University of Groningen
Functional genomics approach to understanding sepsis heterogeneity
Le, Kieu
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10.33612/diss.98318779
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CHAPTER
01
Why do organs fail differently
in patients with sepsis ?
Endothelial heterogeneity
and organ-specific failure
phenotypes in sepsis
Kieu T. T Le1* & Dayang Erna-Zulaikha2*, Grietje Molema2, Vinod Kumar1,3
Jan G. Zijlstra4, Jill Moser2,4‡
1 Department of Genetics, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen,
Groningen, The Netherlands
2 Department of Pathology and Medical Biology, Medical Biology section,
University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
3 Department of Internal Medicine and Radboud Center for Infectious Diseases (RCI),
Radboudumc, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands
4 Department of Critical Care, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen,
Groningen, The Netherlands *Shared First authorship
‡Corresponding author:
Jill Moser PhD E-mail: j.moser@umcg.nl
Keywords:
Sepsis, Endothelial cells (EC), endothelial heterogeneity, Acute Kidney Injury (AKI), Acute Respiratory Dysfunction Syndrome (ARDS), endothelial permeability, endothelial activation, inflammation.
Sepsis, a dysregulated host response due to infection is associated with high morbidity and mortality which is a result of multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS). There are currently no therapeutic treatments available for patients with sepsis which is partly attributed to our incomplete understanding of why and how organs fail in patients with sepsis. Clinical manifestations of organ failure differ from one organ to another despite a systemic pathogenic insult. The lungs become drowned in fluids with extensive neutrophil sequestration, while the kidney appears to shut down with minimal morphological changes and limited leukocyte infiltration. For years, a dysregulated immune system was thought to be the central mediator of organ failure. However, the endothelium is gaining increasing attention due to its crucial role in maintaining organ homeostasis, vascular barrier, coagulation and inflammation. All of these processes are disrupted in the failing organs of sepsis patients, yet this occurs heterogeneously within and between organs.
In this review, we summarize recent advances in our understanding of heterogeneous endothelial responses which may mediate organ-specific failure phenotypes in patients with sepsis. We have focussed on sepsis-associated acute kidney injury (sepsis AKI) and acute respiratory dysfunction syndrome (ARDS) and consider differences and similarities of endothelial behaviour between the kidney and lung and how this information might be useful for guiding microvascular targeted therapy for patients with sepsis and multiple organ failure.
Background
Sepsis is a life-threatening condition characterized by an overwhelming, heterogeneous and progressive host dysregulation as a result of infection (Singer
et al., 2016). Despite recent advances in
early sepsis recognition and prompt antibiotic administration protocols, sepsis continues to be the leading cause of death among critically ill patients in intensive care units (ICU) worldwide (Mayr, Yende and Angus, 2014). The fatal outcome of patients with sepsis is due to multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS), with mortality being directly associated with the number of failing organ systems and the degree of organ damage (Angus and van der Poll, 2013).
The pathophysiological mechanisms driving organ injury and failure in patients with sepsis is poorly understood. For a long time, decreased oxygen delivery and a dysregulated immune system were thought to be the main drivers of organ failure. However, three decades of clinical trials targeting these defective responses have failed to improve patient outcome (Seeley and Bernard, 2016). The complexity of sepsis, the heterogeneity between patients and the relatively late diagnosis underlie poor outcome and the failure of multiple one-size-fits-all clinical trials (Marshall, 2014). Current therapeutic options are still limited to antibiotic administration and supporting organ function in the ICU. Despite years of research, we still do not know exactly why and how organs fail in patients with sepsis. Likewise, why some patients develop MODS while others do not. However, predisposing factors that increase sepsis susceptibility such as age, having comorbid disease, immunodeficiency and genetic factors all likely contribute.
Intriguingly, the clinical manifestations of sepsis-associated organ dysfunction differ from one organ to another despite a similar systemic pathogenic insult (Table. 1). Lungs become drowned in fluids with massive neutrophil sequestration primarily due to ‘leaky’ microvasculature (Hendrickson and Matthay, 2018), while the kidney appears to shut down
with minimal morphological alterations and limited neutrophil infiltration (Lerolle et al., 2010; Takasu et al., 2013; Aslan et al., 2018). In other words, each organ responds differently to the same systemic insult. These observations have led us to question what regulates organ- specific responses in sepsis. Is there a common cell-type and/or response which dictates the way an organ fails in sepsis? If there is, how does that differ between organs? And more importantly, how will these organ-specific responses influence treatment options for patients with multiple organ failure?
