Does Coffee Make Us More Creative?

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Does Coffee Make Us More Creative?

The Impact of Coffee and Priming with Coffee

Consumption on Creativity

Magdalena Duda 25th of June 2015

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Does Coffee Make Us More Creative?

The Impact of Coffee and Priming with Coffee Consumption on Creativity

Master Thesis Marketing by

Magdalena Duda

Supervisors: Prof. Dr. Bob M. Fennis Dr. Marijke C. Leliveld

University of Groningen Faculty of Economics and Business

MSc Marketing Management

25th_{of June 2015}

Magdalena Duda Van Swinderenstraat 23A

9714 HB Groningen Phone number: (+31) 0687923340 e-mail: magdalena.duda92@gmail.com

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Coffee is an essential element of each day for millions of people. This beverage is believed to increase our overall performance and abilities. Does coffee actually make us more creative? This research investigates the effect of coffee consumption and priming with coffee consumption on the person’s creativity. The participants were assigned to one of four conditions based on the dosage of coffee consumed and on whether or not coffee consumption was primed. With the use of a field study it was found that priming with coffee consumption significantly improves the performance on the creativity task (Remote Associates Test). This is especially the case when the participants consumed high dosage of coffee. Additionally, it was proved that participants primed with coffee consumption were more persistent in solving the creativity task. The outcomes of this study may be used as a basis for future research on the influence of caffeine on consumer behavior.

Keywords: Consumer Behavior; Priming; Coffee; Caffeine; Marketing; Creativity; Remote

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Millions of people around the world could not imagine a day without a cup of coffee. The average citizen of the European Union consumes nearly 5 kg of coffee every year (European Coffee Federation, 2014). The Netherlands has the highest coffee consumption per capita in the world, with as much as 2.4 cups a day (Ferdman, 2014). What is so special about this drink? The secret lies in its ingredient: caffeine, which is humankind’s favorite drug (Rogers, Heatherley, Mullings & Smith, 2013). Caffeine is the most widely used psychoactive substance, with 80% of the world’s population consuming a caffeinated product on a daily basis (Einöther & Giesbrecht, 2013). Coffee is the major source of caffeine in the adult diet, but the substance is also to be found e.g. in tea and energy drinks (Gonzalez de Mejia & Ramirez-Mares, 2014). The standard coffee value amounts to around 85 mg for a cup of coffee, however the concentration of caffeine in an espresso may reach even 300 mg (Cano-Marquina, Tarín & Cano, 2013).

The impact of caffeine on the human body and mind is scientifically documented, through numerous studies (e.g. Heatherley et al., 2005). Some of the main benefits of caffeine are improved concentration and mental alertness (Mitchell et al., 2014). No studies have yet linked coffee consumption to creativity.

Creativity is commonly defined as an ability to produce both novel and appropriate work (Takeuchi, et al., 2011), at the same time generating useful and valuable things (Fink, et al., 2010).

By now there is no empirical proof that coffee (containing caffeine) makes us more creative. This study addresses this existent research gap. The results may be highly interesting from the marketing perspective, showing whether the consumption of coffee makes people more creative in their choice of products. If such relations exist, one may argue that after having a cup of coffee people will choose more creative brands, or even consider the product creative, when it is associated with coffee.

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predicted that activating a concept of coffee in a person’s mind may make him or her unconsciously behave in a more creative way. Finding support to this claim would be of the utmost importance for the marketing practice, as it could suggest that associating the product with coffee makes people perceive it as more creative, and therefore more desirable. The concept of priming is discussed further in the paper.

This study also aims at investigating the possible interaction between the dosage of coffee and priming with coffee consumption. It is hypothesized that priming with coffee consumption may moderate the impact of coffee consumption on creativity such that coffee consumption will have a more profound effect on creativity when the person was primed with the concept of coffee.

