On the functions of adult crying: the intrapersonal and interpersonal consequences of tears

Tilburg University

On the functions of adult crying

Hendriks, M.C.P.

Publication date:

2005

Document Version

Publisher's PDF, also known as Version of record

Link to publication in Tilburg University Research Portal

Citation for published version (APA):

Hendriks, M. C. P. (2005). On the functions of adult crying: the intrapersonal and interpersonal consequences of tears. Universal Press.

General rights

Copyright and moral rights for the publications made accessible in the public portal are retained by the authors and/or other copyright owners and it is a condition of accessing publications that users recognise and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights. • Users may download and print one copy of any publication from the public portal for the purpose of private study or research. • You may not further distribute the material or use it for any profit-making activity or commercial gain

• You may freely distribute the URL identifying the publication in the public portal

Take down policy

If you believe that this document breaches copyright please contact us providing details, and we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate your claim.

r---7/'/

UNiVERSITE.11 * * &41 TILBIRG

_{•11. -1}

B)BLIOTHEEK

THE INTRAPERSONAL AND INTERPERSONAL

CONSEQUENCES OF TEARS

PROEFSCHRIFT

ter verkrijging vandegraad vandoctor

aan deUniversiteitvan_Tilburg,

op gezag van de_{rector magnificus,}

prof. dr. F. A. van der DuynSchouten,

in_{het openbaar te verdedigen ten overstaan van een}

door het collegevoor promotiesaangewezen commissie in de aula vande Universiteit

op vrijdag25 februari 2005 om 14.15 uur

door

MichelleCatharina PetronellaHendriks,

geboren op 3 juni 1977 te Roosendaal (N.Br.)

Pronnotor: Prof. Dr. A. J. J. M. _Vingerhoets

© Michelle C.P.Hendriks, 2005

Printed by Universal Press, Veenendaal

Cover illustration: MoniqueBrands

ISBN 90-9019033-3 NUR 600,770

The research reported in this thesis was conducted under the auspices of the

Research Institute for _Psychology

&

Health, an _{Institute accredited by the Royal}

Dutch Academy of Artsand Sciences.

All

rights preserved. No part of this thesis may be reprinted or reproduced or

utilized in any form or byany electronic, mechanical, orother_means, nowknown

or _{hereafter invented, including photocopying} and _{recording, or any} information

storage or retrieval system, except in caseof briefquotations embodiedincritical

articlesand_reviews,with_permission in_{writing from}the author.

Aanhet_{begin van dit boek wil} ik_{graag nog}eenaantal mensen bedanken voor hun

bijdrage _aan, steun en afteiding bij de totstandkoming van mijn proefschrift. Ten eerste ben ik uiteraard _{mijn promotor} Ad _Vingerhoets zeer _{dankbaar. Ad, je}

betrokkenheid, enthousiasme en _{geloof in mij} werkten _erg stimulerend. Je deur

stond (enstaat_{nogsteeds)altijd voor me open en}de snelheid waarmee

_je

feedback

gaf op mijn vragen en stukken zorgden ervoor dat ik me nooit lang hoefde te

vervelen. Ik wil

je

bedanken voordeprettigesamenwerking.

Mijn dank gaat ook uit naar de andere coauteurs. Marcel _{Croon, jou wil ik}

bedanken voor

_je

_{statistische ondersteuning en voor het}uitvoeren vandemultilevel

analyses. Geert van Boxtel, bedankt dat je me de _{mogelijkheid hebt gegeven om}

ERP-datateverzamelen en voorjebegeleiding bij ditexperiment.

Geen promotie zonder de technische ondersteuning van Ton Aalbers en Charles

Rambelje uit gang 4. Ik weetzelfhelemaal niets vanprogrammeren ofhetbouwen van een _{onderzoeksopstelling en een deel van} de onderzoeken had niet kunnen

plaatsvindenzonder

_jullie

_{hulp. Daamaast stonden}

_jullie

_{altijd voor}meklaar als ik

het weervoor elkaar_{kreeg om op}eencrucialemoment een

of

_{ander draadje stuk te}

maken. _{Het probleem}was _{meestal dezelfde dag nog verholpen}zodat ikverder kon

metmijnonderzoek. Bedankt.