When patients with sepsis enter the ICU, multiple cellular cascades encompassing inflammation, coagulation and metabolic changes run in parallel in various cells within different organs leading to impaired function (Angus and van der Poll, 2013). One cell type which is common to all organs is the endothelium, which is known to play an important role in maintaining organ homeostasis (Aird, 2007). While aberrant endothelial responses have been shown to predict mortality in critically ill patients (Duffy et al., 2011), endothelial cells (ECs) phenotypically differ between organs within vascular compartments of the same organ, and even between adjacent ECs within the same vessels (Dayang et al., 2019). Different pathogens and/or inflammatory stimuli can initiate endothelial inflammatory activation, leukocyte infiltration, endothelial permeability and coagulation yet this occurs heterogeneously within and between organs. Hence, what is the contribution of the inter- and intra-organ endothelial heterogeneous response to sepsis on the specific way organs fail in patients with multiple organ failure?
The aim of this review was to summarize recent advances in our understanding of inter-organ heterogeneous endothelial responses that may mediate organ-specific failure phenotypes in patients with sepsis.
Implications for patient care and potential directions for future treatment strategies will also be discussed.
The endothelium as a
heterogeneous entity of cells with
specialized functions
1. Endothelial phenotypes
The macrovasculature and organ microvasculature are lined by cells that tightly interact with each other to form a semi-permeable barrier called the endothelium. The endothelial lining maintains organ homeostasis by regulating various functions including the trafficking of fluid, solutes, hormones and macromolecules (Mehta and Malik, 2006). It is now well established that EC phenotypes vary between different organs, between different microvascular compartments within the same organ, and between neighbouring ECs of the same blood vessel type (Aird, 2007). Yet, how each organ determines the functional properties of its endothelium is currently not well understood. Endothelial properties are to a certain extent dependent on the surrounding tissue microenvironments, such as flow, and interaction with adjacent specialized cells (i.e. pericytes, podocytes, epithelial cells etc). Inflammatory cues and signals from parenchyma cells can induce posttranscriptional modifications since they are in direct contact with ECs. Most, but not, all organ-specific EC gene signatures are rapidly lost when they are removed from their in vivo microenvironment and grown in culture (Lacorre et al., 2004; Burridge and Friedman, 2010). However, certain heterogeneous gene expression profiles have also been observed in cultured organ-specific ECs suggesting that epigenetic control may mediate at least certain properties of ECs (Chi et al., 2003; Marcu et al., 2018).
2. Glycocalyx
The endothelial barrier is comprised of inter-endothelial junctions and various non- cellular components, such as the glycocalyx and extracellular matrix (Weinbaum, Tarbell and Damiano, 2007). A complex network of macromolecules including proteoglycans and sialoproteins forms the 1 to 3 μm glycocalyx layer on the apical side of endothelium (Van den Berg, Vink and Spaan, 2003; Weinbaum, Tarbell and Damiano, 2007). Endothelial glycocalyx make-up in various organs are reported to be organ-specific and vascular bed specific (Schmidt et al., 2012). Pulmonary artery ECs were coated with α-galactose carbohydrates, while pulmonary microvascular ECs found to be enriched with α- and β-N- acetylgalactosamine carbohydrates (King et al., 2004). The implication of the glycocalyx composition differences on endothelial barrier susceptibility to sepsis is not known. The extent of which inflammatory mediators and leukocytes might disrupt the glycocalyx may partly drive organ failure such as acute kidney injury (AKI) or acute respiratory distress (ARDS). The exact mechanisms regulating glycocalyx degradation are not yet fully understood but may be organ and vascular bed-specific (Uchimido, Schmidt and Shapiro, 2019). Significant experimental evidence shows that damage of the glycocalyx in sepsis compromises the endothelium by promoting permeability (Colbert and Schmidt, 2016). Additionally, excessive fluid resuscitation in patients with sepsis is thought to degrade the endothelial glycocalyx (Chappell et al., 2014). Nevertheless, therapeutic strategies that aimed to preserve glycocalyx integrity have failed to improve the outcome of patients with sepsis (Chelazzi et al., 2015).
