University of Groningen Neurolinguistic profiles of advanced readers with developmental dyslexia van Setten, Ellie

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Neurolinguistic profiles of advanced readers with developmental dyslexia

van Setten, Ellie

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Publication date: 2019

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van Setten, E. (2019). Neurolinguistic profiles of advanced readers with developmental dyslexia. University of Groningen.

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526367-L-bw-van Setten biblio 526367-L-bw-van Setten biblio 526367-L-bw-van Setten biblio 526367-L-bw-van Setten biblio

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Neurolinguistic Profiles

of Advanced Readers

with Developmental Dyslexia

Ellie van Setten

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The research reported in this dissertation has been carried out under the auspices of the Center for Language and Cognition Groningen (CLCG) at the Faculty of Arts of the University of Groningen, and the Research School of Behavioural and Cognitive Neurosciences (BCN) of the University Medical Center Groningen.

Publication of this thesis was financially supported by the University of Groningen.

The work in this thesis was part of the research programme Neurolinguistic profiles of

developmental dyslexia in a longitudinal perspective with project number 360-89-040, which

is financed by the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO).

Groningen Dissertations in Linguistics 174 ISBN: 978-94-034-1244-3 (printed version) ISBN: 978-94-034-1243-6 (digital version)

Cover Design and Layout by Ellie van Setten Printed by Ipskamp Printing, Enschede, NL

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Neurolinguistic Profiles

of Advanced Readers with

Developmental Dyslexia

PhD thesis

to obtain the degree of PhD at the University of Groningen

on the authority of the Rector Magnificus Prof. E. Sterken

and in accordance with the decision by the College of Deans. This thesis will be defended in public on Thursday 10 January 2019 at 16.15 hours

by

Ellie Richtje Hennie van Setten

born on 20 August 1986 in Leeuwarden

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Processed on: 12-12-2018 PDF page: 4PDF page: 4PDF page: 4PDF page: 4 Supervisors

Prof. B.A.M. Maassen Prof. N.M. Maurits

Assessment Committee

Prof. L. Verhoeven

Prof. W.J.M. van den Broeck Dr. R. Jonkers

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v

Table of Content

List of Abbreviations... x

List of Figures ... xiii

List of Tables ... xiv

Chapter 1: General Introduction ...1

1.1 Defining Dyslexia ... 2

1.2 Heterogeneous Problems at the Word Level ... 5

1.3 Secondary Characteristics of Dyslexia ... 9

1.4. Causal Explanations for Dyslexia ... 13

1.4.1 Cognitive Explanations ... 14

1.4.2 Biological Explanations ... 17

1.4.3 Environmental Factors ... 23

1.5 Defining Dyslexia for Clinical and Research Purposes ... 25

1.6 Description of the studies in this thesis ... 26

Hoofdstuk 2: Kinderen met een Familiair Risico op Dyslexie in Groep 8 ... 33

2.1 Inleiding ... 33

2.1.1 Continuïteit van Dyslexie en het Risico op Dyslexie ... 34

2.1.2 Primaire Kenmerken van Dyslexie op Gedragsniveau ... 35

2.1.3 Verklaringsmodel voor Dyslexie ... 36

2.1.4 Cognitieve Verklaringen voor Dyslexie... 37

2.1.5. Secundaire Kenmerken van Dyslexie en Comorbiditeit ... 39

2.1.6 Hypothesen ... 40 2.2 Methoden ... 41 2.2.1 Proefpersonen ... 41 2.2.2 Materialen ... 43 2.2.3 Procedure ... 47 2.2.4 Analyses ... 47 2.3 Resultaten ... 49

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vi

2.3.1 Missende Data ... 49

2.3.2 Primaire Verschillen op Gedragsniveau ... 49

2.3.3 Verschillen in Cognitieve Processen ... 50

2.3.4 Secundaire Verschillen ... 54

2.3.5 Overige Verschillen ... 57

2.4 Discussie ... 60

2.4.1 Primaire Kenmerken op Gedragsniveau ... 60

2.4.2 Cognitieve Verschillen ... 62

2.4.3 Secundaire Kenmerken en Comorbiditeit ... 63

2.4.4 Overige Verschillen ... 65

2.4.5 Verbeterpunten en Toekomstig Onderzoek ... 66

2.4.6 Conclusies en Praktische Implicaties ... 67

2.5 English Abstract ... 69

Chapter 3: Predictors for Grade 6 Reading ... 73

3.1 Introduction ... 73

3.1.1 The Continuity of Reading Ability and Familial Risk ... 74

3.1.2 The Predictive Value of Familial Risk and Grade 3 Reading Fluency ... 76

3.1.3 Rapid Automatized Naming, Phonological Awareness and Vocabulary ... 77

3.2 Methods ... 80

3.2.1 Participants ... 80

3.2.2 Materials ... 81

3.2.3 Data Analysis ... 83

3.3 Results ... 85

3.3.1 Descriptive Statistics and Missing Data Analysis ... 85

3.3.2 Correlations... 86

3.3.3 Hierarchical Regression Analyses ... 87

3.3.4 Backwards Regression Analyses ... 92

3.4 Discussion ... 93

3.4.1 Familial Risk and Grade 3 Reading Fluency ... 93

3.4.2 Reading Related Skills ... 95

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vii

Chapter 4: L1 and L2 Reading Skills in Adolescents with Dyslexia... 103

4.1.1 Readers with a Familial Risk of Dyslexia ... 104

4.1.2 Position of English in the Netherlands ... 105

4.1.3 Reading in English (as a Second Language) with Dyslexia ... 106

4.1.4 The Present Study ... 107

4.2 Methods ... 108 4.2.1 Participants ... 108 4.2.2 Materials ... 110 4.3.3 Procedure ... 112 4.3.4 Analyses ... 112 4.3 Results ... 113