Tevens ben ik mijndank verschuldigd aanallemensen dieals_{proefpersoon hebben}

deelgenomen aandeverschillende onderzoeken. Zonder hen had ikdit_proefschrift

niet kunnen_{schrijven, zij hebben immers de data geleverd. Vooralde studenten die} hebben meegedaan aan het _{filmexperiment ben} ikdankbaar omdat ze de_metingen

voorde_{pijnwaarneming}zonder al te veelmorren_{hebben ondergaan.}

Mijn werk op de UvT was een stuk _{minder plezierig geweest zonder} het contact

met fijne collega's. Ik wil al mijn_{(aio-)collega's dan ook bedanken voor de (soms}

wat _te)gezellige en _levendigesfeer. De_{lunchpauze stipt om 12 uur}was _{altijd een}

welkome onderbreking. Met name Helen en Annelies wil

ik

bedanken voor alle

aangenamemomentenzoweltijdens alsbuiten het_{werk. Helen, ik had} geenbetere

'overbuuf kunnen hebben. _{Het stipt om 8.42 uur even bijkletsen over de vorige}

avond en het samen _{lopen naar} het station _{zijn dingen die} ik zeker zal missen.

sterk _{uitgebreid (okked, asend),}

_je

luisterde _{altijd naar mijn} verhalen ofwas_juist

stil wanneer er hard_gewerktmoestworden.Jullie_zijngoedevriendengeworden en

ik ben blij dat_{jullie bij} de_{verdediging vanmijnproefschrift}achter mezullenstaan.

Mijn vrienden en familie ben ik dankbaar omdat ze het leven _{buiten mijn werk}

gezellig en betekenisvol maken.

_Mijn

ouders wil ik bedanken dat ze me hebben

gestimuleerd om voor het hoogst haalbare te gaan en dat ze eralle vertrouwen in

hebben gehad dat me dat ook zou_{lukken. Danielle, ik ben blij dat jij mijngrote zus}

bent. Ik kan altijd bij

je

_terecht, zowel om leuke dingen te ondememen als voor

steuninmoeilijke tijden. De band diewij delen ervaar ik als zeerbijzonder en zou

iknooitwillenmissen.

Bob, hoewel je zelf niet inziet waarom je inmijndankwoordzou moeten staan, kan

je als _{belangrijkste persoon inmijn levennatuurlijk niet ontbreken. Bij jou kan ik}

volledig mezelf zijn of ik nu een goed

_of

_{slecht humeur heb.Jij geeft meeen thuis} dat altijdde_{moeite waard is om naar toe te gaan.}

MichelleHendriks

CHAPTER 1

Introduction 7

PARTI. _{INTRAPERSONAL CONSEQUENCES}

CHAPTER 2 The influence

of

_{crying on mood and pain 17} perception

CHAPTER 3 The effects

of

_cryingoncardiovascular 35

functioning

PART

II.

INTERPERSONAL

_CONSEQUENCES

CHAPTER4 Social reactionsto_{adult crying: The help- 55} soliciting functionoftears

CHAPTER 5 The social_messages

of

_cryingfaces:Their 71

influence_{on person perception, experienced}

emotions and reportedovert behavior

of

others

CHAPTER 6 An_{ERP study on theimplicitprocessing of 93}

cryingfaces

CHAPTER 7 _{General discussion and conclusions 111}

Samenvatting(SummaryinDutch) 121

References 127

CHAPTER 1

Introduction

Crying is a very common and universal form

of

human emotional _expression.

People of all ages and from all cultures cry on certain occasions to express their

emotions (Vingerhoets

&

_{Cornelius, 2001; Vingerhoets, Cornelius, Van Heck, &} Becht, 2000). In the present thesis, crying is defined as a complex secretomotor

response with as its most _{prominent characteristic the shedding} of tears in an

emotional context without any

irritation of

the ocular structures _{(Patel, 1993;}

Vingerhoets et al., 2000). In addition,tears areoftenaccompanied by alterations in

the muscles

of

facial expression, _{by vocalizations, and in some cases} by sobbing (Patel, 1993). Since noother species has_the ability toshedemotional_tears, crying

is thought to be a uniquely human response _{(Bindra, 1972;} Vingerhoets et al.,

2000). In spite of this, todate,remarkable littlescientific _{attention has been paid to}

this phenomenon. More specifically, although scientists since Darwin have

theorized about the functions

of

tears,this question remainsunanswered up to the

present day. In order to getabetterinsight intothefunctions

of

crying,the present thesis examined its effects both on the crying person him/herself (intrapersonal

consequences) and on the social environment (inte,personal consequences). The

focus is on the consequences

of

emotional tears shedby adults leaving the crying ofbabiesandchildren out

of

consideration.

