Is the Native Language the Best Language to Use in Slogans?

Is the Native Language the Best

Language to Use in Slogans?

–The Attitude towards Dutch, English, and German

Slogans in the Netherlands-

Marinde Fijneman

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Is the Native Language the Best

Language to Use in Slogans?

– The Attitude towards Dutch, English, and German

Slogans in the Netherlands-

MASTER THESIS

University of Groningen

Faculty Economics & Business

Business Administration, Marketing Management

November, 2011

Author:

Supervisors:

Marinde Fijneman

Dr. KJ Alsem (1st)

Student number: 1932195

SJ Salmon (2nd)

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MANAGEMENT SUMMARY

Over the past years globalization is a trend all over the world and is on top of mind of many researchers and managers. Many researchers believe that to be effective in global marketing, companies should adapt to cultural values and thereby also the native language of a country. Yet, the basis decision of choosing which language to use is not an easy one. Many researchers argue that the use of a foreign language is more advantageous than using the native language. Although the language of a slogan is a well discussed theme in previous research, the question whether the native language evokes a more positive attitude than a foreign language does not have a clear answer yet. Moreover, other independent variables have been investigated whether to have an influence on the use of language such as the comprehension of the language, country of origin, the type of product, and the demographics (gender, age, and education level) of the consumer. However, due to inconclusive previous research and contradictory conclusions, the credibility and content is challenged.

The purpose of this study was to examine whether the native language is the best language to use in slogans, influenced by the previous described independent variables. The investigated native language was Dutch and was compared with two foreign languages (English and German). Therefore, a 3 (languages: Dutch, English, and German) x 3 (country of origin: the Netherlands, UK/USA, and Germany) x 2 (type of product: necessity and luxury) between-subjects independent factorial design was implemented. In total 334 participants filled in the fourteen online questionnaires, of which 322 were usable.

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PREFACE

After being a full time student for 6 years, both at the Avans Hogeschool in ‘s-Hertogenbosch and the University of Groningen, I am ending this period of my life by writing my master thesis. After some months of hard but very interesting work, I feel proud to complete my study and to realize my goal and dream: a master degree in marketing.

During my previous study International Business and Languages, marketing became my field of interest. Moreover, since I was young I am very interested in different cultures and languages. Therefore, I am very grateful that I could combine both my interests in this thesis.

I noticed an upcoming trend of the use of English and German slogans in the Netherlands. Previous research already discussed the use of English in the Netherlands, however with contradictory conclusions. The use of the German language in slogans was not investigated yet, even though the frequent exposure to German slogans in the Netherlands. Who hasn’t heard the slogan of Opel “Wir leben Autos” on the radio or television? Hence, more research was needed in the Netherlands.

I would like to thank my family and friends for their support. They encouraged me during the whole process and supported me during my whole study. My special thanks go to my parents, who always believed in me and gave me the opportunity to realize my goals and dreams. I would also like to thank my colleague-students who made my time spend in the library more pleasant and for their ideas concerning my thesis.

Last but not least, I would like to thank my supervisor Karel Jan Alsem for his very helpful and constructive feedback and his assistance during the whole process of my research. The discussions and his ideas helped me to design my research. Besides, I would also like to thank my second supervisor Stefanie Salmon for her valuable feedback and suggestions.

Now I am looking forward to the future and new challenges. Hopefully I will get the possibility to apply my knowledge in practice at a large multinational, since I would like to combine by interests in marketing and other cultures and languages.

Groningen, November 2011

6 TABLE OF CONTENTS Management summary 3 Preface 5 1. Introduction 8 1.1 Background problem 8 1.2 Problem statement 10 1.3 Research questions 11 1.4 Theoretical and managerial relevance 11 1.5 Structure thesis 13 2. Theoretical background 14 2.1 Globalization 14 2.2 Standardization vs. adaptation 15 2.3 Advertising 16 2.4 Slogans 17

7 3.6.6 Demographics 36 3.7 Data collection 36 3.8 Plan of analysis 36 4. Results 38 4.1 Response of study 38 4.2 Sample characteristics 39 4.3 Reliability 39 4.4 Main results 40

4.4.1 Attitude towards slogan 40 4.4.2 Language comprehension 41 4.4.3 Country of origin 43 4.4.4 Type of product 45 4.5 Demographics 47 4.5.1 Gender 47 4.5.2 Age 48 4.5.3 Education 49 5. Conclusion 52 5.1 General discussion 52 5.2 Managerial implications 54 5.3 Limitations and further research 55

Literature 57

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1

INTRODUCTION

Globalization is a social trend nowadays all over the world and “one of the dominant forces in the psychological development of people in the 21st _{century” (Arnett 2002).}

According to Levitt (1983) consumers all over the world are “homogenized” because of the worldwide success of products that have become a household name. An example of this in business life can be found already far back as 1923 when the manager of advertising of Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company, David L. Brown, stated that humanity possessed common attributes and that is was possible to standardize advertisements across countries (Agrawal 1995). Brown stated:

Just as green is green in Buenos Aires as well in Batavia, just as two and two are four in Cape town as well as in Copenhagen, just as the main purpose of advertising is to sell goods, in Singapore as well as in Sydney or Santiago, so all the primary purposes of advertising are identical in all countries, and all fundamentals of good advertising are essentially the same north and south of the Equator and east and west of Greenwich (Brown 1923).

However, according to Arnett (2002) it still takes a long time before the world is one homogeneous culture. Moreover, other researchers argue that it is not possible that the whole world will be homogenized, because people will continue to develop their local cultures as well, based on local circumstances, local environment, and the local traditions. Therefore, the local identity will not disappear (Arnett 2002). Cultures will continue to be diverse since they adapt global influences to local situations (Hermans et

al 1998). This globalization brings companies in a complex situation. When a company is

successful in one country, it can be encouraged to go abroad (Keller 1998). This however, brings the complexity of global marketing. Global marketing is a well discussed theme by academicians and practioners today. If one argues that the world is homogenized, it means that the companies easily can market standardized products or services, which leads to lower costs and higher margins (Jain 1989). It is also therefore that companies have the tendency to just translate advertising and design (Oosthuizen 2004). However, besides the many advantages of a global marketing program

(the three most important ones are the economies of scale, more control abroad, and creation of global image), there are also some disadvantages (Hornikx et al 2010). Furthermore, a successful advertising approach in one country does not automatically mean success in another country. Therefore, the continuous struggle between standardization and adaptation continues.