The structure of the paper is as follows: the first chapter will examine existing literature on the mentioned topic and describe the theoretical framework used; the second chapter will present the methodology of the research; the third chapter will portray the results; the fourth and final chapter will come up with conclusions, limitations and recommendations for future research.

1. Theoretical Framework 1.1. Caffeine Mechanism

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1.2. Benefits and Drawbacks of Coffee

Most of the beneficial effects of caffeine show a linear dose–response relationship up to 300 mg, followed by either a flattening of the curve or even weakened performance at higher doses (Smith, 2002). Research shows that caffeine increases wakefulness, raises blood pressure, and boosts physical performance (Rogers et al., 2013). Caffeine also improves performance on vigilant, simple tasks benefitting from an increased level of alertness (Smith, 2002), and attention tasks (Einöther & Giesbrecht, 2013). Cognitive skills, such as ability to solve problems and concentrate also improve significantly after caffeine intake (Glade, 2010). Amendola et al. (1998) proved that caffeine consumption is accompanied by the improved mood. Moreover, coffee consumption is commonly associated with feelings of satisfaction (e.g. Desmet & Schifferstein, 2008).

One can also observe drawbacks of caffeine consumption. Higher doses of caffeine have been linked to negative symptoms such as anxiety, tension, and nervousness (Rogers, 2007). Moreover, caffeine negatively influences sleep quality (Ekström & Beaven, 2014). Excessive consumption of coffee has been associated with headaches, nausea, and restlessness (Mitchell et al., 2014).

On the other hand there is evidence that little or no benefit is gained from caffeine consumption, as the withdrawal of caffeine (e.g. during the night) lowers alertness and negatively influences mood, degrading human performance, and the consumption of caffeine only reverses these effects, without increasing the performance above regular levels (Rogers, 2007). There is a substantial gap in research that needs to be filled in order discover, whether caffeine affects the performance on the complex cognitive tasks designed to test e.g. creativity.

1.3. Creativity

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Amabile, 2010). As noted by Burroughs & Mick (2004), novelty and functionality are defined as two core components of creativity. The same authors suggest that novelty might be interpreted, in terms of consumption, as coming up with a new use for a product, or combining two or more products contrary to typical forms and applications. The second component of creativity: functionality refers to the extent to which a consumption response effectively addresses the problem or improves an existing solution (Burroughs & Mick, 2004). The level of functionality depends on the extent to which a consumption solution works, or is improved (Burroughs & Mick, 2004). It is important to examine the sources and characteristics of an individual’s creativity. According to Hirschman (1980) highly creative people tend to display social adjustment, empathy, sensitivity, rationality, and open-mindedness. They also show a high level of ideational fluency (ability to produce a large quantity of ideas), high degree of novelty (originality of ideas), and engage in more flexible thinking, producing different types of ideas (Fink et al., 2010). Openness to experience and extraversion are positive predictors of creativity, whereas neuroticism is the negative predictor of this trait (Li et al., 2015). People possessing a high level of openness to experience are more successful in tasks that require creative thinking (Schilpzand et al., 2011). In this study Remote Associates Test (RAT) designed by Mednick (1962) served as a measure of creativity. Each item included in the test consisted of three words. Participants were required to identify one word that connects those three seemingly unrelated words As the link between the words is associative, it does not follow the logical problem solving rules (Chermahini, Hickendorff & Hommel, 2012). Therefore the task of finding the remote associates of each of the items requires novelty and flexible thinking, which are among the key components of creativity.

1.4. Coffee and Creativity

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will become more successful in solving a creative task in the high dosage condition, compared to the participants in the low dosage condition.

Hypothesis 1: Consuming a high dosage of coffee (vs. low dosage) positively influences a person’s performance on the creativity task.