3. Barrier integrity
The cleft between ECs are sealed by tight- and adherens- junctions, which are both functionally coupled to the cell-matrix complex
(Wallez and Huber, 2008). Mechanical strength and stability of the barrier is provided by adherens junctions (Dejana and Orsenigo, 2013)(Dejana, Bazzoni and Lampugnani, 1999). Additionally, tight junctions such as Claudin- 5 are only expressed in peripheral endothelium (Komarova and Malik, 2010). Gap junctions, containing connexins (i.e. Cx43, Cx40, and Cx37) mainly function to regulate cell-to-cell communication (Bazzoni and Dejana, 2004). The Angiopoietin/Tie2 receptor system is also involved in the maintenance of barrier function. Angiopoietin 1 (Ang1) and Angiopoietin 2 (Ang2) ligands bind to the Tie2 receptor (Matijs van Meurs, Kümpers,
et al., 2009). In quiescent conditions, Ang1
is released by pericytes and binds to the Tie2 receptor ensuring barrier maintenance (Davis et al., 2007). However, during inflammation, Ang2 is produced by ECs and competitively binds to the Tie2 receptor disrupting the vascular barrier (Leligdowicz
et al., 2018). Disruption of the various systems
controlling vascular barrier integrity will lead to vascular leakage resulting in oedema, and other detrimental consequences. Additionally, recent studies found that the expression of endothelial junction molecules needed to maintain endothelial integrity, VE-cadherin, Occludin and Claudin-5 were distinct in various mouse organs (Aslan et al., 2017). Hence, endothelial phenotypes and junction molecule composition varies between different microvascular beds in different organ systems which can have a major impact on the dynamics and regulation of vascular permeability.
4. Coagulation
ECs also maintain the fluidity of the blood by governing factors that are involved in coagulation and fibrinolysis, such as tissue factors (TFs), Endothelial protein C receptor (EPCR), plasminogen activator inhibitor Type 1 (PAI-1) and von Willebrand factor
(vWF) (Aird, 2007). Endothelial coagulation factors are stored in endothelial storage granules known as Weibel-Palade bodies until needed (Levi, Van Der Poll and Schultz, 2012). vWF is heterogeneously distributed, with higher expression noted in larger vessels such as veins, compared to the capillaries (Pusztaszeri, Seelentag and Bosman, 2006; Yuan et al., 2016). Moreover, vWF is mosaically expressed within individual vessels (Yuan et
al., 2016). Although it is now established that
coagulation plays an important role in sepsis-induced organ dysfunction, it is not completely clear why specific organs such as the kidney and lung are more susceptible to developing (micro)vascular thrombosis than other organs such as the heart or liver (Levi, Van Der Poll and Schultz, 2012). Inflammation does not only lead to activation of coagulation, but coagulant activation can also result in inflammation. Pro- inflammatory cytokines activate the coagulant system and concomitantly downregulate anticoagulant pathways. A detailed overview of organ-specific responses of the coagulant system has been reviewed in detail elsewhere (Levi, Van Der Poll and Schultz, 2012). Incorporation of different extracellular signals, cell responses and EC signaling mechanisms in different vascular bed regions may explain why the pro- or anti-coagulant response of EC may differ between organs (Rosenberg and Aird, 1999).
5. Endothelial activation
The EC is well equipped for recognising and responding to hostile or toxic components in the blood stream. In sepsis, ECs recognize damage-associated molecular pattern (DAMPs) and pattern associated molecular pattern (PAMPs) by pattern recognition receptors. LPS is a major component of the Gram-negative bacteria cell wall found in the blood of patients with sepsis (Dauphinee and Karsan, 2006). For a long time, the molecular mechanisms controlling LPS-mediated
activation of ECs was thought to be controlled via similar mechanisms as those described for immune cell activation (Dauphinee and Karsan, 2006). However, in contrast to immune cell activation, recent studies have identified RIG-I as an additional receptor controlling LPS-mediated endothelial activation together with the well- known TLR4 receptor (Moser et
al., 2016; Yan et al., 2017).
During inflammation, the endothelium becomes activated and expresses adhesion molecules, such as E-selectin, VCAM-1, ICAM-1 which facilitates leukocyte rolling, adhesion, arrest, and transmigration (Ley et
al., 2007; Nourshargh, Hordijk and Sixt, 2010).