FUNCTIONS OF

EMOTIONAL

EXPRESSION IN GENERAL

Emotions are _{elicited during} the interaction of a _{person with his or her}

environment, and arise when a _{person encounters} an event that s/he _{appraises as}

important (i.e., either harmful or beneficial) to her/his concerns _{or goals (e.g.,}

Frijda, 1988; Scherer, 2000; Vingerhoets et al., 2000). Emotions help us _respond

adaptively to environmental challenges and opportunities by organizing our

thoughts and actions and shaping our behavior _{(e.g., Ekman, 1984;} Frijda, 1986;

Gross & Levenson, 1993; Levenson, 1994). Emotional _{responses are not unitary}

phenomena, but rather consist

of

several, partially independent, components or

response modalities suchas _{subjective experience, physiological responses,} action tendencies and expressivebehavior (e.g., Ekman, 1984; Gross

&

Levenson, 1993; Scherer, 2000; Vingerhoets et al., 2000). The component

of

emotional _expression refers to the behavioral _aspect

of

emotional reactions and is _{represented by, for}

In his seminal work on emotional expression, Darwin (1872/1965) stated

that 'certain complexactions are

of

direct orindirect serviceunder certain states of

the mind, in order to relieve or gratify certain sensations, desires, etc; and

whenever the same state of mind is _induced, however feebly, there is a tendency

through the force

of

habit and association for the same movements to be

performed, though they may not then be ofthe _{least use' (p. 28). In addition, he}

claimed that actions of allkinds thatare_{regularlyaccompanied by}a_particularstate

of mind

are recognized as expressive of this state of mind. Once acquired,

individuals _{may voluntarilyand consciouslyemploy} these _{expressions as} a means

of communication. In other words, as concluded _{by Izard} and _{Ackerman (2000),}

Darwin identified two adaptive functions

of

emotional expressions. In the first

place, expressions are designed to regulate the emotional experience, and, in the

second place,they provide a waytocommunicate witheachother.

Inrecent scientific literature,thesetwo functions

of

emotional expressions

are still advocated. Clinical and healthpsychologists have mainly emphasized the

effects

of

emotional expression on the expressing person him/herself and have claimed that expression results _{in catharsis, that is, that}

it

provides psychological

relief

_(for reviews see _Berry

&

Pennebaker, 1993; Kennedy-Moore

&

Watson, 1999). Byexpressing emotions, excessive energy isreleased, which,subsequently, makes aperson feel better. _{In addition,}there is evidence that the active inhibition

of

emotional _{expression requires physiological effort (Berry}

&

_{Pennebaker, 1993;}

Gross

&

Levenson, 1993; Vingerhoets

&

Scheirs, 2001), whichmayinterfere with

the recovery

of

psychological andphysiologicalbalance _(see variouscontributions

to Nyklicek, _Temoshok,

&

Vingerhoets, 2004). The underlying idea is that

suppressed emotions go underground and are discharged through other channels

such as increased_{physiological} arousal _(Berry & Pennebaker, 1993; Gross, 1998; Gross

&

Levenson, 1993; Jones, 1950). Extending this argument, it has been

hypothesized that expressingemotions is good forone's mental andphysicalhealth in the longrun(Berry

&

Pennebaker, 1993).

In contrast, social-psychological theories have asserted that emotional expressions are foremost communicative signals that are employed in everyday social interactions. _Concerning facial _expressions, there exist three main

perspectives on what kind

of

information is communicated. According to the

emotion _{expression view (e.g., Elanan, 1972; Izard,} 1977; Tomkins, 1962),

emotions

automatically give rise

to facial _behavior, which expresses the accompanying internal emotional feeling state. However, according to Fridlund's (1992, 1994) behavioral ecology view, facial expressions signal our social motives or intention_{to others and are by no}means _directlyrelatedto_{experienced emotions.} Lastly, the components view (e.g., Carroll

&

Russell, 1997; Frijda

&

Tcherkassof, 1997; Manstead, Fischer,

&

Jakobs, 1999) combines the emotion expression view andthe behavioral ecology view in stating thatboth emotional feelings and social

Introduction 9

these theoretically important differences, all three perspectives acknowledge the

communicative function

of

facial expressions and the possible influence

of

facial expressions on the social environment.