1.5. The Concept of Priming

Priming is a concept that has been thoroughly researched by social psychologists. Bargh, Chen & Burrows (1996) define it as the ‘incidental activation of knowledge structures, such as trait concepts and stereotypes, by the current situational context’. It is believed that conscious or unconscious activation of a mental construct will trigger the behavioral scripts associated with this construct, influencing the behavior consistent with those beliefs (Hicks et al., 2009). There are two types of priming: subliminal priming, of which the person is not aware, and supraliminal priming, in which the person is aware of the primes but not of their potential influence (Bargh, 2002). Both types of priming have an effect on judgments, motivations, and behaviors in social cognition research (Bargh, 2002). Several studies have empirically proved that priming specific knowledge structures can lead to complex cognitive changes. After Macrae & Johnston (1998) primed the participants with a concept of helpfulness, they started to behave in a more helpful way. Another study (Bargh, Chen, & Burrows, 1996) showed that participants who were primed with rudeness were likely to interrupt the experimenter, whereas participants primed with politeness were less likely to interrupt. In the second experiment the same authors proved that priming the stereotype of old people made participants walk slower. Similarly, participants primed with the stereotype of professors performed better on the cognitive task than the ones primed with the stereotype of secretaries and no-prime control participants (Dijksterhuis & Van Knippenberg, 1998).

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priming with alcohol cues resulted in participants drinking significantly more than in the other conditions. Hicks et al. (2009) primed the participants with the concept of marijuana. Their research provides evidence that exposure to marijuana-related primes can negatively influence the performance on a subsequent mathematical task, further confirming that the implicit activation of particular knowledge structures may lead to cognitive changes.

Coffee is strongly associated with creativity. For ages people have used caffeine to trigger creative thought (Braun, 1996). We believe that this beverage helps us to access ousr creativity in moments of tiredness and increases the ability to think clearer, in a more creative way [opinions of Mr. Smit (2013) and Mr Hoffmann (2011) from Quora.com]. In line with the above, one can expect that priming the participants with coffee consumption will activate the caffeine – related cues and which will positively impact their performance on the creativity task. The following hypothesis will therefore be tested:

Hypothesis 2: Priming with coffee consumption (vs. neutral priming) positively influences a person’s performance on the creativity task.

The possible moderating effect of priming on the coffee consumption is also interesting. According to Goldman (1999) greater or more recent experience with a substance can facilitate the activation of expectancy associations. Therefore it is likely that people who consumed higher dosage of coffee will be more susceptible to coffee-related cues and therefore priming will strongly influence their performance. The moderation effect would imply that the positive effect of coffee consumption on creativity may be stronger when the participants are primed with the concept of coffee.

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Figure 1: Hypothesis 3

H1 (+)

Dosage of Coffee Creativity

H3 (+) H2 (+)

Priming with Coffee Consumption

2. Methodology 2.1. Participants and Design

One hundred Dutch students (52 female, 48 male; M age = 21.98 years, SD age = 2.27)

participated voluntarily in an experimental field study. The study used a 2 (low dosage vs. high dosage) x 2 (priming with coffee consumption vs. neutral priming) between-subjects factorial design.

Table 1: The Design of the Study

Neutral Priming Priming with Coffee Consumption

Low Dosage Condition I Condition II

High Dosage Condition III Condition IV

2.2. Procedure

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coffee before taking part in the experiment. For that reason observations collected in the morning were assigned to the low dosage condition. Participants approached in the afternoon were assumed to have had at least one or more cups of coffee earlier that day. Therefore, levels of caffeine in their body should have been on average higher than in the morning (low dosage) condition. The study was run for four weeks, between Monday and Friday. Taking into account the nature of the experimental task, only participants proficient in Dutch language were selected to participate in the research. Participants were randomly allocated to the priming with consumption or neutral priming condition. They were asked to perform a set of unrelated studies on language and reasoning that were part of the research projects of various researchers at the Faculty of Economics and Business (Exhibit 1A, Appendix). After solving the priming and creativity task participants were requested to fill in a survey (Exhibit 5A, Appendix), and a final questionnaire (Exhibit 6A, Appendix). Twenty five observations were collected for each of the four treatments.