Initial rolling of leukocytes is also characterized by the binding of VCAM-1 and ICAM-1 to cognate leukocyte integrin, such as Very late antigen-4 (VLA-4), which results in leukocyte arrest and adhesion (Berlin et al., 1995). Once the EC-leukocyte interaction is robust, it can withstand circulatory shear stress, and undergo paracellular or transcellular transmigration (Phillipson et al., 2009). In the context of sepsis, most studies have focused on understanding endothelial responses to endotoxin such as LPS or proinflammatory cytokines such as TNFα, both found in the plasma of patients with sepsis. Previous studies have assumed that LPS and TNFα signalling downstream of their receptors converged into similar pathways. However, an increasing number of studies provide evidence that this may not be the case (Wang et al., 2014; Moser et al., 2016). Additionally, distinct EC subpopulations of HUVEC in vitro were identified each having distinct inflammatory phenotypes that were controlled by different regulatory signalling mechanisms (Dayang
et al., 2019). This appeared to be a common
response of ECs since similar findings were observed using ECs isolated from the lung (Dayang et al., 2019). A subpopulation of cells which remained quiescent despite exposure to LPS was identified (Dayang et al., 2019). Why
these cells remain quiescent in the presence of LPS or an inflammatory stimulus such as TNFα is currently unknown. Nevertheless, understanding the molecular mechanisms controlling this quiescent phenotype may be exploited in order to identify and generate therapeutic strategies to inhibit endothelial activation in the setting of sepsis.
The endothelium can be exposed to different types of infectious pathogens bacteria, fungi or viruses. The impact of these pathogens on endothelial activation has not been extensively studied. However, recent work from our laboratory found that some pathogens such as S. pneumoniae and C. albicans could not induce endothelial activation directly (Kieu Le, unpublished observations). Instead, these pathogens likely interact with immune cells initiating the release of various proinflammatory mediators which subsequently activates the endothelium. It remains to be elucidated whether this also happens in vivo. Interestingly, EC responses initiated by mediators released from PBMCs stimulated with different pathogens were not dependant on the type of pathogen (Kieu Le, unpublished observations). Hence, humoral factors released by PBMCs stimulated with different pathogens induce similar endothelial responses.
Organ-specific failure phenotypes in
sepsis and the role of the endothelium
A role for aberrant endothelial behaviour and leukocyte influx promoting organ failure in sepsis is well established (Singbartl and Ley, 2004), yet the precise mechanisms and organ-specific responses poorly understood. In order to understand the pathophysiology of organ dysfunction in sepsis, animal models and/or cell culture models are extensively used. As described above in vivo observations show that the extent endothelial inflammatory activation differs between the microvasculature of various organs. Likewise,
leukocyte recruitment is organ- and stimulus-specific (Liu and Kubes, 2003; Devi et al., 2013; Rossaint and Zarbock, 2013). Each organ has specialized capillaries by which EC-leukocyte interactions can take place. Both the kidney and lungs are particularly vulnerable in patients with sepsis which often leads to Acute Kidney Injury (AKI) and Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS) respectively. Examination of post-mortem organs from patients with sepsis and multiple organ failure revealed some sequestration and aggregation of neutrophils in renal microvascular compartments (Nuytinck
et al., 1988; Thijs and Thijs, 1998; Brealey
and Singer, 2000; Aslan et al., 2018) yet major infiltration of neutrophils was found within the pulmonary microvasculature of patients (Brealey and Singer, 2000). However, other organs and cellular systems are also compromised, with different endothelial-regulated processes being affected (Table. 1). The microvasculature plays an important role in mediating the failure of all organs yet how these endothelial responses are mediated clearly differs per organ. The role of the endothelium in mediating kidney and lung failure phenotypes will be discussed further in more detail.
Organ Clinical features Pathophysiology Available treatment Kidney Proteinuria ↑ blood Creatinine ↓ Urine Output ↓ Glomerular filtration rate (GFR)
Disturbed microvascular integrity Epithelial cell injury/cycle arrest/apoptosis/ necrosis, ↓ metabolism due to excessive inflammation.