9 culturally appropriate advertising (De Mooij 2004). There is evidence that ads that are culturally adapted are more persuasive and appreciated then an ad without cultural adaptation (Hornikx et al 2009). Many studies have pointed out the importance of adapting branding and advertising strategies to different cultures (De Mooij et al 2010) and have demonstrated that an adaptation strategy is more effective (Dow 2005; Calantone et al 2006; Okazaki et al 2006; Wong et al 2007). A model which is used frequently by business people as well as academic researchers is the Hofstede Model (Hofstede 2001; Hofstede & Hofstede 2005). This model distinguishes cultures according to five different dimensions which will also be discussed in this research. This model is applied by multinationals for their global advertising. Advertising is perceived as one of the most prevalent examples of exchange (Lee 2006) and is seen as an important tool of business, whether it is e.g. about new product launches or price promotions (Hornikx et al 2010). An advertisement influences the behavior of a consumer enormously and it is in everyone’s life (Fennis et al 2010). It is one of the most basic decisions which multinationals have to make whether their advertising should be adapted to the different country markets or not (Kotler 2001). It is still a difficulty struggled by many marketing managers (Kapferer et al 1992). A very common aspect of advertising is a slogan and often slogans are used worldwide. This saves the company translation, adaption, and registration costs (Jain 1993; Floor et al 1989; de Mooij 1994; Walsh 1991). And it seems that business still believe that different cultures can be approached with one and the same concept (Levitt 1983).

10 Some researchers have found that a higher comprehension of a language leads to a higher appreciation and these researchers claim that a language should be understood by the audience in order to have any value (e.g. Gerritsen et al 2000; Hornikx et al 2010). Whereas, on the other hand there are researchers who believe language only serves as a symbolic function (e.g. Haarmann 1989; Kelly-Holmes 2000, 2005; Piller 2001). Since researchers still do not agree if the comprehension of a language is important for slogans, more research is needed.

The kind of associations a language evokes can also influence the appreciation. One language can evoke positive associations for one audience, while for another audience this same language has negative associations (Krishna et al 2008). Past research demonstrates that a native language of an audience evokes other associations than towards a foreign language. These language associations are also used by companies in the country of origin effect. The country of origin effect holds to the fact that it is more effective to relate a product to a country that consumers associate this product with (Kelly-Holmes 2005). There is evidence that audiences make use of the information about the country of origin (e.g. Hong et al 1989; Verlegh et al 1999). Also, research is lacking about the country of origin effect in the Netherlands. The research of Krishna et

al (2008) did include the country of origin effect, however only the Indian consumers

were researched. Moreover, they also included the type of product in their research. Products can be categorized in two groups: necessities and luxuries. Necessities are products that are possessed by everybody, whereas luxuries are more exclusive (Bearden et al 1982; Krishna et al 2008). Krishna et al (2008) concluded that there is a significant difference between appreciation of the use of a foreign and a native language for both product categories.

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

As stated before, an interesting subject for multinationals nowadays is if they should standardize their advertising campaigns or if they should be adapted across different cultures (Levitt 1983; Jain 1989; Keegan 1989, Nickerson et al 2003). A primary topic of interest in the U.S. literature is whether advertising evokes a more positive attitude if presented in the country’s native language or in a foreign language of the population (Noriega et al 2008). It is expected that advertising is most successful when the native language is used. However, research is lacking and more research is needed to test this assumption (Gerritsen et al 2000).

Therefore, the main research question will be:

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1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

This research will investigate the influence of different independent variables on the relationship between the use of a native and foreign languages and the appreciation of the slogan. These independent variables are: language comprehension, country of origin effect, type of product, and the demographics of the consumer. The problem statement can be further translated into the following research questions:

1. What is the effect of the comprehension of the language (native or foreign) used in the slogan on the attitude towards the slogan?

2. Does the country of origin affect the attitude towards a slogan when using the language of the country of origin compared with the native language?

3. Does the type of product influence the attitude towards a slogan when using a foreign language compared with the native language?

4. Do the demographics (gender, age, and education level) of the consumer affect the attitude towards the slogan when using a foreign language compared with the native language?

1.4 THEORETICAL AND MANAGERIAL RELEVANCE

12 which was intended by the agency (Lautman 1978). Moreover, advertising is an important tool for business, so it is important to do it right (Hornikx et al 2010). If the advertising campaign is not effective, a lot of money is wasted. Therefore, this study will be relevant for academics and managers as well, since its focus is on the language aspect of the advertisement.

Moreover, the studies focusing on the language aspect in international advertising have mostly focused on the English language (e.g. Krishna et al 2008; Piller 2001; 2003; Hornikx et al 2010). Moreover, only a few studies focused on the use of the English language in countries where it is neither the native nor the (semi)-official language (Gerritsen et al 2000). Also for the Netherlands, more research is required concerning the use of English since two main studies have found different results. The study of Gerritsen et al (2000) found that the use of English slogans is, in most cases, not appreciated by the Dutch consumer. Hornikx et al (2010) concluded that English was appreciated more than or as much as the Dutch language for slogans. Therefore, this study contributes to the existing discussion concerning the appreciation of the English language in the Netherlands.

Moreover, there are only a few studies focusing on other foreign language other than English for slogans. Hornikx et al 2006 researched the foreign language French in the Netherlands and Haarmann’s (1989) study was focused on the use of not only the English language but also the French, German, and Spanish language in Japan. Research is lacking about the use of other foreign languages than English in the Netherlands other than English and French for slogans. German is the third language in the Netherlands (Eurobarometer 2006) and is an upcoming used language in Dutch advertising (e.g. Aeg “Form und Funktion” and Opel “Wir leben Autos”).

Past research indeed focused on the use of foreign language, however research is lacking whether the native language of a country is preferred over the use of a foreign language. It is expected that advertising will be most successful when the language is the language which is used in the targeted country. However, scientific evidence is missing and it is of utmost importance for brand managers to see whether global advertising requires not only cultural adaptations (cf. de Mooij 1994, 1998; Zandpour et al 1998) but also language adaptations. There is not much evidence whether standardized ads are evaluated more or less positively than ads with the local language (Hornikx et al 2010) and therefore the question whether ads with English or German (standardized) are more persuasive than ads with the local language (adapted) still needs to be answered. Hence, this study will contribute to the existing research by focusing on the appreciation of the native language and the use of foreign languages. This will provide useful insights on how consumers perceive language usage in advertising.