2.3. Independent Variables

Dosage. The number of cups of coffee consumed before the experiment was reported by

every participant in the final questionnaire. The evidence on dose-related performance effects of caffeine is yet inconclusive (Einöther & Giesbrecht, 2013), however it is plausible that the dosage of caffeine may produce significant differences in the performance on the creativity task.

Priming with consumption. In each dosage condition half of the participants, chosen

randomly, were primed with coffee consumption. Before performing the task aimed at measuring the level of creativity (dependent variable), participants were instructed to recall the situation when they drunk several cups of coffee within a short period of time, and to write three short essays on the topic (Exhibit 3A, Appendix). The other half of the participants, assigned to neutral priming condition were asked to describe the last time they took a bus (Exhibit 2A, Appendix).

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2.4. Dependent Variables

Creativity: After completing the priming task, participants were asked to perform the Dutch

version of Remote Associates Test (RAT), developed by Chermahini et al. (2012) and adapted from the original Remote Associates Test by Mednick (1968). The test was designed in accordance with Mednick’s Associative Theory of Creativity (1962). According to this theory, the creative thinking process includes bringing the requisite associative elements together in order to create new combinations (e.g. rat-blue-cottage  cheese) (Mednick, 1962). One of the advantages of the RAT is that it measures creative thought without requiring knowledge specific to any particular field (Chermahini et al., 2012). The Dutch version of RAT used in current study consists of 22 items (Appendix, Exhibit 4A). Each item contains three, seemingly unrelated words. Participants were asked to identify the fourth word that links those three words. They were instructed to solve as many items as possible, and to inform the researcher when they were not able to come up with more solutions. The creativity was measured with the number of correctly solved statements.

Persistence: Additionally the time of solving the RAT creativity task was measured in order

to discover if priming with coffee consumption or dosage of coffee have any effects on participants’ persistence in solving the task: the time after which they gave up trying to complete it.

2.5. Control Variables

Age, gender, openness to experience, need state, average coffee consumption, and impact expectancy were measured to account for any preexisting differences between the participants (Appendix, Exhibit 6A).

Age and gender. Age and gender of participants were self-reported.

Openness to experience. Openness to experience was used as a measure of intrinsic

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well each sentence described them ranging from disagree strongly to agree strongly. The scale consists of ten items (Exhibit 5A, Appendix) and was found to be reliable (α = .76).

Need state. Need for a cup of coffee was measured with one item, “Do you feel the need for

a cup of coffee now?” on seven-step scale ranging from 1 (No, not at all) to 7 (Yes, I desperately need coffee)

Average level of coffee consumption. Participants were asked to report how many cups of

coffee they consume on average on different days of the week. The average score for the day was then computed. There is inconclusive evidence on the influence of habitual caffeine consumption on the performance (Einöther & Giesbrecht, 2013).

Impact expectancy. Impact expectancy was measured with one item: “If I drink two cups of

coffee in one hour, my performance in solving puzzle task will be”, measured on night-step scale ranging from 1 (Much worse) to 9 (Much better). Oei & Hartley (2005) proved that the effects of caffeine depend on a person’s expectations in a way that caffeine may have differential effects on people who expect caffeine to stimulate them.

3. Results

An analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was run twice, using the creativity measure (number of correctly solved RAT items (I) and the persistence of the participants (the time after which they gave up trying to solve the task (II) as dependent variables. In both models priming and dosage were used as independent variables. Gender, age, average coffee consumption, openness to experience, need state and impact expectancy were used as covariates.

3.1. Number of Correctly Solved RAT Items as a Dependent Variable: Creativity

The covariates did not have any significant effects on the creativity. Table 1A (Appendix) presents the significance of all the variables in the model. The adjusted means for all the experimental conditions are depicted in Table 3A (Appendix).

