Netherlands. The participants were asked to complete a survey where firstly they had to do an online grocery shopping and then they had to answer some questions. The design of my study was a between subjects design. Half of the participants had been shown a healthy recipe flyer exactly before they started with their shopping trip and the rest of them were not exposed to any flyer. Participants were assigned randomly and they were given similar and clear instructions.
Before the actual survey was provided, a pre-test on five people who live in Greece and did not know the aim of the study was done in order to ensure the construct validity as much as possible. Due to the pre-test some important feedback was received and I was ensured that the survey functions properly.
Procedure
The survey was uploaded in a few social media groups that consist of people who live in the Netherlands. Members of the group were kindly asked to fill the survey in and it was clearly indicated that this survey applies only to people who currently live in the
Netherlands. The above statement occurred due to the fact that the products in the online super market were products that individuals can find in a Dutch supermarket which they might not be able to find in the supermarkets of other countries. Thus, individuals who live in other countries might had not been aware of these products and might would not buy them due to the fact that they do not consist a part of their diet which could had biased their shopping behavior. Participants were asked to complete a number of unrelated tasks. The experiment was online an online survey which operated through Qualtrics. Data collection stopped when the desired number of data was gathered.
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they were done looking at it they could proceed to their shopping. They were kindly asked to reply honestly all of the questions that they would encounter. With a “next” button they had the opportunity to proceed to the next page where the shopping trip started (Appendix A).
The flyer provided was presenting a healthy recipe (Figure 2). It was a recipe of pasta cooked with vegetables. An image of this pasta was provided, some health claims that consisted of a few sentences were provided, and the flyer was in green color as green is found to be associated to healthiness (Van der Laan et al., 2012). Research has shown that consumers in the UK consider pasta as a very tasty main meal (Monteleone et al. ,1997) and in the Netherlands they consider pasta tasty and as tasty as rice and potatoes
(Supakornchuwong & Suwannaporn, 2012).
FIGURE 2
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Inspired by the experiment of Tal &Wansink (2013) participants passed from eight different sections in an online super market and in each of these sections they had to choose 0-4 products. The sections from which they passed were salty snacks section, vegetables section, sweet snacks section, bakery section, meat section, pasta products section, cheese section and sauce section. Each section consisted of four products in total where nutritional information was provided for each separate product (Appendix B). The products in every section were both healthier and less healthy (two healthier and two less healthy). For instance, in the pasta products section one less healthy product was spaghetti while one healthier product was biologic whole grain spaghetti and in the vegetables section one less healthy product was barbecue mini potatoes while one healthier was broccoli (Figure 3).
FIGURE 3
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Vegetables section:
After the shopping trip participants were asked to answer a couple of questions. Firstly, they were asked questions regarding their cooking skills for example “I consider my cooking skills as sufficient”, involvement with cooking “I like to try new recipes”, mental effort “I don‟t want to think about what to cook for a long time”, cooking enjoyment they assess on cooking “Preparing a meal is a satisfactory activity for me”, dieting “It is important for me that a food I eat on a typical day keeps me healthy” and health literacy “Fat is always bad for your health; you should therefore avoid it as much as possible”. The above scales were assessed on a seven-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree; 7 =
strongly agree). The above scales exist, they have been used, they have been tested for their success and their Cronbach‟s α has been calculated (Brunner et al., 2010, Hartmann et al., 2013) which can be found in Appendix C. Then, in the flyer case, questions regarding the prime were asked like “I was thinking of the recipe while shopping” which were replied in a seven-point Likert scale (Appendix A.3.). Afterwards, manipulation check happened so that attention to the flyer would be checked. In order for the manipulation to be possible
participants were shown three different recipe flyers and one “none of these” option where they were asked to choose the flyer that was given to them in the beginning of the
experiment or to choose that they did not see any of them (Appendix A.3.). The last questions were demographic questions namely age, gender and level of education
17 Measures
The main variables of the analysis were measured as follows. The dependent variable was measured in two ways, as a sum of calories found in the basket and as a percentage of healthiness of the shopping basket. The sum of calories was computed as the total calories that each basket consisted. To measure the percentage of healthiness firstly, I counted the total number of products existed in each basket. Then, I counted the number of healthy products existed in each baskets and afterwards I created the percentage by firstly dividing healthy products to total products and then by multiplying the number resulting from the division with 100. In order for the regression analysis to occur the exposure or not to the recipe flyer was dummy coded ( 0 = participants were not exposed to the recipe flyer, 1 = participants were exposed to the recipe flyer). The strength of the cooking skills was measured as a mean value out of the answers (ranged from 1 to 7) participants gave in each item of the cooking skills scale. The moderator (exposure to the recipe flyer × cooking skills) was measured in two steps. Firstly, both exposure to the recipe flyer and cooking skills were mean-centered and then the interaction of the mean-centered variables was computed by multiplying these two new variables. The multiplication led to the creation of the moderator variable. For the sake of the regression analysis the mean-centered variables were utilized.