13 independent variables influencing this relationship. Knowing these independent variables will help the brand manager to gain insight in the consumer preference of slogan language and thereby make the advertisement more effective. E.g. independent variables researched in the past are: language comprehension, country of origin, and the type of product. The only independent variable researched in the Netherlands is the independent variable ‘language comprehension’. However, researchers found contradictory conclusions whether the comprehension of a language does or does not influence the appreciation of the slogan. The other independent variables have not been investigated in the Netherlands yet. Therefore, this study provides essential information for a brand manager in the Netherlands which independent variable (s) is (are) a moderator and is useful for academics to research the independent variables in other countries as well.

This research will help to understand the consumer language preference better and helps to bridge the gap between the advertiser and the consumer.

1.5 STRUCTURE THESIS

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THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

A trend all over the world nowadays is the globalization. Globalization has however, already existed for many centuries. It was a process influencing cultures through trade, immigration, and information exchange and ideas. However, recently this process is accelerated due to developments in telecommunications and a dramatic increase in economic and financial interdependence worldwide (Arnett 2002). This trend is likely to be one of the most dominant forces in the psychological development of people (Arnett 2002; Puntoni et al 2009). According to Harvard professor Ted Levitt (1983) the needs and wants of the customer are homogenized due to the globalizations of markets. He argued that the causes of homogenization are the combination of national wealth, technology and emerging global media. Despite deep-rooted cultural differences, the worldwide success of products that have become a household name is according to Levitt (1983) evidence that the consumers all over the world are “homogenized”. But according to more recent research it still takes a long time before the world is one homogeneous culture (Arnett 2002). Moreover, there is not presented empirical evidence yet to support the statement that tastes, needs and motives of consumers all over the world are homogenized (De Mooij 2003, 2004).

Nevertheless, due to the globalization many children and adolescents now grow up with more global consciousness (Arnett 2002). People start to develop a more global identity. According to Arnett (2002) the globalization will slowly expand the part of the population of the world which has a wide range of identity choices. However, the local identity will not disappear. On the opposite, people will continue to develop their local identity as well, based on local circumstances, local environment, and the local traditions from the place where they grew up (Arnett 2002). This mixture of identities is called a

bicultural identity, which is rooted partly in the local culture while another part stems

from the global culture (Arnett 2002). Cultures will not be homogenized and will be diverse since local cultures adapt global influences to local situations (Hermans et al 1998) and people continuously create self-selected cultures distinctive and sometimes in opposition to the global culture (Arnett 2002). People still attach great value to their own identity and to all that symbolizes their identity, for example their own language (Crystal 1997; Gerritsen et al 2002).

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2.2 STANDARDIZATION VS. ADAPTATION

This bilingualism and multilingualism can bring companies in a complex situation. The success of a brand in one country for many firms has provided an encouragement to go abroad (Keller 1998). As a result of the globalization, global marketing is a well discussed theme by academicians and practitioners today. Since it has been argued that the markets in the world have been homogenized, it means that multinationals could market standardized products or services which will result in lower cost and higher margins (Jain 1989). There are several advantages concerning a global marketing program: economies of scale in production and distribution, lower marketing costs, power and scope, consistency in brand image, ability to leverage good ideas quickly and efficiently, and uniformity of marketing practices (Keller 1998). Therefore, multinational companies also have the tendency to just translate advertising and design from one language to another (Oosthuizen 2004). However, it does not imply that a global marketing program is successful in every country. A successful advertising approach in one country does not mean directly that this approach will have success in other countries (De Mooij 2003). Besides the many advantages of a global marketing program there are also some disadvantages. Keller (1998) argues that there are differences in: consumer needs, wants, and usage patterns for products, consumer response to marketing mix elements, brand and product development and the competitive environment, legal environment, marketing institutions, and administrative procedures. However, Levitt (1983) argues that companies need to learn to see the world as one large market, ignoring the differences.

To be effective in marketing, it means to adapt to cultural values (De Mooij 2003). Culture is the way how things are done. Culture can be compared with an iceberg, since the biggest part stays under water and cannot be seen on the surface (Koentopp 2000). The culture of a population influences every aspect of marketing: the products that people would buy, the qualities they value et cetera are culture-based choices (Lipman 1988). Culture also influences the needs, motives and emotions of each individual customer (De Mooij 2004). According to Parameswaran and Yaprak (1987) cultures all have different levels of awareness, knowledge, familiarity and affect products in general and specific brands. People all have different schemata, i.e. the knowledge structures of what a person possesses about objects, people, events or phenomena. If the advertising message does not fit with the schemata of the consumer, the message will be ignored totally and the advertising would be a waste of money (De Mooij 2004). For a multinational to be effective in advertising, they should use a culturally appropriate advertising (De Mooij 2004). In general, ads that are culturally adapted are more persuasive and are appreciated more than an ad without cultural adaptation (Hornikx et

al 2009). Therefore, many recent studies have pointed out the importance of adapting

16 continuous struggle to deal with on the one hand the economies of scale integral to international distribution and on the other hand with sales and local customs, needs and peculiarities (Oosthuizen 2004). Therefore, the topic of standardization versus adaptation has received lot of attention at academics in the field of international business communication (e.g. Leininger 1997) and international advertising (e.g. Agrawal 1995; Zou 2005).

If a multinational decides to apply the strategy of tailoring its products to the needs of different cultural markets, they may have a severe disadvantage to competitors who apply their marketing strategy of standardized products, at the right price, on a global scale (Levitt 1983) since standardization has some benefits (for an overview see White 2000). The three most important advantages are economies of scale, more control abroad, and creation of global image (Hornikx et al 2010).

A model which is used a lot by business people as well as academic researchers is the Hofstede Model (Hofstede 2001; Hofstede & Hofstede 2005). This model can be very useful for multinationals and their marketing since it distinguishes cultures according to five dimensions: power distance, individualism/collectivism, masculinity/femininity, uncertainty avoidance, and long-/short-term orientation. Hofstede has researched 76 countries on each dimension, resulting that every country has a position on each scale or index, relative to other countries in the research. Although this research was done in the early 1970’s, many replications of the model have proved that the research is still valid (De Mooij et al 2010).