The main effect of the dosage failed to reach the level of significance (F (1, 90) = .32, ns), contradicting hypothesis 1, according to which dosage should have a positive impact on performance on the creativity task. Participants in low- and high dosage conditions did not significantly differ on the performance on the RAT creativity task (M low dosage = 6.99 solved

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In line with hypothesis 2, which states that priming with coffee consumption increases a person’s performance on the creative task, a statistical model revealed a significant main effect of the priming factor (F (1, 90) = 4.91, p = .03). Participants who were primed with coffee consumption performed better on the RAT creativity task (M= 7.94 solved items, SD = 3.28) as compared to participants in the neutral priming condition (M = 6.42 solved items, SD= 3.44).

The analysis showed that the interaction between dosage and priming was marginally significant (F (1, 90) = 3.57, p = .06). Simple main effects analysis revealed that the effect of priming with coffee consumption on the dosage of coffee was significant only when the participant was in the high dosage condition (F (1, 90) = 8.18, p = .01). In the low dosage condition the difference between the participants primed with coffee consumption and the participants neutrally primed was not significant (F (1, 90) = .03, ns). It can be concluded that, as predicted by the hypothesis 3, priming moderated the impact of the dosage on creativity, such that the impact of dosage was more pronounced when participants were primed with coffee consumption.

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3.2. Time Spent on Solving the Creativity Task as a Dependent Variable: Persistence In addition to testing the accuracy on the creativity task, the persistence of the participants (the time spent on solving the task) was measured. The significance of all the variables in the model is presented in the Table 2A (Appendix).

One of the covariates: gender of the participants was observed to have a significant main effect on the persistence (F (1, 90) = 5.18, p = .03). Male participants were on average more persistent at solving the creativity task than women (M male = 7.54 minutes, SD male = 2.03

versus M female = 6.65 minutes, SD female = 1.86).

The main effect of dosage once more failed to reach significance (F (1, 90) = 1.12, ns). Participants in the low- and high dosage conditions did not differ on the persistence in solving the RAT creativity task (M low dosage = 7.29 minutes, SD low dosage = 1.99 versus M high dosage = 6.9

minutes, SD high dosage = 1.98).

The main effect of priming factor on the persistence was highly significant (F (1, 90) = 11.12, p = .00). Participants primed with coffee consumption were more persistent in solving the RAT task (M= 7.72 minutes, SD = 1.91), compared to the participants in the neutral priming condition (M = 6.47 minutes, SD =1.87).

The analysis showed that the interaction between dosage and priming conditions was not significant (F(1, 90) = 1.12, ns), indicating that regardless of the dosage condition, participants primed with coffee consumption were equally more persistent in solving the creativity task than the participants in the neutral priming condition.

4. Discussion 4.1. Summary and Conclusions

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creativity task was reported. As none of the participants managed to complete all the items, this variable was interpreted as the persistence in solving the task.

The research did not find the support for hypothesis 1, according to which the dosage of coffee consumed should increase a person’s performance on the creativity task. Participants in high and low dosage conditions did not differ in the number of correctly solved RAT items. As opposed to the prediction, participants in the high dosage condition (vs. low dosage) were not more successful or more persistent in solving the creativity task.

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associations with coffee in people’s minds are so strong that even the thought about coffee can trigger consumers to engage in more creative behavior. Moreover, people that consumed high dosage of coffee are more likely to consider the product creative, when it is associated with coffee.

4.2. Limitations and Recommendations

A potential limitation of the findings pertains to the fact that in the experiment, the conditions were based on the time of day, not on the actual consumption level, in order to ensure the random assignment to the groups. Therefore, being in the high dosage condition did not automatically mean that the person consumed more coffee than the participant in the low dosage condition (M low dosage = .4 cups of coffee, M high dosage = 1.16 cups of coffee). However the

manipulation was successful, as there was a significant correlation between the dosage factor and the actual consumption (r = .38, p = .00), Furthermore, many participants in both conditions reported that they do not drink coffee, which could also influence the reliability of the results.