A

central assumption is that facial

expressions and emotional expressions _in general are designed to elicit or inhibit particularbehaviors in otherpeople, _which maymodifythe emotional situation at hand forthebetter for_{the expressing} individual_(e.g., Cornelius, 1996;Cornelius &

Labott, 2001; Frijda, 1997; Frijda

&

Mesquita, 1994; Kottler

&

Montgomery,

2001).

MODELOFADULT CRYING

Vingerhoets et al. (2000) were the first to present a comprehensive, albeit

preliminary, model

of

adult_{crying. This}model_mainlydescribed the antecedents of

crying andthe moderating factors that might influence theactual occurrence of the shedding

of

tears.According to thismodel, themainappraisals that lead to acrying

episode are that a _{person perceives} a _{impending loss in}a situationand/or sees no

possibilities tohandle the_{situation effectively (Vingerhoets et al.,2000). Situations}

thattypically elicit adult crying are thedeath ofa close loved one, thedissolution

of

romantic _{relationships} or conflicts within such _{relationships, loss of work or}

status, and sadfilmsor television_{programs that have loss as a}main_{theme (Nelson,}

1998, 2000; Vingerhoets et al., 2000; seealsovarious contributionsto Vingerhoets

& Cornelius, 2001). While adult _{crying may be} an _{expression ofmany} different

emotions, it isvery oftenaccompaniedbyfeelings

of

powerlessnessincombination

with sadness and _{grief (Nelson, 1998, 2000; Vingerhoets, Boelhouwer, Van}

Tilburg, & Van Heck, _{2001; Vingerhoets et al., 2000).}

Whether or not a person will cry when exposed to a particular emotional

stimulus is moderated _{by person factors (e.g., gender and physiological and}

psychological state) as well as context factors (e.g., the presence

of

others and

cultural display _rules; Vingerhoets et al., 2000). Themost consistentfinding in the cryingresearch is thatwomen crymorefrequently, more intensely, and foralonger

time than do men (see for a review Vingerhoets

&

Scheirs, 2000). Concerning

individualdifferences, studieshave_{yieldedthat empathy, extraversion,}neuroticism and femininity are all positively associated with _{crying proneness (Vingerhoets et}

al., 2000). In addition, there is some indication that being tired and deprived of

sleeplowers thethresholdforcrying(Wagner, Hexel, Bauer,&Kropiunigg, 1997),

and that the tendency to cry mightberelated tothemenstrualcycle andhormonal fuctuations _{(Eugster, Horsten,}

&

_{Vingerhoets, 2001; Van Tilburg,}

_{Becht, &}

Vingerhoets, 2003). Regarding context factors, it appeared that the presence of

other people could both facilitate and inhibit_{the shedding}

of

tears _{(Vingerhoets et}

al., 2001). Moreover, the salience of social norms _{concerning crying in} a certain

situation is important. People are less

likely to cry in

a situation in which they

FUNCTIONS OF ADULT CRYING

Following theproposed functions ofemotional expressionsin general, twopossible

functions

of

crying have been distinguished in the scientific literature (Gross,

Fredrickson, & Levenson, 1994; Vingerhoets et al., 2000). First, crying may speed

up the recovery

of

homeostasis after distress in the crying individual him/herself (intrapersonalconsequences).Amongthe_{putative mechanisms responsible}forthese

effects are that crying alleviates negative affects, and that crying decreases

sympathetic nervous system activation (Gross et al., 1994). Second, it has been

proposed that crying isprimarily designed to communicate the need for help and to stimulateotherstooffer this_{help(inte,personalconsequences).}

Intrapersonalconsequencesof crying

The beliefthat _{crying may} result in some form

of

tension reduction and emotional

catharsis is an old one. Although Darwin (1872/1965) considered tears as an

incidental and _{purposeless side-effect of crying out, he} also _{claimed that crying}

served as a relief_{to suffering, as} is evident fromthe _{followingcitation: 'And by as} much as the _{weeping is} more violent or _{hysterical, by so much will} the relief be

greater, - on the sameprinciple thatthewrithing ofthewhole body, thegrinding of

the teeth, andtheuttering

of

piercingshrieks, all give reliefunder anagony of pain'