An illustration that culture still influences the behavior of customers linked to the Hofstede Model is the example of mineral water consumption. Hofstede started to research this by investigating the need for purity, which is a value included in the uncertainty avoidance dimension in 1970. He found that uncertainty avoidance was significantly related to the consumption of mineral water. For example in France, Germany, Italy and Belgium, all strong uncertainty avoidance cultures, people still drink increasing volumes of mineral water, in comparison with cultures of weak uncertainty avoidance like the UK and Scandinavia where people have different ideas about what is necessary for their health (De Mooij et al 2010). In 1991 he also found a significant relation to the dimension masculinity/femininity and by the time of 1997 he added a third related dimension to that: power distance.

2.3 ADVERTISING

17 (1986) an advertisement is “a piece of information to be processed through a consumer’s perceptual and cognitive systems, ultimately forming some mental representation which may have then be drawn upon in retrieving the information later on in making an evaluation or purchase decision or taking whether other action about the product is needed at a later time”. The behavior of a consumer is thereby very much influenced by an advertisement. Advertising is in everyone’s life. The average American consumer is exposed to more than 1,000 advertisements each day (Fennis et al 2010). When multinationals want to develop a strong brand, advertising is a strong mean to reach that goal (De Mooij 2004).

One of the most basic decisions which multinationals have to consider is the degree to which advertising should be adapted to the different country markets or not (Kotler 2001). International advertising means lower advertising costs, greater management of global advertising efforts and thereby a more consistent company or product image. However, international marketers sometimes assume that markets that are geographically close together are also close in their cultures. For example, the English have more in common with the Australians, than the Germans and French although they are geographically closer (Kotler 2001). According to a recent survey (Kotler 2001), many marketing managers have difficulties with the standardization of advertising execution. Therefore, many international advertisers have the tendency to “think global, but act local” (Kotler 2001).

2.4 SLOGANS

A very common aspect used of advertising is a slogan. A slogan is a short phrase which communicates descriptive or persuasive information about a brand (Keller 1998). The slogan of an ad is besides the most salient element of advertising also most strongly associated with the brand (due to high levels of exposure in the media, e.g. magazine and television advertising) (Krishna et al 2008). Often slogans are used worldwide. This saves the multinational translation, adaption, and registration costs (Jain 1993; Floor et

al 1989; De Mooij 1994; Walsh 1991). Moreover, as mentioned before, many business

professionals believe that the different cultures can be approached with one and the same concept (Levitt 1983). However, this point of view has received lots of criticism as discussed before (De Mooij 1998).

2.4.1 LANGUAGUE OF THE SLOGAN

18 important role in the consumer’s ability to interpret and appraise emotional expression (Harris 2000). A language reflects different values for cultures (De Mooij 2004) and can cue different associations (Noriega 2008). The use of language has an effect on the consumer’s ability to comprehend the message, which is directly related to the effectiveness of the advertisement (Lautman 1978; Pieters et al 1992; Gerritsen et al 2002). Multinationals cannot take for granted that the targeted consumers will comprehend the language used in a slogan applied worldwide (Lautman 1978). One marketing strategy concerning language is code-switching. Code-switching refers to the use of foreign words or expressions into a phrase (e.g. in slogans), which results in a multi-language text (Luna et al 2005a). According to Gumperz (1996) code-switching is a strategy of contextualization, to provide information to audiences how language is used at any point in the ongoing stream of talk and about the total context in which the message is interpreted. The two main reasons for companies to use a foreign language are to attract attention (Petrof 1990; Sella 1993) and to create positive image of the product and the brand (e.g. Gerritsen et al 2000; Piller 2003).

2.4.2 ENGLISH SLOGANS

The most used language for slogans worldwide is English. The new lingua franca is English and several studies have demonstrated the frequent use of English in commercials on the television and in printed campaigns (e.g. Bhatia 1992; Piller 2000). English is the language which has important aspects of the life of consumers all over the world (Cristal 1997). The reason why advertisers choose English is because the language is seen as a global language (Bailey et al 1986; Crystal 1997). Also, the United States play a very important role in the advertising world (Mowlana 1986), and advertisers believe that English is understood all over the world (Gerritsen et al 2000). Another reason why English is chosen so often is a financial one. When the slogan is produced in English, it will cost multinationals no translation costs when showing the slogan to other cultures, which will save money (Gerritsen et al 2000). An example of a worldwide English slogan is the one of Ford: “Feel the difference”. Moreover, advertisers believe that the use of English is good for their image. The language could be associated with a young, dynamic, international lifestyle (Gerritsen et al 2000). It can create positive feelings about modernity and internationalization (Lee 2006) or simply serve as an attention-getter (Jung 2001). For example Martin (2002) found that the use of English in French advertising is preferred when a company wants to globalize the product’s brand image. Another reason for the use of the English language is that a couple of English words cannot be translated in another language (e.g. there is no Dutch word for airbag) (Gerritsen et al 2000).

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2.4.3 COMPREHENSION OF THE LANGUAGE

The use of a foreign language is a well discussed theme by researchers (e.g. Haarmann 1989; Kelly-Holmes 2000, 2005; Piller 2001). On the one hand there are researchers who believe language only serves as a symbolic function (e.g. Haarmann 1989; Kelly-Holmes 2000,2005; Piller 2001), whereas other researchers claims that the language should be understood by the audience in order to have any value. Haarmann (1989) for example investigated the language of advertising in Japan, concluding that some foreign languages used were French, German, Spanish, or English. He concluded that since the Japanese did not understand the foreign words used the use of these words must have a symbolic function. The foreign language is considered as a symbol and the actual meaning seams not important (Hornikx et al 2010). Piller (2001) investigated the use of a foreign language (English) in Germany, concluding that English could be successfully used, whether it is understood or not. She found that even if the audience did not understood the English, they recognized that the message is in English, and therefore they will stimulate their stereotypes about English, and appreciated the use of the English language since it evoked positive associations. An advertisement is said to benefit from the use of foreign words even if the people who see this advertisement do not comprehend the language (Hornikx et al 2006).

However, some researchers have claimed that the comprehension of a language does affect the attitude towards the slogan/advertisement and that the use of foreign language certainly has a literal meaning (e.g. Gerritsen et al 2000; Hornikx et al 2006). Gerritsen et al (2000) investigated the use of English in advertising in the Netherlands. They did find that the appreciation was higher when the comprehension was higher. Hornikx et al (2006) also found a relationship between the appreciation and the comprehension in the Netherlands, although for another foreign language (French). According to Sperber and Wilson (1995) this comprehension is indeed important since people become more frustrated when they have to put more effort in it to understand a message.