RESULTS
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percentage of healthiness of the baskets was 61.8% on average while the less healthy baskets (2 baskets) accounted for 12.5% of healthiness and the healthiest baskets (11 baskets) accounted for 100% of healthiness. The distribution of the cooking skills was approximately normal ranging from low to high cooking skills (appendix E.2.). The mean cooking skills of the participants was 5.18 while the minimum cooking skills accounted for 1.29 and the maximum for 7.00 (range 1.00-7.00).
Healthiness of the shopping basket
In order for the healthiness of the basket (dependent variable) to be assessed, it was measured in two different ways, as a sum total of basket calories purchased from each consumer and as a percentage of healthy products that existed in each basket. In order to analyze whether or not the exposure to the recipe flyer affected the healthiness of the basket regression analyses were conducted where exposure to a recipe flyer, strength of cooking skills and their interaction term were regressed on the healthiness of the basket (Table 1) that can be found in detail in Appendix E.3, E.4. The regressions which were checked for the variance inflation factor (VIF < 10) were not significant for both measures of the healthiness of the shopping basket (sum of calories R²=0.04, F(3, 136)=0.17, p=0.915, percentage of healthiness R²=0.013, F(3, 136)=0.58, p=0.632). The degree of the
healthiness of the shopping basket found in the flyer condition and in the no flyer condition can be found in the graphs below (Graph 1 and Graph 2).
GRAPH 1
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Percentage of healthiness of the shopping basket in each condition
Exposure to a healthy recipe flyer: Contrary to the initial hypothesis, namely that
the exposure to the healthy recipe flyer would affect positively the healthiness of the shopping basket, the exposure to a healthy recipe flyer did not influence the healthiness of the basket (sum of calories B=46.827, t(139)=0.628, p=0.531, percentage of healthiness B=0.199, t(139)=0.116, p=0.908). Therefore the null hypothesis is not rejected.
Strength of cooking skills: Contrary to the second hypothesis, namely that strong
cooking skills would have a positive effect on the healthiness of the shopping basket, the strength of cooking skills did not influence the healthiness of the shopping basket (sum of calories B=35.681, t(139)=0.470, p=0.639, percentage of healthiness B=0.652,
t(139)=0.373, p=0.710). Thus, the null hypothesis of the experiment cannot be rejected.
Interaction effect between exposure to the recipe flyer and cooking skills: In
20 TABLE 1
Main regression analysis on the healthiness of the shopping basket:
Sum of calories F-value df p-value Beta Standard Error t
Main and interaction effects
Exposure to healthy recipe flyer 0.17 3 .531 46.827 74.523 0.628 Strength of cooking skills 0.17 3 .639 35.681 75.915 0.470 Exposure to healthy recipe flyer ×
strength of cooking skills 0.17 3 .940 -5.658 75.183 0.075
Percentage of healthiness F-value df p-value Beta Standard Error t
Main and interaction effects
Exposure to healthy recipe flyer 0.56 3 .908 0.199 1.717 0.116 Strength of cooking skills 0.56 3 .710 0.652 1.749 0.373 Exposure to healthy recipe flyer ×
strength of cooking skills 0.56 3 .260 1.960 1.732 1.132
ªAll values are significant at p < .05
Follow up analysis
Other control variables: A follow up analysis was conducted to check for the
influence of other independent variables on the healthiness of the shopping basket.
Regression analyses were performed for three control variables, involvement with cooking, diet of participant and age of participant which were regressed on the healthiness of the basket where the healthiness of the basket was firstly measured as a sum of calories and then as a percentage of healthiness of the shopping basket (Table 2) and they can be found in detail in Appendix E.5 - E.8. Involvement with cooking and diet were measured as mean values out of the answers (ranged from 1 to 7) participants gave in each item of those scales. The higher the mean value the more involvement and the healthier the diet indicated. Age was measured in a continuous scale.