(p.175). The basic assumption of a cathartic view on crying is that tears are the

outcome ofa _{hydraulic-like process} in which_{negative affects must be given some}

more orless_{direct expression (Cornelius, 2001).} Tears_{represent theoverflowing of}

emotions that havepassedacriticallevel. Throughcryingenergy that wasmobilized during distressisreleased, and anexcessive_buildup

of

emotionsis _{avoided (Sadoff,}

1966). Additionally, it hasbeen suggested that thefailure to cry when it iscalled for

results in a discharge of the emotional tension through other means, which is

hypothesized to be potentially harmful and leading to a variety

of

physical and

psychological complaints (Cornelius, 2001; Groen, 1957). To quote the famous

British_physicianSir HenryMaudsley, 'sorrowswhich find no ventintears may soon

make other_{organs weep' (in Frey II}&_{Langseth, 1985, p. 104).}

Severalotherresearchers (e. g.,Bindra, 1972; Gross et al., 1994; Kraemer &

Hastrup, 1988) have suggestedthat intense emotions lead to excessivelyhighlevels

of

_sympathetic activity, which may be _{followed by} a rebound

of

parasympathetic

activation that serves to dampen this activityand restore homeostasis. Although the lacrimal_gland,whichis_{responsible for}the_production

of

tears, isinnervated by both

the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous system, only the stimulation of

parasympathetic

fibers of

the seventh cranial nerve results in an increased tear secretion (Gross et al., 1994; Rottenberg, Wilhelm, Gross,

&

Gotlib, 2003; Van

Haeringen, 2001). It has been proposed that tears are the result ofthe temporary parasympathetic overcompensation after distress (Bindra, 1972; Efran

&

Spangler,

Introduction 11

parasympathetic nervoussystem and thus causethis rebound mechanism (Rottenberg et al., 2003).

Interpersonalconsequencesof crying

The effects

of

crying on the social environment have also received theattention of

researchers (Vingerhoets et al., _2000). Kottler (1996) speculated that crying is

uniquely human because human newborns develop relatively slow and therefore

for a considerably long time need the help

of

others to take care of them. In

agreement with Darwin _{(1872/1965), it has} been asserted that

crying is an

expressivedisplaywhose_{primary function is to communicate to}others andoneself

in an unambiguous way that one is vulnerable, suffering and in need of aid

(Fridlund, 1992; Frijda, 1997; Yik

&

Russell, 1999). The main function

of

crying

may be to beckon others to help remove agiven source

of

_{discomfort, and to} elicit

attention, empathy and support (Frijda, _1997; Kottler

&

Montgomery, 2001; Vingerhoets et al.,2000). Crying might additionally signalthe_{message to back off}

and inhibit _{aggressive impulses}

of

_{potential aggressors (Kottler}

&

_Montgomery,

2001). It is, however, also acknowledged that _tears, in particular tears that are

perceived as not sincere, may evoke frustration, irritation and submission from

others_{(Frijda, 1986,1997; Hill}&Martin, 1997; Nelson, 2000).

Froma differenttheoretical perspective, adult crying hasbeen regarded as

an attachment behavior. Attachment behaviors are designed to elicit caregiving

responses from significant others (Bowlby, 1969). Attachment behaviors such as

crying, smiling, and reaching typically trigger a reciprocal set

of

caretaking behaviors in others suchastouch, soothing and nurturance (Bowlby, 1969). These

behaviorsserveto establish andmaintainthe_parent-childbond(Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters, & Wall, 1978)andromanticadult bonds aswell _(Hazan

&

Zeifman, 1999). Attachment research has shown that crying is aninborn behavior that functions to

call for

and assure the protective and nurturing presence

of

caregivers (Bell &

Ainsworth, 1972; Bowlby, 1969; Cassidy, 1999; Zeifman, 2001), and it has been

proposed thattearscontinue to beanattachmentbehavior throughoutlife (Bowlby,

1969).

In _{short, crying might} be essential for _{human adaptation and} survival

because it possibly serves two important functions.