Future research might consider testing the impact of coffee on creativity in lab conditions, which allow for higher experimental control. The dose of coffee should be administered by the experimenter to clearly distinguish between low and high dosage conditions. Whereas in the field study it was unfeasible to randomly select only the regular coffee drinkers, in the lab study conditions it would be possible to exclude the people who do not drink coffee from the sample. This solution is more likely to reveal the actual impact of the coffee dosage on creativity.

Another potential limitation refers to the fact that participants were only asked to report the amount of coffee they consume, not taking into account other sources of caffeine such as energy drinks, which may have had a similar impact on their cognitive abilities. In the future, the experiment should not only be limited to the coffee as such, but should also account for the consumption of all drinks containing caffeine.

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Creativity is a complicated concept. The most relevant aspect of creativity from the marketing point of view is consumer’s creativity, defined as the problem solving capability of the individual that he may apply toward solving consumption-related problems (Hirschman, 1980). Creativity may be influenced by various factors. In this research many of them were controlled for, however participants’ fatigue, distraction and motivation could also explain the differences in results and should be taken into account in future research.

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Burroughs, J. E., & Mick, D. G. (2004). Exploring antecedents and consequences of consumer Creativity in a Problem-solving context. Journal of Consumer Research 31, 402-411. Cano-Marquina, A., Tarín, J.J., & Cano, A. (2013). The impact of coffee on health. Maturitas

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Li, W., Li, X., Huang, L., Kong, X., Yang, W., Wei, D., Liu, J. (2015). Brain structure links trait creativity to openness to experience. Social Cognitive & Affective Neuroscience 10, 191-198.

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forum comment]. Retrieved June 3, 2015, from Quora; http://www.quora.com/How-does-drinking-coffee-help-you-stay-creative;

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25 6. Appendix

Exhibit 1A Introduction and Debriefing Used in the Survey

Introduction

Het onderzoek bestaat uit enkele ongerelateerde deelstudies naar taal en redeneren en maakt deel uit van het onderzoeksprogramma van verschillende onderzoekers aan de Faculteit Economie en Bedrijfskunde aan de Rijksuniversiteit Groningen.

Deelname is vanzelfsprekend geheel anoniem en je gegevens zullen uitsluitend vertrouwelijk worden gebruikt voor dit onderzoek en niet verder worden verspreid. Ik zou het enorm waarderen als je meedeed. Het onderzoek zal slechts enkele minuten van je tijd vergen.

Werk a.u.b. zelfstandig aan het onderzoek en overleg niet met anderen.

___________________________________________________________________________

Debriefing:

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Exhibit 2A: Neutral Priming Task

Beschrijf hieronder in enkele zinnen de laatste keer dat je de bus hebt genomen.

Beschrijf hieronder wat er precies gebeurde in die situatie waarin je de bus hebt genomen:

Beschrijf hieronder welke gedachten en gevoelens er door je heen gingen terwijl je de bus nam:

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Exhibit 3A: Priming with Coffee Consumption Task

Beschrijf hieronder in enkele zinnen een situatie uit je eigen leven waarin je in korte tijd meerdere koppen koffie hebt gedronken.

Beschrijf hieronder wat er precies gebeurde in die situatie waarin je in korte tijd meerdere koppen koffie hebt gedronken:

Beschrijf hieronder welke gedachten en gevoelens er door je heen gingen toen je in korte tijd meerdere koppen koffie hebt gedronken:

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Exhibit 4A: Remote Associates Test: (RAT) (Chermahini, Hickendorff, & Hommel, 2012)

Hieronder vind u een lijst met 22 sets van 3 begrippen. Steeds 1 woord verbindt de drie woorden met elkaar. Het is uw taak om dit ‘verbindingswoord’ te vinden.

Voorbeeld: Hut/ Familie / Palm. Het verbindingswoord is hier Boom (BoomHut / FamilieBoom / PalmBoom)

U hoeft niet in een bepaalde volgorde te werken en mag ook een set overslaan om door te gaan naar een andere set van drie woorden. U kunt uw antwoord in de lege ruimte naast de sets met begrippen noteren. Als u het gevoel heeft dat u niet meer oplossingen kan vinden mag u stoppen met dit onderdeel en dit melden aan de onderzoeker. Probeer zo veel mogelijk verbindingswoorden te vinden. Succes!