Capillary leukocyte infiltration
Renal Replacement Therapy (RRT) Lung Impaired oxygenation Pulmonary oedema ↓ compliance Fibrosis Microvascular hyperpermeability Acute inflammatory infiltrates and neutrophil accumulation
Disrupted lung alveolar-capillary barrier Perivascular oedema
Fibrosis
Mechanical ventilation with low tidal volume and positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) Liver Jaundice Cholestasis Hypoxic hepatitis
Impaired bile and bile acid transport Adhesion of neutrophils to SECs Thrombi formation & microvascular hypoperfusion
↑ cytokines & Fibrin deposition
Hepatocyte injury, Endotoxin and bacteria spill over None Heart Myocardial depression Severe biventricular dysfunction Arrhythmia Abnormal calcium homeostasis-cardiomyocyte injury Focal mitochondrial injury Defects in cardiomyocyte
coupling due to abnormal cardiac gap junctions
Impaired coronary microcirculation Endothelial activation Inotropic agents Betablockers Brain /CNS Confusion / Delirium Impaired cognition Amnesia
Impaired endothelial integrity (microvasculature & BBB), Hyperinflammation leading to microglial activation Light sedation Early rehabilitation Cardiovascular Ventricular dilatation ↓ ejection fraction ↓ contractility Vasoplegia Myocardial depression Impaired calcium homeostasis,
↑ NO & phosphate production Endothelial inflammatory activation
Inotropic agents Betablockers
Sepsis-associated Acute Kidney Injury
(Sepsis-AKI).
Renal endothelial activation,
inflammation and leukocyte infiltration
Approximately 50% of patients with sepsis admitted to the intensive care develop AKI which is associated with high mortality (Poston and Koyner, 2019). Recent advances in our understanding of AKI have identified that aberrant renal microvascular responses play a major role in driving renal failure in patients with sepsis (Kellum and Prowle, 2018). The kidney microvasculature composed of arterioles, venules, and two capillary networks, namely the glomerulus and the peritubular capillary plexus (Ince et al., 2016) regulate blood flow within the kidney and mediate inflammation, permeability and coagulation. Glomerular ECs are highly fenestrated and covered by a rich glycocalyx layer that allow filtration of water and small solutes as well as supporting podocyte structure (Singh et al., 2007;
Haraldsson, Nystrom and Deen, 2008). The peritubular capillaries are also fenestrated and contribute to tubular reabsorption as well as supporting renal tubule cell function (Jen, Haragsim and Laszik, 2011).
In sepsis, the renal microvascular endothelial compartments produce adhesion molecules from the selectin family (P-selectin and E-selectin), and integrin family (VCAM-1 and ICAM-(VCAM-1) mediating leukocytes rolling, tethering, adherence and subsequent infiltration into the tissues (Nourshargh and Alon, 2014). However, an association between leukocyte adherence and the distinct adhesion molecule expression profiles in specific renal microvascular compartments is difficult to establish (Matijs van Meurs, Kurniati, et al., 2009; Molema, 2010; Asgeirsdottir et al., 2012). Although not extensive, leukocytes, predominantly neutrophils, guided by endothelial activation, were found to localize predominantly in the glomerular and
Gastrointestinal
Mucosal bleeding Paralytic ileus
Endothelial cell injury and microcirculation dysfunction Epithelial hyperpermeability Altered microbiome Proton pump inhibitor Early enteral nutrition Probiotics Selective digestive decontamination Coagulation Bleeding Microthrombi Tissue ischemia Diffuse intravascular coagulation (DIC) Intravascular coagulation Endothelial injury
Systemic thrombin generation
Antithrombin Thrombomodulin Concentrated platelets Immune system Hyperinflammation Immunosuppression Secondary infection Virus reactivation
Balance between hyper- and
peritubular capillaries (Kuligowski, Kitching and Hickey, 2006; Kitching, Holdsworth and Hickey, 2008; Aslan et al., 2018).
In mice, LPS and TNF-α induced expression of E-selectin was predominantly found in the glomeruli and to a lesser extent in the arterioles (Dayang et al., 2019). In contrast, VCAM-1 is highly expressed in the arterioles and venules, while expressed to a lesser extent in the glomeruli (M. van Meurs et
al., 2009; Asgeirsdottir et al., 2012; Dayang et al., 2019). E- selectin was predominantly found
expressed in the glomeruli and to a lesser extent in the arterioles upon LPS challenge (Dayang
et al., 2019). In contrast, VCAM-1 was highly
expressed in the arterioles and venules, while expressed to a lesser extent in the glomeruli (M. van Meurs et al., 2009; Asgeirsdottir et
al., 2012; Dayang et al., 2019) Despite high
VCAM-1 expression in the arterioles during sepsis, comparable to levels in the venules, leukocyte adherence on the surface of renal arterioles rarely occurs. In a mouse model of experimental sepsis, cecal ligation and puncture (CLP), E-selectin and P-selectin expression was found in the glomeruli and peritubular capillaries. ICAM-1 expression was observed in the peritubular capillaries but not in the glomeruli (Herter et al., 2014). Recent work from our laboratory revealed that the inflammatory response of neighbouring ECs within a specific renal microvascular compartment were distinct (Dayang et al., 2019). The molecular mechanisms controlling renal heterogeneous inter- and intra-vascular endothelial activation in vivo are currently poorly understood but may involve regulatory non-coding RNAs, such as miR-126 in the regulation of VCAM-1 in the renal vasculature (Asgeirsdottir et al., 2012).