First it

may restore our

physiological and psychological balance after distress, and,

second it may

efficiently elicit help from others when needed. _{However, so far, only a few}

empirical studies have specifically focused on the intrapersonal and interpersonal consequences

of

tears. _{Therefore, the}objective ofthe present thesis wasto examine

RESEARCH STRATEGY OFTHEPRESENTTHESIS

According to Keltner and _{Gross (1999),} the functions

of

emotions (read: crying)

can be derived from studies on _specific causes and _{consequences of}a _particular

emotion within the current environment. Functions

of

behaviors areoften equated with their regular beneficial consequences, both in terms

of

proximal and distal benefits. Function-related consequences are those reliable effects that a behavior

was specifically 'designed' tobring about _(Averill, 1994;Keltner

&

Gross, 1999).

AccordingtoKeltnerand Gross (1999), one way to study thefunctions

of

emotions

is to

experimentally activate or deactivate that emotion and to systematically

explorethe intrapersonal and interpersonalconsequencesofthese manipulations.

Correspondingly, in the present thesis, some studies are described that

examinedthe effects

of

crying on thecryingpersonhim/herself and on the social

environment. The intrapersonal consequences

of

tears were investigated by

exposing participants to an _{emotionally arousing} film. _Participants who cried and

did not cry during this particular film _{were, subsequently, compared on variables}

such as mood andphysiological arousal. Inorder to determine the social reactions

to crying, we examined how individuals react to a crying person compared to a

non-crying person. Participants responded to descriptions

of

situations in which

another person cried or did not cry orrated photographs

of

crying and _non-crying faces.

OVERVIEW OF

TIIE

CHAPTERS OFTHE PRESENT

TIIESIS

The objective ofthe present thesis was to find out which functions crying might

serve in _{adult human beings. Therefore, empirical} studies were _{performed that} examined both the intrapersonal and interpersonal consequences of the shedding of emotionaltears. In the next two chapters, theeffects

of

crying onthecryingperson

him/herself are _presented. This concerned a _study in which female participants

were exposed toan emotionallyarousing film that wasexpected toinducea crying

response in a subgroup ofthe participants. Chapter 2 addresses the influence of

crying and the suppression

_of

_{tears on mood and pain perception. To this aim,}

mood and _{pain perception were measured before and}

after the film, and

participants were asked to indicate whether they cried and/or whether they

suppressedtheirtearsduring the film.

Chapter 3 describes the influence

of

crying onthephysiological arousal of the crying person him/herself. Several physiological parameters were measured

while _{participants watched}a neutral and an_{emotionallyarousing film. In order to}

determine specifically the effects

of

crying on theactivity ofthe sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system, the pre-ejection period and respiratory sinus

Introduction 13

The following three chapters deal with the social reactions to crying. In

Chapter 4, a scenario study is presented on the influence ofthecrying

of

another

person on the participants. A questionnaire containing six different situations in whichanother personcried or did not crywasadministered to the respondents. The

sex of the (non-)crying person and the relationship with the (non-)crying person

were varied between subjects.In addition, the sex ofthe_{respondent was considered} an important variable. Participants had to indicate for each situation how they

perceived the(non-)crying person, how they felt, and how they would behaviorally

respond to the(non-)crying person.

The objective ofthe study described in Chapter 5 was to determine how

people respond to crying expressions as compared to other facial expressions.

Respondents were exposed to photographs of male and female faces depicting

neutral, crying, angry and fearful expressions. Participants reported how they

perceivedthe_{person on the photo, and how they}would feelandreact inthe_presence

of

theperson. It was examinedwhether the type

of

expression, the sex ofthe poser,

the sex ofthe respondent, and the interactions betweenthese factors determined the social reactions to facial_expressions.

Chapter6 addressesthecortical_processing

of

facial _{expressions, including} crying faces. Participants viewed photographs

of

faces depicting six different

expressions, namely neutral, crying, non-crying (i.e., crying faces with the tears

digitallyremoved), anger, fear and laughing. Meanwhile, electroencephalographic

(EEG) recordings were made. The aim of this study was to determine whether the characteristics of_{two face-specific}event-related _{potential (ERP) components (i.e.,} N170 and VPP) differed for crying expressions, on the one hand, and neutral expressionsandexpressions

of

basic emotions, on the other hand.

Finally, Chapter 7 summarizes the most _{important findings ofthe present} thesis anddiscussesthe implications forthe functions

of

crying. Thelimitations of

the here presented studies are considered and suggestions for further research are

18 Chapter 2

psychological complaints (Cornelius, 2001; Groen, 1957). To quote the famous British_physicianSir HenryMaudsley, 'sorrowswhich find no vent intears may soon

make_{other organs weep' (in Frey II}

&

Langseth, 1985, p. 104).