Since researchers still do not agree if the comprehension of a language is important for slogans, more research is needed.

2.4.4 LANGUAGE ASSOCIATIONS

20 associations is also stressed out by Luna and Peracchio (2002). Haarman (1989) investigated the associations which the English language evokes in Japan and mentions the associations “international appreciation”, “reliability”, and “high quality”. Another research investigating the associations evoked by the English language is by Alm (2003). She presented a list of 21 different associations (e.g. internationality and technology) to participants in Ecuador asking them which one(s) associates with English. A more in dept study by Hornikx et al (2007) did not only researched which associations were evoked by foreign languages, but included the valence of this associations and the relationship between the number and valence of the associations on the one hand and the appreciation of the advertisement on the other. The study, which was conducted in the Netherlands, found that the typical associations evoked for three languages: French, German, and Spanish. A short summing up of these associations are “beautiful”, “elegant”, and “feeling” for French, “reliable”, “businesslike”, and “technical” for German, and “beautiful”, “modern”, and “passion” for Spanish. These findings are in considerable response with other research (e.g. Haarmann 1989; Kelly-Holmes 2005). Associations with the French language are “elegance” (Haarmann 1989; Kelly-Holmes 2005; Piller 1999), “beauty” (Kelly-Holmes 2005), “attractiveness” (Haarmann 1989), and “femininity” (Kelly-Holmes 2005; Piller 1999) and for German “technical” and “quality” (Kelly-Holmes 2005). Furthermore, Hornikx et al (2007) found that the language which evokes the highest number of positive and the lowest number of negative associations is most preferred. And although expected, there is no relationship between the number of associations and the appreciation of the language (Hornikx et al 2007).

Past research demonstrates that a native language of an audience evokes other associations than a foreign language. Research in several countries (Japan, Germany, Korea, and Singapore) found similar associations with the native language versus a foreign language (English). In general, the most associations with the local, native language were related to strong sense of closeness and belongingness (e.g. Myers-Scotton 1999, 2002). The associations evoked by the foreign language were modern, sophisticated, and cosmopolitan (e.g. Piller 2003; Takashi 1990a, 1990b).

Since the slogan is not only the most salient element of advertising but also most associated with the brand (due to high media exposure), the audience is likely to focus on language-based associations when exposed to a slogan (Krishna et al 2008).

2.4.5 COUNTRY OF ORIGIN

21 perfection (Fennis et al 2010). A good example for which the country of origin information is considered important is food. Consumers tend to believe that food coming from the country of origin is better than from another country (e.g. pasta from Italy). Therefore, Bertolli (a sub-brand of Unilever) uses Italian figurants in their commercials surrounded by the Italian landscape. Another study by DeBono and Rubin (1995) showed that the same cheese tasted better to American consumers when it allegedly came from France rather than Kansas.

The country-of-origin effect holds to the fact that it is more effective to relate a product to a country that consumers associate this product with. Examples of these products and countries are France and wine, Germany and beer, and the Netherlands and cheese (Hornikx et al 2007). This country of origin effect can be enlarged by using the language of the country of origin, for example French (“vin”), German (“Bier”), or Dutch (“kaas”) (Kelly-Holmes 2005). The main point is that there is a fit between the product, country, and the language. A good illustration of this is the example of Benz. Mercedes-Benz is using their slogan “Das Beste oder nichts” in non-German-speaking countries. A car is in the eyes of a European consumer a product that Germany can “legitimately” manufacture (Kelly-Holmes 2005). Therefore, the fit between the product (car), country (Germany), and the language (German) are straightforward. It is however therefore that German brands like Nivea do not use the German language to stress their origins (Kelly-Holmes 2005). The body care and software do not fit the German competences in people’s mind. There is no direct fit between the product (body care), country (Germany), and the language (Germany). The products and the competences in people’s mind are all based on people’s perceptions about different countries (Kelly-Holmes 2005). All these perceptions are based on direct experiences (e.g. during holidays) but also through what the media is communicating about the countries, their inhabitants, and their characteristics (Hornikx et al 2007).

2.4.6 TYPE OF PRODUCTS

22 evaluated better for a necessity product (detergent). Therefore, consumers tend to use the associations of languages for evaluating the product categories (Krishna et al 2008). Moreover, the research revealed that if a product does not clearly fall in a product category (necessity or luxury) a mixed language slogan should be applied.

However, the research of Krishna et al (2008) is the only research who investigated the relationship between the appreciations of the language used in slogans influenced by the product category factor.

2.5 THE NETHERLANDS

This research is done in the Netherlands; hence the use of languages in the Netherlands is described. Moreover, since this research is focused on three countries of origin (the Netherlands, UK/USA, and Germany) a short description of the three advertising styles is given with their differences.

2.5.1 USE OF LANGUAGE IN THE NETHERLANDS

English is a language preferably used for slogans in bilingual and multilingual countries. A lot of research concerning slogans has been done in the past (e.g. Krishna et al 2008; Noriega et al 2008; Lee 2006; Luna et al 2001, 2005a, 2005b, 2008). The Netherlands is an example of a multilingual population. Dutch is the native language, but English is the first most spoken foreign language (European Commission 2006). The development of English in the Netherlands began after World War II and accelerated due to the internationalization of many aspects of the society in the 1970s (De Vries et al 1993). After that period there was a big exposure of English which led to a better understanding of the language and a more positive attitude towards the language (Van Der Haagen 1998). However, there are also some negative developments regarding the use of English in the Netherlands. Due to the fact that the Dutch population was open for English influences in business and education, a reaction to this is called anti-Anglicism. Anti-Anglicism is an aversion of everything that has to do with England or the English language. Supporters of this trend believe that there are too many English influences in the Netherlands. (Stichting Nederlandse Taal 2009). Examples of this are the use of “kids” instead of “kinderen” by the Dutch population and the name transformation of Werther’s Echte to Werther’s Original.