Blocking E-selectin, P-selectin or both in septic mice significantly diminished neutrophil infiltration into the kidney and preserved kidney morphology (Herter et al., 2014). Moreover, neutrophil depletion was
found to protect CLP-induced renal injury in mice (Herter et al., 2014), highlighting the significance of endothelial activation and subsequent neutrophil infiltration in relation to sepsis-associated renal failure. Similar findings have been observed in human post-mortem kidney biopsies from sepsis patients with acute kidney injury (AKI). Monocytes were found to aggregate in the glomerular capillaries, cortical and medullary capillaries which was not observed in critically ill trauma patients with systemic inflammation (Lerolle et
al., 2010; Aslan et al., 2018).
Activated ECs also produce cytokines and chemokines that can initiate and orchestrate inflammation. In a rat model of acute renal microvascular injury, in situ hybridization of renal tissue revealed co-localization of endothelially produced IP-10/ CXCL10 mRNA with infiltrating T cells in the tubulointerstitial compartment (Panzer et al., 2006). In the same kidney, glomerular IP10/ CXCL10 expression was absent, while MCP-1/CCL2 was detectable and associated with monocyte infiltration (Panzer et al., 2006). In CLP mice, monocytes were found to undergo CX3CR1-dependent crawling 6 hours after CLP induction yet no monocytes were found to transmigrate into the parenchyma. Interestingly, monocyte inhibition exacerbated CLP-induced renal injury suggesting that monocytes may mediate anti-inflammatory effects (Chousterman et al., 2016). The concept that monocytes may play an anti-inflammatory role in the kidney was supported by Hato and colleagues, which showed macrophages elicited a renal protective effect by low-dose LPS preconditioning (Hato et al., 2015). Organ-specific inflammatory models recently revealed that leukocyte activation and recruitment differs between the kidney and lung and that endothelial activation is differentially regulated in these organs, which contradicts assumptions that leukocyte recruitment into organs is regulated similarly
for each organ. Recently reviewed in detail elsewhere (Maas, Soehnlein and Viola, 2018).
Together these studies imply that 1) the interaction of distinct immune cell subsets with the endothelium is characterized by EC heterogeneous expression of adhesion molecules and specific chemokine signals within different renal microvascular compartments, and 2) in certain circumstances, leukocyte-endothelial interactions do not necessarily promote inflammation causing functional and structural failure but that their role in the resolution of inflammation may be as important.
Renal vascular barrier dysfunction
As mentioned above, minimal histological changes were observed in renal biopsies from septic patients, likewise in the kidneys from experimental sepsis mice (Maiden et al., 2016), which corroborates the observation that the microvascular barrier in the kidney of sepsis patients is uncompromised (Aslan
et al., 2017). Loss of the glycocalyx leads
to functional impairment of the glomerular barrier in sepsis (Ince et al., 2016). In CLP-induced rats, an increase in urine albumin was correlated with a decrease in glycocalyx components, syndecan-1, hyaluronic acid, and sialic acid (Adembri et al., 2011). Likewise, loss of the glycocalyx was observed in LPS and TNFα-challenged mice (Xu et al., 2014). TNF-/- mice were found to be resistant to LPS-induced glomerular permeability and were not able to induce heparanase expression in response to LPS injection therefore protecting the barrier from heparan sulphate degradation (Xu et al., 2014), a common glycocalyx degradation pathway (Schmidt et al., 2012). The interaction of TNF-α and syndecans leads to structural rearrangement of ECs that increases paracellular permeability, allowing extravasation of macromolecules, such as albumin (Christaki and Opal, 2008).