4.3.1 Missing Data Analysis and Descriptive Statistics ... 113

4.3.2 Group Comparison ... 114

4.3.3 Comparison between English and Dutch Literacy Skills ... 117

4.4.1 Reading Skills of Adolescents (with a Familial Risk of) Dyslexia ... 119

4.4.2 English Versus Dutch ... 121

4.4.3 Limitations and Future Directions ... 123

4.4.4 Conclusions and Implications ... 124

Chapter 5: Print-tuning Lateralization in Dyslexic Students ... 129

5.1.1 Lateralized Print-Tuning ... 130

5.1.2 Handedness and Dyslexia ... 131

5.1.3 The Present Study ... 132

5.2 Methods ... 132

5.2.2 Experimental Design ... 134

5.2.3 Behavioural Tests ... 136

5.2.4 EEG Recording and Analysis ... 137

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viii

5.3.2 Reaction Times and Accuracy ... 140

5.3.3 EEG Analysis for Right-Handed Participants Only ... 141

5.3.4 EEG Analyses All Participants ... 144

5.3.5 Correlation Analysis Handedness ... 145

Chapter 6: N1 Lateralization and Familial Risk ... 153

6.1.1 The Development of N1 Lateralization ... 153

6.1.2 The Role of Familial Risk ... 156

6.1.3 Hypotheses ... 157

6.2 Methods ... 157

6.2.2 Experimental Design ... 159

6.2.4 EEG Recording and Analyses ... 161

6.2.5 Statistical Analyses ... 163

6.3 Results ... 165

6.3.2 Reaction Times and Accuracy ... 165

6.3.3 EEG Analysis ... 168

6.3.4 Statistical Comparison Adults and Children... 171

Chapter 7: General Discussion ... 181

7.1 Characterization of (a Familial Risk of) Dyslexia in Advanced Readers ... 181

7.1.1 Characteristics of (a Familial Risk of) Dyslexia in Grade 6 ... 181

7.1.2 Characteristics of (a Familial Risk of) Dyslexia in a Multilingual Context ... 183

7.2 Prediction of Reading Skills in Advanced Readers with (a Familial Risk of) Dyslexia ... 184

7.3 An Explanation of the Reading Differences between Advanced Readers with and without (a Familial Risk of) Dyslexia ... 186

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ix

7.3.1 Cognitive Explanations of Dyslexia ... 186

7.3.2 N1 Lateralization ... 187

7.4 General Strengths and Limitations ... 188

7.5 General Conclusions ... 191

7.6 Research Implications and Directions for Future research ... 192

7.7 Clinical Implications ... 193

References ... 195

Appendices ... 215

Appendix A: Vragenlijsten ... 215

Appendix B: Vragenlijst Handvoorkeur voor Kinderen ... 216

Appendix C: English Spelling Test ... 217

Appendix D: Descriptive Statistics of the Unstandardized Data ... 218

English Summary ... 219

Nederlandse Samenvatting ... 227

Acknowledgements ... 235

About the Author ... 240

List of Publications ... 241

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x

List of Abbreviations

Acc: Accuracy

ADD: Attention Deficit Disorder

ADHD: Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder AF: Arcuate Fasciculus

ANOVA: Analysis of Variance

APA: American Psychiatric Association ASD: Autism Spectrum Disorder BDA: British Dyslexia Association CD: Conduct disorder

CITO: Centraal Instituut voor Toets Ontwikkeling DCD: Developmental Coordination Disorder DDP: Dutch Dyslexia Program

DMT: Drie-Minuten-Toets

DS: Digit Span

DSM5: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 5 DTI: Diffusion Tensor Imaging

EEG: Electroencephalography EF: Executive Functions EOG: ElectroOculogram ERP: Event Related Potential ESL: English as a Second Language EMT: Eén-Minuut-Test

fMRI: functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging FA: Fractional Anisotropy

FB: Fonologisch Bewustzijn FR: Familial Risk

HR: High Risk

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xi

HRnonDys: Children with a high familial risk of dyslexia - without dyslexia ICA: Independent Component Analysis

IDA: International Dyslexia Association IQ: Intelligence Quotient

ISI: Inter Stimulus Interval ITI: Inter Trial Interval

L1: First Language

L2: Second Language

LCDH: Linguistic Coding Differences Hypothesis LGN: Lateral Geniculate Nucleus

LQH: Lexical Quality Hypothesis

LRDys: Children with a low familial risk of dyslexia - with dyslexia LRnonDys: Children with a low familial risk of dyslexia - without dyslexia MANOVA: Multivariate Analysis of Variance