24

2.5.2 DIFFERENCE ADVERTISING STYLES

It is not only the language that differs across the globe; the needs of the customer and the way advertising appeals to those needs (De Mooij 2004) differ as well. Simply translating ads designed for one culture to use for other cultures. According to Anholt (2000), translating advertising copy is just like painting the tip of an iceberg and hoping that the whole berg will turn red. “Advertising is not made of words, but made of culture” (Anholt 2000). It is suggested that in a country were a different language is spoken; there is also a difference between the symbolic references, myths, history, humor and the arts (de Mooij 2004). Advertising can have different goals in other cultures and therefore have a different role in the sales process. The role of advertising in Asia is for example more about building a relationship between the company and the consumer. (De Mooij 2004). Several aspects of branding vary per culture (e.g. the brand type). Company brands are more common in Asia, whereas the product brand is more used in Western countries (De Mooij 2003). The advertising message, as well as the schemata of the consumer is influenced by culture, and therefore it is of the utmost importance to understand how culture operates when transferring advertising to other cultures (De Mooij 2004). There are two categorizations which are the most relevant for cross-culture communications: the distinction between high and low context communication and Hofstede’s (2001) dimensions of national culture (De Mooij 2004). Patterns of culture can be distinguished according to context, space, time, and information flow (Hall 1976, 1984). Especially the concept of context is useful to understand the differences in communication across different cultures, because it explains the communications’ degree of directness (De Mooij 2004). Low-context communication cultures are characterized by information which is carried explicit in the (verbal) message (De Mooij 2004). These cultures hold positive attitudes towards words, argumentations, and rhetoric (De Mooij 1998). High-context communication cultures on the other hand are more mystifying since very little is made explicit as part of the message and symbols play an important role (De Mooij 2004). They can be characterized by symbolism or indirect verbal expression (De Mooij 1998).

25 difference between individualism/collectivism can be defined by the extent to which one looks after one other or more after them. This difference also reflects on advertising since individualistic cultures want to get to the point fast, whereas in collectivistic cultures first a relationship and trust needs to be established (De Mooij et al 2010). The masculine and the feminine cultures have different values and therefore the status of a brand of product differs. Masculine cultures are more about achievement and success, whereas feminine cultures value caring for others and the quality of life more (De Mooij 2004, De Mooij et al 2010). Uncertainty avoidance can be defined as the extent to which people feel threatened by ambiguity and uncertainty and therefore try to avoid them (De Mooij 2004, De Mooij et al 2010). Cultures with high uncertainty avoidance are less open to innovations then low uncertainty avoidance cultures. The last dimension is the long-term versus short-long-term orientation and is the extent to which people hold a future-orientated perspective rather than a short-term point of view (De Mooij 2004, De Mooij

et al 2010). These dimensions distinguish Western countries and Asian countries the

most (De Mooij 2004).

Since this research investigates the use of the native, English, and German language in the Netherlands, it is interesting to examine if there are any differences between the advertising styles in the Netherlands, United States, United Kingdom, and Germany. Since English is not associated with a particular country (e.g. United Kingdom), but rather as a world language the advertising style of the United Kingdom as well of the United states will also be discussed since global advertising is influenced a lot by the United States. The advertising trends and technology of the US dominate the pace for the rest of the world (Magnaglobal 2011). Moreover, the United States is the culture of origin of advertising theory (De Mooij 2004). The four countries all score differently on the model of Hofstede (1991) and can be found in figure 1.

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

PDI IDV MAS UAI LTO

Netherlands Germany United Kingdom United States

Figure 1: Hofstede’s 5 dimensions

26 countries of the interpersonal communication styles according to two of Hofstede’s dimensions: power distance and uncertainty avoidance.

Figure 2: Interpersonal communication styles

Appling the interpersonal verbal communication styles to advertising styles, the position of the four countries can be found in figure 3. The figure shows that all four countries are in the lower and upper left hand quadrants (which are associated with individualistic cultures and small power distance). Reflected in this style are the uniqueness of the person or the brand, and the significant importance of identity and personality (de Mooij 2004). Germany is however

positioned in the upper left hand quadrant, since it is a culture of stronger uncertainty avoidance. This leads to that the advertising in Germany is more serious and structured (De Mooij 2004). More visuals, information, and data are provided in advertising, which is the style of Germanic cultures (De Mooij 2004). In the UK, USA, and the Netherlands, which are countries with less uncertainty avoidance, more

27 between these countries however is that in the USA and UK (more masculine cultures), known personalities and celebrities are used to present the product, whereas in the Netherlands (a more feminine culture), the personality of the presenter is downplayed (De Mooij 2004).

2.6 CONCEPTUAL MODEL

The conceptual model of this study can be found in figure 4which consist of a dependent variable, an independent variable and four moderators.

Figure 4: Conceptual model

2.7 HYPOTHESES

The struggle between standardization of advertising and adapting to different cultures will continue to exist for multinationals in the upcoming years. Previous research stresses the importance of investigating whether advertising is more effective if presented in the countries native language or in a foreign language (e.g. Noriega 2008). Many research investigated whether different cultures can be approached with the same global advertising strategy (Zandpour et al 1994) and less on the use of language (Gerritsen et al 2000). The use of the native language may be expected to be the most successful, however more research is needed to test this to see whether global advertising requires cultural adaptations (e.g. linguistic adaptations) (cf. De Mooij 1994, 1998; Zandpour et al 1994; Gerritsen et al 2000).

28 indicate that the use of English in Dutch commercials is questionable. It is possible that the use of the native language would be more effective, but it is likely that advertisements completely in Dutch would not be comprehended fully either (Gerritsen

et al 2000). English is however not the only foreign language used in Dutch slogans.

Examples of slogans in different languages other than Dutch or English are: “Créative technologie (French), “Auto emotiòn” (Spanish) and “Wir leben Autos” (German).

Although German is the third spoken language in the Netherlands, little research is focused on this language. Little is known about the preference of the Dutch consumers for English and German versus the local language Dutch (Hornikx et al 2010). There is not much evidence whether standardized ads with English or German are evaluated more positively than ads in Dutch. The question remains whether ads with English or German (standardized) are more preferable than ads with the local, Dutch, language (adapted) (Hornikx et al 2010). Therefore, more research is required for evidence which language can be used best in the Netherlands. The aim of this study is to gain more insight into the attitude towards the use of English and German for slogans in Dutch advertisements. Since the use of a foreign language is not always appreciated, it can be expected that the attitude towards the native language will be the most positive. However, Platt and Weber (1984) did their research in Singapore and concluded that Singaporeans were annoyed and irritated when the communication was in their own ethnic language rather than in English, the lingua franca. But generally, it is preferable to communicate in the consumers own native language since it should result in more emotional messages (Puntoni et al 2009. The emotional impact of the native language is higher than the emotional impact of a foreign language (Puntoni et al 2009; De Langhe et

al 2011). The use of the native language can serve as a super attribute whereby

memories and knowledge structures easily can be accessed (Nortiega 2008).