Healthiness of the basket measured as a sum of calories of the shopping basket: In
order to analyze whether involvement with cooking and diet of the participant influenced the healthiness of the shopping basket a regression analysis was performed with
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Involvement with cooking did not affect the healthiness of the basket (B=3.872,
t(139)=0.068, p=0.946). Diet of the participant did not affect the healthiness of the shopping basket (B=-0.762, t(139)=0.009, p=0.993). In order to analyze whether or not the age of the participant affected the healthiness of the shopping basket a regression analysis was
performed with age regressed on the healthiness of the shopping basket. The regression was not found to be significant (R²=0.19, F(2, 137)=1.33, p=0.268). The age of the participant did not affect the healthiness of the shopping basket (B=-11.936, t (139) =-1.536, p=0.127).
Healthiness of the basket measured as a percentage of healthiness of the shopping basket: In order to analyze whether involvement with cooking and diet of the participant
influenced the healthiness of the shopping basket a regression analysis was performed with involvement with cooking and diet of the participant regressed on the healthiness of the shopping basket where the latter variable was measured as a percentage of healthiness of the shopping basket. The regression was significant (R²=0.106, F (3, 136) =5.35, p=0.002). Involvement with cooking influenced the healthiness of the basket positively (B=2.847, t(139) =2.295, p=0.023). This finding indicates that a one unit increase of the involvement of the participant with cooking increased his shopping basket by 2.847 units. Diet of the participant affected the healthiness of the shopping basket positively (B=4.119,
t(139)=2.163, p=0.032). This result means that a one unit increase of the diet of the
participant increased his shopping basket by 4.119 units. In order to analyze whether or not the age of the participant affected the healthiness of the shopping basket a regression analysis was performed with age regressed on the healthiness of the shopping basket. The regression was not found to be significant (R²=0.30, F (2, 137) =2.10, p=0.128). The age of the participant was found to affect the healthiness of the shopping basket positively
22 TABLE 2
Follow–up analysis on the healthiness of the shopping basket:
Sum of calories F-value df p-value Beta Standard Error t
Main effects
Involvement with cooking 0.99 3 .946 3.872 56.633 0.068 Diet of participant 0.99 3 .993 -0.762 88.598 -0.009 Age of participant 1.33 2 .127 -11.936 7.769 -1.536
Percentage of healthiness F-value df p-value Beta Standard Error t
Main effects
Involvement with cooking 5.35 3 .023 2.847 1.241 2.295 Diet of participant 5.35 3 .032 4.119 1.941 2.163 Age of participant 2.10 2 .043 0.366 0.179 2.044 ªAll values are significant at p < .05
Effect of the prime on separate products: In order to get an understanding
23 TABLE 3
Follow–up analysis on the effect of prime on separate products:
Exposure to the recipe flyer Beta S.E. Wald p-value
Basic Pasta 0.390 0.181 4.616 0.032
Exposure to the recipe flyer Beta S.E. Wald p-value
Pasta with egg - 0.369 0.184 4.001 0.045
DISCUSSION
Main Findings
The aim of my study was to investigate whether the exposure of a healthy recipe flyer in a super market would influence the healthiness of the basket of the participants positively. Moreover, another goal of the study was to check whether cooking skills could affect the healthiness of the shopping basket positively and whether the effect of the recipe flyer would be stronger in the appearance of strong cooking skills. Contrary to the main hypotheses of the experiment the exposure to the healthy recipe flyer, the appearance of strong cooking skills as well as the interaction term of exposure to the recipe flyer and cooking skills did not influence the healthiness of the shopping basket (Table 4). The data collection was accomplished by the use of an online experiment and the conclusions derived by its results will be discussed below.
TABLE 4
Validation of Hypotheses:
Subject Explanation Validated
Hypothesis 1 A healthy recipe flyer will affect positively the healthiness of the shopping basket
No
Hypothesis 2 Strong cooking skills will affect positively the healthiness of the shopping basket
No
Hypothesis 3 The effect of a healthy recipe flyer on the healthiness of the shopping basket will be more pronounced for consumers with strong (versus) weak cooking skills.