Wat verbindt (associeert) deze begrippen?

Bar / jurk / glas Kaas / land/ huis Vlokken / ketting / pet Val / meloen / lelie Vis / mijn / geel Achter / kruk / mat Worm / kast / legger Water / schoorsteen / lucht Trommel / beleg / mes Hond / druk / band Controle / plaats / gewicht Goot / kool/ bak

Kolen/ land/ schacht Schommel / klap / rol Kamer / masker / explosie Nacht / vet / licht

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Exhibit 5A: Openness to Experience Scale (Denissen, Geenen, Van Aken, Gosling, & Potter, 2008)

Ik zie mezelf als iemand die… Helemaal mee oneens Oneens Eens noch oneens Eens Helemaal mee eens …graag nadenkt,

met ideeën speelt …vindingrijk is …waarde hecht aan kunstzinnige

ervaringen

…origineel is, met nieuwe ideeën komt …scherpzinnig, een denker is …een levendige fantasie heeft …benieuwd is naar veel verschillende dingen

…het fijne weet van kunst, muziek or literatuur

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Exhibit 6A: Final Questionnaire

Geslacht

M V

Leeftijd …………..

Wil je hieronder aangeven hoeveel koppen koffie (dat mag ook espresso, cappuccino, macchiato of een andere koffievariant zijn) je meestal drinkt op

elk van de onderstaande dagen van de week:

Aantal koppen koffie:

Maandag ………… Dinsdag ………… Woensdag ………… Donderdag ………… Vrijdag ………… Zaterdag ………… Zondag …………

Hoeveel koppen koffie heeft u vandaag gedronken?

Op welk tijdstip heeft u uw laatste kop koffie gedronken? Geef ook de grootte en soort koffie aan

(espresso, latte).

Koppen koffie ……… Hoe laat heeft u uw

laatste kop koffie gedronken?

……….

Grootte (S/M/L) Soort

Op een schaal van 1 tot 7, hoe graag zou u op dit moment een kop koffie willen?

(1= helemaal niet, 7 = heel erg graag)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Als ik 2 koppen koffie drink in 1 uur wordt mijn vaardigheid in het oplossen van puzzeltaakjes: (1 = Veel slechter; 5= Geen invloed; 9= Veel beter)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Tijd van observatie:

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Table 1A: The significance of all the variables included in the model I(DV = Creativity) Variable F Sig.

Dosage ,323 ,571

Prime 4,914 ,029**

Gender 1,645 ,203

Average Coffee Consumption 1,307 ,256

Openness to Experience 2,003 ,160

Need state 1,657 ,201

Age ,008 ,928

Impact Expectancy 1,524 ,220

Dosage * Prime 3,570 ,062*

DV = Creativity (number of correctly solved RAT items)

Table 2A: The significance of all the variables included in the model II (DV = Persistence) Variable F Sig.

Dosage 1,115 ,294

Prime 11,121 ,001

Gender 5,181 ,025

Average Coffee Consumption ,333 ,565

Openness to Experience ,340 ,561

Need state ,385 ,536

Age ,720 ,398

Impact Expectancy 2,875 ,093

Dosage * Prime 1,119 ,293

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Table 3A: Adjusted means for all the experimental conditions (DV = Creativity)

Factor 1: Dosage

TOTAL Low Dosage High Dosage

Factor 2: Prime

Neutral Priming 6.9 5.95 6.42

Priming with Coffee

Consumption 7.07 8.81 7.94

Does Coffee Make Us More Creative?

Does Coffee Make Us More Creative?

The Impact of Coffee and Priming with Coffee

Consumption on Creativity

Does Coffee Make Us More Creative?

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