Moreover, consumers are more positive towards local advertisements and find them more interesting and less irritating (Pae et al 2002).

The attitude towards the language can also be affected by the comprehension of it. According to Sperber and Wilson (1995) a consumer can become frustrated when he/she has to put more effort into comprehending a message. This comprehension can be made more difficult when the message is in a foreign language. Until now, there are only a few researches who investigated the effect of comprehension of the language on the appreciation of the advertisement. Gerritsen et al (2000) found that the appreciation increased for the use of English in Dutch advertisements when the comprehension was higher. Another research, albeit for another language (French in Dutch advertisements), showed that slogans were more appreciated when they were easy to understand (Hornikx et al 2006). Moreover, several researchers claim that the comprehension is of no importance at all since the language only has a symbolic value (e.g. Kelly-Holmes 2005). This research will also discuss whether the comprehension of English, German or Dutch slogans affects the appreciation of the slogan.

29 Foreign languages are mostly used when the language fits the product category, and with a relevant quality of the country where this language is spoken. This independent variable is called the country of origin. Hence it relates to the fact that it can be more effective to relate a product to a country which has associations with the product than to another country (Hornikx et al 2007). Examples of this effect are France and wine, Germany and beer, and the Netherlands and cheese (Hornikx et al 2007). According Kelly-Holmes (2000) this country of origin effect can be maximized by the use of the language of the country of origin (e.g. vin, Bier, and kaas). Recent research found that when a customer can make a good fit with the product, the country, and the language, this will be more appreciated (Hornikx et al 2006). When the country of origin is clear for a customer, the foreign language can be more appreciated. There are however only a few studies who researched this effect in combination of the native and foreign languages. The fit would not be suitably for the native language (product, country, language), and whereas the foreign language makes perfect direct fit. It is expected that a matching country of origin (e.g. the United Kingdom) with the language (English) leads to a higher appreciation of the used language. Therefore, the next hypothesis is:

H1: The use of the language of the country of origin leads to a more positive attitude towards the

slogan compared with another language

Another independent variable which has been researched is whether the type of product influences the appreciation of the use of a foreign language (Krishna et al 2008). Products can be divided in two categories: necessities versus luxuries. Necessities are products that are possessed by every consumer and luxuries have an element of exclusivity (Bearden et al 1982; Krishna et al 2008). Krishna et al (2008) did they research in India using English as the foreign and Hindi as the native language. Their overall conclusion was that respondents preferred an English slogan more than a Hindi slogan for a luxury product (chocolate), whereas a Hindi slogan was preferred more for a necessity product (detergent). However, more research of the role of the type of product is lacking. Since Krishna et al 2008) found this effect in India, it is expected that the type of product will also influence the appreciation in more countries. However, it is important for this research to determine first how other consumers interpret a necessity and luxury product since this can differ with Indian consumers which will be conducted via a pretest. Hence,

H2: The use of a foreign language will lead to a more positive attitude towards the slogan when

used for a slogan for a luxury product compared with a slogan for a necessity product

30 differences between men and women (Gerritsen et al 1996; Gerritsen et al 2000). However, differences between the attitudes in different age and education categories were found. Young people tend to have a more positive attitude towards a foreign language than older people (Gerritsen et al 1996) and people with a lower educational level were found to be more positive towards the foreign language than those with a higher education level (Withagen et al 1991). Because of inconclusive previous research, no hypotheses were refrained for the demographics.

31

3

RESEARCH DESIGN

In order to analyze the problem statement if the use of a native or foreign language influences the appreciation of the slogan a conclusive research design was used.

A causal research was designed to test the earlier described hypotheses and to obtain evidence (exploratory research). Only causal designs are truly appropriate for inferring cause-and-effect relationships. The causal research design determines cause and effect relationships and manipulates the independent variables (Malhotra 1999). The method used for this causal research is an experiment. An experimentation is commonly used to infer causal relationships (Malhotra 1999). In an experiment one or more independent variables are manipulated and their effects are measured on the dependent variable. In this research the independent variable (use of native or foreign language), the dependent variable (attitude towards the slogan) and the effects (country of origin, type of product and demographics) can be found in figure 4 in the previous chapter. In order to analyze the problem statement a 3 x 3 x 2 between-subjects factorial design was implemented. The first subject implemented is the use of language is involved (3= Dutch, English, or German). Additionally, the country of origin (originally from the Netherlands, UK/USA, or Germany) and furthermore the type of product (necessity or luxury product). The experiment was conducted in a laboratory environment, an artificial setting for experimentation where the desired conditions were constructed (Malhotra 1999). The laboratory experiment was done by a questionnaire, a basic research method. A brief as possible questionnaire was designed in order to guarantee a satisfactory response rate. Hence the 3 x 3 x 2 between-subjects factorial design, it would be logical to design eighteen different questionnaires. However, it was not significant for this research to test whether a German company should use an English slogan in the Netherlands. Neither was it significant to test whether an English company should use a German slogan. Therefore, fourteen different questionnaires were used in the research. Table 1 and 2 show a clear overview of the research design.

Country of origin

La

ng

ua

ge

s

lo

ga

n

Dutch Questionnaire ₁ Questionnaire ₂ Questionnaire ₃ English Questionnaire ₄ Questionnaire ₅ x

German Questionnaire ₆ x Questionnaire ₇

32

Country of origin

La

ng

ua

ge

s

lo

ga

n

Dutch Questionnaire ₈ Questionnaire ₉ Questionnaire ₁₀ English Questionnaire ₁₁ Questionnaire ₁₂ x

German Questionnaire ₁₃ x Questionnaire ₁₄

Table 2: Research design luxury product

3.2 CHOICE OF SAMPLE

All participants in this research were required to be Dutch. Several reasons have contributed to this decision:

1. Research in the Netherlands is mainly focusing on one foreign language, which is English

2. The existing literature and past research in the Netherlands on the use of a foreign language for a slogan is contradictory

3. Research in the Netherlands is lacking concerning the attitude towards the use of a foreign language influenced by other independent variables than comprehension

4. For this study the native language which is used is Dutch

5. The simplicity of involving Dutch participants in the research since the writer of the research is Dutch

The participants of the research contained Dutch students but also the Dutch working population.