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Contrary to hypothesis 1, the results of the study suggest that the exposure to a healthy recipe flyer did not influence the healthiness of the basket. This finding indicates that consumers who saw the recipe flyer were not affected by the health advices, or the image of a healthy dish or the green color which is related to health. In order to have a clear dataset manipulation check on attention to the recipe flyer occurred and participants who did not pay attention to the recipe flyer were excluded from the analysis. Thus, the analysis included only participants who checked the recipe flyer before making their purchases. A possible explanation regarding my finding can be the fact that as a previous study has shown more than half of consumers do not pay attention to flyers (Miranda et al., 2007, Burton et al., 1999). Therefore, even if the manipulation check revealed attention or not to the flyer, the actual focus on the flyer might have not been strong. Furthermore, most often flyers introduce product promotions that consumers use them in order for them to buy products cheaper than usual (Miranda et al., 2007, Burton et al., 1999, Ravensbergen et al., 2015). Consequently, consumers might think of flyers used in super markets only as
promotion materials rather than anything else and they might focus on them only when they help them to save money. The health prime could have probably worked if except from the recipe, healthy products that were exposed in the recipe were exhibited in the flyer
independently together with a discount offer which in line with previous work could result to the selection of these products (Kristal et al., 1997).
The more profound the cooking skills of the participants, the healthier the basket was assumed to be. However, cooking skills did not influence the degree of healthiness of the shopping basket of the participants. A possible explanation regarding this finding could be the fact that even if participants‟ cooking skills were found to be relatively high (5.18 on average), participants may lack of appliances, time or money to cook which can lead their basket to contain less healthy products that most of times require basic cooking appliances or little time to be prepared. In addition, most of the participants were young adults who are more likely to lack the conveniences mentioned above, which is in line with previous findings (Larson et al., 2006). An alternative explanation to this finding could be the fact that the online super market contained only four different vegetable products rather than a greater variety of vegetables, a fact that can restrain the significance between cooking skills and the healthiness of the basket as individuals with high cooking skills are found to
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consumers with higher cooking skills did not have the chance to select various vegetables or they miss cooking supplies, time or money to cook.
The third main hypothesis of my research, namely the fact that participants with stronger cooking skills who were exposed to the healthy recipe flyer would have a
significantly healthier shopping basket, failed to stand true. I assumed that participants with advanced cooking skills who would encounter the recipe flyer would pay greater attention to the recipe and they would have been more influenced on the decision of the products they would select. A reasonable explanation of the outcome derived from the data analysis could be the fact that young individuals, who accounted for the majority of the participants group, indeed are found to have positive attitude towards recipes when they have or assume they have high cooking skills (Hertzler& Bruce 2002) however they might seek for recipes via other sources for instance, via cooking applications and internet. These sources are more modern compared to a recipe introduced in a flyer and they can be thought to be more convenient, more appealing and more trustworthy by young individuals. Therefore, this group of participants might have not been influenced from the existence of a recipe in a perceived traditional manner for them and selected their products ignoring its existence.
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calories of the products might step to the grounds that calories is not a strong factor to explain healthiness as sometimes products with higher amount of calories are healthier than products with lesser amount of calories.
Involvement with cooking appeared to influence the shopping basket positively. The greater the involvement of the participants with cooking the healthier their shopping basket was found to be. Participants who are involved with cooking they actually cook, they enjoy cooking and they spend time on cooking activities. Therefore, these participants probably have time, money or kitchen appliances to be involved with cooking. As far as they cook they have greater chances to have obtained a healthier diet which is related to previous literature (Wolfson & Bleich, 2015, Larson et al., 2006). Thus, the dishes of individuals who possess the above conveniences might have substantial differences compared to the dishes of individuals who lack these conveniences. Individuals who are involved with cooking have plausibly greater chances to cook different dishes and as a result to use a greater variety of ingredients in cooking compared to individuals who are not involved. Earlier studies (Hartmann et al., 2013) showed that variety in food consumption leads to a healthier diet and a healthier diet can derive to a substantial extent from the grocery purchases. Thus, I propose that involvement with cooking led to a healthier basket as individuals who are passionate about cooking seek for new cooking ideas and for unique tastes which can come from healthier product selection.