MGN: Medial Geniculate Nucleus OAD: Overanxious Disorder OB: Orthografisch Bewustzijn OCD: Obsessive Compulsive Disorder ODD: Oppositional Defiant Disorder PA: Phonological Awareness

PPVT: Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test PWRF: Pseudoword Reading Fluency RAN: Rapid Automatized Naming

RC: Reading Comprehension

RF: Reading Fluency

RT: Reaction time

SB: Snel Benoemen

SES: Socioeconomic Status

SDN: Stichting Dyslexie Nederland (Dutch Dyslexia Association) SLD: Specific Learning Disability

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xii

TTR: Tempo-Test Rekenen VAS: Visual Attention Span VSTM: Verbal Short-Term Memory

VST/WM: Verbal Short-Term and Working Memory VWM: Verbal Working Memory

VWFA: Visual Word Form Area

WAIS: Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale WISC: Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children WRF: Word Reading Fluency

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xiii

List of Figures

Figuur 2.1. Effectgroottes voor de Primaire Leesuitkomsten.

Figuur 2.2. Effectgroottes voor de Cognitieve Processen.

Figuur 2.3. Effectgroottes voor Begrijpend Lezen, Taal en Rekenen.

Figuur 2.4. Effectgroottes voor de CITO Eindtoets.

Figure 3.1. Scatterplot of the Relationship between Grade 3 Reading Fluency and Grade 6 Reading Fluency.

Figure 3.2. Scatterplot of the Relationship between Grade 3 Reading Fluency and Grade 6 Reading Comprehension.

Figure 4.1. Mean Standardized Scores on Dutch and English Word Reading Fluency, Spelling and Vocabulary for the Three Groups.

Figure 5.1. Timing of the EEG Experiment

Figure 5.2. Mean N1 Amplitude per Group and Hemisphere for Strongly Right-Handed Participants.

Figure 5.3. The Grand Average N1 for Strongly Right-Handed Participants per Group in the Left and Right Posterior Area.

Figure 6.1. Mean Reaction Time in Milliseconds per Group and Task.

Figure 6.2. Topographical Mapping of the N1 Time-Window per Group.

Figure 6.3. Grand average ERP Response in the Left and Right Hemisphere per Group.

Figure 6.4. Mean N1 Amplitude in the Left and Right Hemisphere for Adults and Children.

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xiv

List of Tables

Tabel 2.1. Aantallen, Geslacht, Leeftijd en Aanwezige Overige Ontwikkelingsstoornissen per Groep.

Tabel 2.2. Beschrijvende en Toetsende Statistiek van de Testuitkomsten voor

Primaire en Secundaire Kenmerken van Dyslexie en Cognitieve Verklaringen.

Tabel 2.3. Pearson Correlaties Tussen Leesvloeiendheid en Cognitieve Processen.

Tabel 2.4. Regressiecoëfficiënten van de Voorspelling van Leesvloeiendheid door de Cognitieve Processen.

Tabel 2.5. Aantal Proefpersonen met Tekorten in Cognitieve Processen.

Tabel 2.6. Beschrijvende en Toetsende Statistiek van de Kindvragenlijst.

Tabel 2.7. Binomiale Uitkomsten van de Ouder- en Kindvragenlijsten.

Table 3.1. Descriptive Statistics of the Unstandardized Data.

Table 3.2. Pearson Correlation Coefficients Between Grade 3 and Grade 6

Measures.

Table 3.3. Model Summaries for the Hierarchical Regression Models

Table 3.4. Standardized Regression Weights with Significance and Confidence Intervals for the Hierarchical Regression Models.

Table 3.5. Standardized Regression Coefficients, Significance and Confidence Intervals for the Final Models Obtained Using Backward Regression.

Table 4.1. Participant Characteristics.

Table 4.2. Descriptive Statistics of Standardized Scores per Group.

Table 4.3. Pearson Correlations Between Dutch and English Reading and Reading Related Skills for Participants in the LRnonDys, HRnonDys and HRDys Group.

Table 4.4. Effect Sizes and Confidence Intervals of Group Differences.

Table 5.1. Participant Characteristics and Behavioural Test Results for Dyslexic and Control Participants.

Table 5.2. Means and Standard Deviations of the Untransformed Reaction Times and Accuracy per Task for All Dyslexic and Control Participants.

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Table 5.3. Means and Standard Deviations of the N1 Amplitude per Group, Task and Hemisphere for Strongly Right-Handed Participants.

Table 6.1. Participant Characteristics and Behavioural Test Results per Group.

Table 6.2. Means and Standard Deviations of the Untransformed Reaction Times in Milliseconds per Task for All Dyslexic and Control Participants.

Table 6.3. Means and Standard Deviations of the Accuracy Percentages per Task for All Dyslexic and Control Participants.

Table 6.4. Mean Amplitude and Latency of N1 per Hemisphere and Group.

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