3.3 CHOICE OF LANGUAGE

This research investigates the appreciation of the slogan in the native language (Dutch) and two foreign languages (English and German). The reason why only two foreign languages are tested is due to the choice to simplify the questionnaire as much as possible. Researching too many languages could lead to a lower response rate since the participants need to take more time to fill in the questionnaire. In contrast to other studies, this research already tests three languages instead of only two like most previous research.

33 Contrary to other studies, this research also involves a third language. The third language tested in this research is German since it is the third language (70% of the Dutch population claims to speak German (Eurobarometer 2006)) in the Netherlands and the upcoming trend of using this language in slogans.

Another choice of language that had to be made was the language of the questionnaire. Since this research is written in English, it would be preferable to have the questionnaire in English as well. Although is it common that marketing researchers formulate the questions in a language that is not the native language for the respondents, the emotions evoked by this nonnative language are more intense compared with answering questions using rating scales in the native language (De Langhe et al 2011). Therefore, in order to control these emotions the best solution is to ensure that the respondents answer the question in their native language (Kotabe et al 2004). Therefore the questionnaire is in Dutch, the native language.

3.4 CHOICE OF SLOGAN

The slogans used in this research are all fictive and are not used in actual advertising. When using existing slogans, the chance exists that people are familiar with the slogan already. Therefore, there are several reasons to use fictive slogans: (1) to rule out any associations; (2) to rule out brand attitude; and (3) to rule out the country of origin effect. On behalf of the simplicity of the questionnaire, three simple slogans were used: “Alleen het beste” (Dutch), “Only the best” (English), and “Nur das Beste” (German).

3.5 PRE-TEST

Since one of the hypotheses involves the difference between a necessity and a luxury product, it is first necessary to define these products. Krishna et al (2008) already used this product categorization in their research. They used chocolate as a luxury product and detergent as a necessity product. They selected these two products categories after asking thirty-eight participants to rate eight products (detergent, chocolate, ketchup, house paint, shampoo, cold drinks, bath soap, and ice cream) on a 6-point luxury-necessity scale (1=luxury for everyone; 6= luxury-necessity for everyone) (Bearden et al 1982). Since their research was done in India, it is plausible that Dutch participants will rate the product categories different on the luxury-necessity scale. Therefore, before the actual survey was conducted, a pre-test was rolled out in order to examine the product categories luxury and necessity in the Netherlands.

3.5.1 PRE-TEST DESIGN

34

al (1982). Since the Western nations have a higher GDP than India, it is plausible that

the product categories detergent, chocolate, ketchup, house paint, shampoo, cold drinks, bath soap, and ice cream only would score as a necessity. Therefore, some product categories are replaced by different product categories that are expected to be more luxury for the Dutch participants. A total of 10 participants were asked to rate eight products (detergent, lobster, ketchup, smart phone, bath soap, caviar, chocolate, and tablet pc) on the 6-point luxury-necessity scale (1= necessity for everyone; 6= luxury for everyone). The final pre-test is displayed in appendix 1.

3.5.2 PRE-TEST RESULTS

Based on the scores obtained, two product categories were selected to use in the actual survey: detergent and tablet pc’s. One was perceived as a luxury product (tablet pc = 5.50), while the other was rated as a necessity product (detergent= 1.20). An overview of the total results can be found in appendix 2. These two product categories were used in the actual questionnaire.

3.6 QUESTIONNAIRE

After running the pre-test, the actual questionnaire was designed.

3.6.1 QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN

The questionnaire contained all questions to test the hypotheses and therefore also all possible influencers on the relationship of the use of a native or foreign language and the appreciation of the slogan. Fourteen different versions of the questionnaire were designed. Obviously, the questions asked were the same in all versions. However, the fourteen groups participants were asked to rate their appreciation for either the native (Dutch) language or one of the foreign languages (English or German). This was due to avoid the effect of repetition and the possibility of loose of interest at participants and thereby non representative results. Therefore, the actual factorial design used was 3 (Dutch or English or German) x 3 (country of origin: the Netherlands or UK/USA or Germany) x2 (type of product: necessity and luxury) minus the four insignificant versions (English/German company and the use of a German/English slogan for both product categories).

35 The next sections will give detailed information about the variables used in the questionnaire.

3.6.2 ATTITUDE TOWARDS SLOGAN

In order to test the relationship between the use of a native or foreign language and the attitude towards the slogan, the same method was used which was also applied by Gerritsen et al (2000) and Hornikx et al (2010). Participants were asked to evaluate the Dutch, English, and German slogans on eight 5-point Likert scales (1= I agree completely and 5= I do not agree at all). The participants were asked to indicate to what extent they agreed that the use of Dutch, English, or German was “poetic”, “irritating”, “easy going”, “superfluous”, “affected”, “ functional”, “arrogant”, or “sympathetic”. These adjectives were chosen because they are used in discussion on the use of foreign languages in Dutch texts (Gerritsen et al 2000). Four of these adjectives can be described as positive (“poetic," "easy going," "functional," and "sympathetic") and four as negative ("irritating," "superfluous," "affected," and "arrogant").

3.6.3 LANGUAGE COMPREHENSION

A common method of research for testing the language comprehension is the one which is also applied by Gerritsen et al (2000) and Hornikx et al (2010) and exists of two rounds. In the first round, participants are asked three things: (1) to fill in five-point semantic differentials in order to measure their attitude toward the foreign language used (same as the appreciation); (2) to specify whether or not they understood the foreign language; and (3) to specify whether or not they would be able to translate the foreign language. In the second round, participants are exposed to the six commercials again and were asked to write down the fragments in the foreign language and describe their meaning. This procedure is repeated for different scenarios. This method is however not applicable for this research. First of all, this kind of research method is extremely time consuming and it is important to simplify this questionnaire as much as possible. Secondly, in the studies of Gerritsen et al (2000) and Hornikx et al (2010) the comprehension of the language was the only moderator. This study however, investigates more than one moderator. Therefore, in order to simplification reasons, the comprehension of the languages will be tested via two questions: (1) the grade of the language for participants in high school; and (2) the grade what they would give themselves nowadays.

3.6.4 COUNTRY OF ORIGIN

Piller (2001; 2003) concluded in her research that participants can respond differently when the country of origin effect is involved (e.g. the same cheese tasted better to American consumers when it allegedly came from France rather than Kansas). Krisnha