Next, I controlled for the diet of participants to the healthiness of the shopping basket and I detected that participants‟ diet influenced positively the healthiness of the shopping basket. The more substantial attention participants were paying to their diet the healthier their shopping basket was found to be. Diet was principally measured in terms of how much individuals care concerning the degree of healthiness of their dishes and
secondly in terms of how much they care their dish to be healthy so that it will contribute their overall appearance. Thus, the significant result between participants‟ diet and
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Age of the participants was detected to influence significantly and positively the healthiness of the shopping basket, namely the higher the age the healthier the shopping basket of the participants which is in line with previous findings (Drewnowski, Renderson, Driscoll & Rolls,1997). It can be suspected that this finding occurred due to the fact that as individuals grow older they may be more concerned regarding their health as the more they grow the higher the chances are that some health related issues will occur to them. Thus, this group of people not only they perceive eating healthy as important for their overall health but also they actually obtain a healthier lifestyle as the more they age the more they realize the importance about being healthy. Consequently, due to the realization of the significance of health, older individuals might be more resistant to indulge to tastier and less healthy options compared to younger individuals. A next argument in favor to my finding could be the fact that young individuals most often set as a major priority their studies and their first career steps which can result to a significant lack of time during their daily life healthy compared to older individuals who are most often established in the working sector which can make the former neglect the importance of eating. Thus, the products they choose to buy might require less effort and less time to be prepared which are most often less healthy compared to products that older individuals purchase.
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Participants who were exposed to the recipe flyer bought significantly less spaghetti made with egg compared to the participants in the control condition. It can be concluded, that given that the prime affected the dish option and that participants might have paid higher attention to the image, they were more influenced to select pasta compared to other foods and also they might had been primed to select a pasta related to the dish they saw. Thus, pasta made with egg might have been chosen less because it could have been thought rather unrelated to the pasta which was shown to the recipe flyer. This kind of pasta could have been related to other kind of dishes, maybe to dishes cooked with eggs, like carbonara rather than vegetable dishes, like the one found in the recipe. Moreover, basic pasta covers a wider spectrum of recipes and it can be assumed to be combined with vegetables. Therefore, it can be concluded that the exposure to the healthy recipe flyer did not work as a health prime, but only as a food prime. The flyer primed the main dish, but it affected only the purchase of the product that was more closely related to the recipe image rather than the purchase of the products from the same product category that did not relate as much to the dish exhibited in the image.
Managerial implications
I propose that the findings of the present study are accompanied with substantial managerial implications. Firstly, it was found that the recipe flyer had an impact on consumers‟ decision due to the fact that the main recipe ingredient of the recipe flyer impacted positively consumers‟ decision to buy this ingredient. Thus, an argumentation in favor of the utilization of a recipe flyer can be drawn. Managers and marketers can use recipe flyers to indirectly promote the purchase of the main dish ingredient. Taking the argumentation a step further, the above players can use as a main dish ingredient a healthy product so that consumers will have higher chances to buy either this product or a product which is highly relevant to the main dish ingredient introduced in the recipe. For example, marketers might choose to show a recipe in a flyer where the main dish would be salmon. This can impact consumers‟ decisions to buy salmon or to buy another fish which could match with the recipe as well.
The findings suggested that involvement with cooking leads consumers to make healthier food purchases. Being involved with cooking means that individuals spend time for cooking activities and/or they enjoy spending their time on cooking. Therefore,
29
willing to get involved with cooking activities. For instance, marketers can use advertising in television and online materials in order to create a positive feeling regarding cooking which will lead consumers to be more motivated to involve themselves with cooking. Furthermore, managers can help consumers who are not able to be involved with cooking due to the fact that they lack cooking instruments or kitchen appliances because of financial difficulties by introducing promotions to kitchen instruments for this kind of consumers. For example, a very common group of the above consumers is students who most often do not gain a salary or they gain a very small one. Thus, marketers and consumers by making certain practices they have the power to push individuals to increase their involvement with cooking.
Lastly, as it was proposed above consumers perceive flyers as promotion materials from which they gain information on how they can save money by purchasing the products depicted on the flyer. Using a recipe in a flyer without making any kind of the described promotion might be thought as an irrelevant element by the consumers and as a result chances could be lesser that they will pay attention to it. Thus, if there is no attention to the flyer, its purpose will not work and consumers will not be affected. Managers and
marketers are recommended to use a healthy recipe flyer for their activities, however by including a promotion to the flyer of one or more products used in the recipe so that they will boost promotion seeker consumers to buy this product in order for the latter to make the best deal. Also, by seeing a promotion in the flyer individuals have higher chances to pay attention not only to the promotion which will help them save money but also to the whole flyer due to the fact that the flyer contains an element which can catch consumers‟
attention. Therefore, marketers can utilize a healthy recipe flyer together with promotions of one or more products introduced in the recipe in order to impact consumers‟ purchase decisions.