In normal healthy mice, the expression level of tight junction molecules Occludin and Claudin-5 were 20-fold and 100-fold higher in the lungs compared to kidney, respectively (Aslan et al., 2017), which implies that a different endothelial barrier regulation exists in different organs under quiescent conditions. Moreover, Occludin and Claudin-5 mRNA induction was greatly increased in the kidney, and to a lesser extent in the lungs of the same LPS-challenged mice. Additionally, expression of adherence junction molecule, VE-cadherin was unaltered in the kidney but was increased in the lungs of LPS challenged mice (Aslan et
al., 2017). VE-Cadherin plasma protein levels
are associated with AKI in septic patients (Yu
et al., 2019).
The Ang/Tie2 system also plays an important role in maintenance of vascular integrity. In human sepsis renal biopsies, Renal Ang1 mRNA levels were lower in human sepsis patient biopsies compared to control patients therefore disturbing the Ang2/ Ang1 ratio (Aslan et al., 2014). Loss of plasma Ang1 in patients with sepsis is associated with poor outcome (Fang et al., 2018). Moreover, plasma Ang1 levels and the Ang2/Ang1 ratio have recently been identified to characterize AKI and ARDS patient phenotypes (Bos et al., 2017; Famous et al., 2017). In mice, kidney and lung Tie2 mRNA and protein was diminished in response to LPS challenge (Matijs van Meurs, Kurniati, et al., 2009). However, the temporary loss of both Tie2 mRNA and protein was not associated with major changes in glomerular function which suggests that other factors regulate glomerular microvascular integrity (Haraldsson, Nystrom and Deen, 2008). Structurally, fenestrations in the glomerular EC contribute to permeability. In sepsis, the size and number of fenestrations are reduced leading to glomerular EC permeability. VEGF, a potent molecule known to increase endothelial permeability, is increased during
sepsis (Pierrakos and Vincent, 2010). VEGF produced in the kidney is suggested to play a role in the regulation of glomerular permeability (Hippenstiel et al., 1998). VEGF release during septic AKI may also contribute to distant organ injury and multiple organ failure (Chelazzi et al., 2015).
In summary, loss of the glycocalyx, altered fenestrations, altered expression of junction molecules, a dysbalanced Ang/Tie2 system all contribute to impaired endothelial integrity in the kidney associated with sepsis.
Sepsis-associated Acute Respiratory
Dysfunction Syndrome (ARDS)
Lung endothelial activation,
inflammation and leukocyte infiltration
The primary function of the lung is gas exchange for which it is equipped with a large surface of epithelial cells separated from the blood stream by ECs. The lung is directly exposed to infectious and toxic agents from the environment and is therefore equipped with an extensive innate immune system (Chen et al., 2018). Approximately 40% of septic patients suffer from acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) or acute lung injury (ALI), which is associated with a poor outcome (Fujishima et al., 2016). In ARDS, gas exchange is hampered due to thickening of the alveolar membrane and flooding of cells and protein-rich exudate into the alveolus leading to oedema (Ware and Matthay, 2000). Often patients with sepsis and ARDS need to be ventilated. However, the force exercised by mechanical ventilation can aggravate lung inflammation and is therefore also detrimental to the lungs. Ultimately the lung fails due to decreased ventilation and diffusion which cannot be compensated for by supportive mechanical ventilation.
Infiltration of inflammatory cells is a major hallmark of sepsis induced acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) (Ware
et al., 2004; Abraham et al., 2006). In sepsis,
various leukocyte subtypes but predominantly neutrophils were shown to infiltrate lung tissues. The expression of endothelial adhesion molecules and associated infiltrating neutrophils correlated with organ function impairment in lung biopsies from patients with ARDS (Windsor et al., 1993). Leukocytes tend to adhere to the post-capillary venules, but some studies have indicated that the lung capillaries are the preferred site of adherence and extravasation (Rossaint and Zarbock, 2013). Neutrophils located in the capillaries of 2-15μm diameter were retained longer allowing the neutrophils to be in direct physical contact with ECs yet contact alone does not initiate neutrophil transmigration (Rossaint and Zarbock, 2013; Margraf, Ley and Zarbock, 2019). Neutrophils were shown to migrate across inflamed ECs via their interaction with platelets in murine models of Escherichia coli,
Klebsiella- and LPS- induced pneumonia.