Limitations and Future research
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supermarket can offer to consumers. However, if the online survey would have been larger it might have made the participants tired or bored a fact that would have led to biased results. Therefore, the number of products used in the present study was made in such a way that would not make the participants tired. However due to time constraints an offline experiment could not be established. Thus, future research can replicate the study in an offline way by giving the opportunity to consumers to purchase products in a real super market store where individuals will be able to shop among all the products that the super market offers them. It is speculated that an offline experiment will bring a few significantly different results as participants will be completely free to do their shopping.
My study is also limited to the fact that the respondents were only people who were currently living in the Netherlands. Therefore, it is recommended that a replication of the study will occur which will take into account respondents who live in a different country or in different countries. Due to cultural, social, financial differences as well as differences in eating habits results can be found to be significantly different from those that my study revealed and a more substantial understanding for consumer behavior can be gained.
Furthermore, healthiness of the basket was measured in two ways, as a sum of calories and as a percentage of healthiness of the shopping basket. However, as it was explained earlier healthiness is difficult to be measured accurately, so more measurements of healthiness could have revealed the most accurate way for the dependent variable to be introduced. For instance, healthiness of the shopping basket could have also been measured as a sum of sugar or fat or saturated fat which could have led to different results. Therefore, future research could test various measurements for healthiness and reveal the most efficient measurements for healthiness to be computed.
Additionally, due to the fact that the main ingredient of the meal was found to affect participants‟ products purchases, future research can replicate the experiment by showing a recipe with a healthy main ingredient rather than pasta. The aforementioned experiment would be interesting to be accomplished both online and offline. As a result, main differences between the online and offline manner will be revealed which are capable to enrich the research world with new information and endow managers with right directions on how to move so that the desirable result in their actions will be achieved.
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found to capture greater attention compared to a recipe depicted in a flyer and therefore achieve to bias consumers‟ purchasing according to the researcher‟s hypotheses. Moreover, it is recommended future research to use a recipe as a label in healthy products, for instance fish, vegetables or fruits so that it will be revealed whether the effect on the healthiness of purchases was even more significant.
Lastly, a future study can create an experiment with two recipe flyer conditions where in one condition a recipe flyer that will contain mainly words will be shown and in the other condition a recipe flyer that will contain mainly images will be shown to the participants .The above research idea emerges from the fact that as it was discussed earlier in the discussion chapter, visual attention to images is found to affect significantly
individuals and thus, a study exploring the differences between images and words can reveal substantial differences between the two cases.
Conclusion
The present study did not find significant results on the main hypotheses that were made. That is to say, the healthy recipe flyer and the cooking skills of the participants did not influence the healthiness of the shopping basket. Moreover, the interaction effect
between the existence of the recipe flyer and cooking skills did not influence the healthiness of the shopping basket. This study contributes to the field of healthy food choice research world by showing that involvement with cooking, healthy diet of the participants and the age of the participants significantly and positively affect the healthiness of their baskets. Moreover, the study illustrates that exposure to a recipe can lead consumers to purchase more of the main recipe ingredient. Future research is recommended to dive more deeply in how consumers are influenced on their food purchases so that methods to increase healthier food choices by consumers will be revealed.
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APPENDIX
Appendix A
Flyer versus no flyer condition in the survey
Appendix A.1.
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Appendix A.2.
39
Appendix A.3.
40 Appendix B
44 Appendix C
Variables related to cooking and healthiness together with their underlined items used in the Questionnaire
Item
Cooking involvement
I like to try new recipes Cooking is my passion
I like to learn new things in cooking
I spend a lot of time on everything dealing with cooking Cooking is an important part of my life
For me, cooking is an important way to relax Meal preparation brings a bit of pleasure into my life I can put a lot of my creativity into meal preparation Preparing meals gives me a lot of satisfaction Cooking enriches my life
Cooking Skills
I can prepare „„au gratin potatoes‟‟ from scratch I can prepare a soup from scratch
I can prepare a sauce from scratch I can bake a cake from scratch I can bake bread from scratch
Cronbach‟s α 0.80
0.62