Platelets and inflamed vascular endothelium communicate and attract neutrophils via interactions between P-selectin on platelets and P-selectin ligand (PSGL-1) on neutrophils (Zarbock, Singbartl and Ley, 2006; Zarbock, Polanowska- Grabowska and Ley, 2007; Grommes et al., 2012). Platelet depletion reduced neutrophil accumulation in lung tissue indicating that neutrophils require aggregation with activated platelets to establish an interaction with ECs during bacterial infection (Zarbock, Polanowska- Grabowska and Ley, 2007). A large pool of neutrophils normally reside in the lung parenchyma (Kreisel et al., 2010) which upon bacteria-challenge extravasated immediately, forming extravascular clusters that co-localized with monocytes in the parenchymal area. Correspondingly, monocyte depletion resulted in reduced neutrophil recruitment and transendothelial migration (Kreisel et al., 2010). How neutrophils are recruited and the
role of the adhesion molecules seems to be inflammatory stimulus dependent as reviewed elsewhere (Margraf, Ley and Zarbock, 2019).
Alveolar macrophages were the first cells to detect LPS upon intra-tracheal LPS delivery rather than the ECs (Hollingsworth
et al., 2005). However, pulmonary ECs are
suggested to play an essential role in regulating responses to bacterial products, such as LPS. Andonegui and colleagues found endothelial TLR4 expression was sufficient to sequester neutrophils into the lungs after LPS challenge (Andonegui et al., 2003). These observations demonstrate the uniqueness of leukocyte infiltration in the lungs in sepsis, which differs from the rest of the organs mainly due to major differences in the microvascular make-up, with EC heterogeneity playing a major role (Margraf, Ley and Zarbock, 2019).
Lung vascular barrier dysfunction
The clinical presentation of lungs ‘drowning’ with fluids in sepsis is a clear indicator of a compromised vascular barrier integrity. Plasma from septic patients increases pulmonary EC permeability in vitro (Leligdowicz et al., 2018). As already mentioned, vascular barrier integrity is regulated by endothelial junctional molecules. During sepsis, leukocytes interact with the glycocalyx, resulting in its degradation (Schmidt et al., 2012) leading to pulmonary oedema (Maniatis and Orfanos, 2008), which is the hallmark of acute lung injury in sepsis.
The endothelial glycocalyx is pivotal in regulating the alveolar endothelial integrity. In an LPS-induced murine model, lung ECs express high levels of heparanase, which mediates degradation of glycocalyx in the lung microvascular beds, resulting in an increased vascular leakage (Uchimido, Schmidt and Shapiro, 2019). In human biopsies, low levels of heparanase are found in normal healthy lung vascular beds, whereas during damage the levels of heparanase are increased. A
heparanase inhibitor was found to attenuate pulmonary endothelial hyperpermeability after sepsis onset in a CLP-induced murine model (Schmidt et al., 2012). Inhibition of gap junction molecule connexin43 (Cx43) induced EC permeability in an experimental lung injury model (Parthasarathi, 2012). VE-cadherin expression in mice is 200 times higher in the lungs compared to the kidney and following LPS injection, VE-cadherin expression in lungs was reduced, but not in the kidney (Aslan et al., 2017). Endocytosis of VE-cadherin induces gaps between ECs in the lungs, leading to increased permeability (Lee and Slutsky, 2010). High mobility group protein B1 (HMGB1) was also shown to induce gaps in between ECs (Wang, 1999), and is implicated in sepsis- associated ARDS (Ueno et al., 2004).
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SUMMARY
Understanding the characteristics of different microvascular compartments between and within organs in the disease setting will enhance our understanding of why the microvasculature of different organs behaves in a specific manner upon a similar pathogenic insult. Moreover, therapeutic strategies designed to attenuate endothelial inflammatory activation will prevent leukocyte adhesion and transmigration which will lead to diminished organ failure in patients with sepsis. Differences in endothelial glycocalyx shedding, activation, inflammation, permeability, coagulation, metabolism, and epigenetic make-up all contribute to the organ-specific endothelial responses in sepsis. This heterogeneous response is part of the explanation why organs fail in phenotypically different ways. One of the consequences of these phenotypically different endothelial responses is that therapeutic intervention targeting the microvasculature will have different effects in different organs, such as being beneficial in one organ yet detrimental in another. Our knowledge on inter- and intra-organ endothelial heterogeneity has expanded in recent years, yet how these heterogenic responses are molecularly controlled in vivo remains elusive. Future studies are needed to fully understand endothelial responses in the setting of sepsis if we want to identify targeted organ-specific therapeutic options to counteract the aberrant endothelial responses driving organ failure in patients with sepsis.
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