Several studies have examined the supposed mood-relieving effects of

crying (fora review see Cornelius, 1997a, 2001). These studies have yieldedmixed

results,apparently depending on the design of thestudy. Cornelius (1997a)identified

eight retrospective studies in which participants were asked to remember a recent

crying episode orto report howthey generally feel aftera_crying episode. All these

studies suggested that _crying makes_{people feel better. In} a similar vein, data from

the International Study onAdult _{Crying (ISAC) collected in} 30 countries revealed

that both men and women reportedly experienced marked positive changes in their

mood following crying (Becht & Vingerhoets, 2002). However, of six

quasi-experimental studies in which participants were exposed to a sad film, one _study

demonstratedno effect andfivestudiesrevealed a_negativeeffect of_{the shedding of}

emotional _{tears on mood (Cornelius,} 1997a, 2001). In the study

of

Gross et al.

(1994), for instance, people who cried while watching a sad

film

reported having

experienced more sadness, embarrassment and painduring the filmthan individuals

who did not cry.

One possible explanation for these divergent

findings is that in the

retrospectivestudiesthe reported mood-effects

of

cryingweremostlydetermined by

implicit theories held by the participants rather than by the actual effect on mood.

Relevant inthis context is _{that research on the relationship between crying and the}

menstrual cycle has revealed that _{women retrospectively report more crying during} the premenstrual period, whereas diary studies show no relation between crying

frequency and the menstrual _{cycle (Van Tilburg et al., 2003). In} other words, the

recall

of

symptomsduringthe_{menstrual cycle appeared to be affected by}awoman's

beliefabout which _symptoms she _{should experience (MarvAn} & Escobedo, 1999).

Sincethe popular account

of

crying suggests thatwe should feel better after crying

(see Cornelius, 1986, April), the self-reportofcrying experiences may bebiased in

favor of this idea. In contrast, inthe laboratory studies, theparticipants had to rate theirmood before andafter exposure to a sad film and were not directlyrequested to indicatetheeffects

of

_cryingontheir_{mood. Therefore,}the_implicittheoriesoncrying

werenot incited inthese_{quasi-experimental}studies and_{consequently did not play a}

role. Alternative explanations forthe inconsistencyinresults emphasize aspects like thetime interval between thecrying episode and themood assessment,theintensity

and duration ofthe crying episode, and the possible moderating role of the social environment (e.g.,Cornelius, 2001; Kraemer

&

Hastrup, 1988).

As mentioned previously, the suppression

of

tears is believed to have a

negativeinfluence on therelief

of

emotionaltension. It isabasic assumption that the active inhibition

of

emotions and behavior in general requires physiological effort (Berry & Pennebaker, 1993; Gross & Levenson, 1993; Vingerhoets & Scheirs,

The influence

of

crying OIl mood and pain perception'

INTRODUCTION

Crying in adults is a _ubiquitous and _{distinctly human form}

of

_{emotional expression} (Kraemer

&

_Hastrup, 1988; Vingerhoets

&

Cornelius, 2001; Vingerhoets et al.,

2000). Despite _{its widespread occurrence, however, several basic questions}

concerning crying

still have to

be answered. More specifically, the functional

significance of the shedding

_of

_emotional tears has yet to become a subject of

systematicresearch.

Scientists have distinguishedtwo possible functions

of

crying _{(Gross et al.,}

1994; Vingerhoets et al., _{2000). First, crying may facilitate the recovery of}

psychological and physiological homeostasis after distress in the crying individual

him/herself. One mechanism that hasbeen_{opted to}be_responsiblefortheseeffects is that crying _{alleviates negative affects (Gross et al., 1994). Second, it has been}

proposed thatcrying is primarily designed tocommunicate the need for help and to stimulate others to offer this help and/orto provide comfort and emotional support

(Frijda, 1997; Kottler, 1996; Nelson, 2000). In_{the present study, the hypothesis that} cryingfacilitatesthe_recovery

of

homeostasis_{and promoteswell-being}was_explored.

The belief that crying may

result in some form of

pain reduction and

emotionalcatharsis is an oldone. Darwin (1872/1965), forinstance, formulated it as

follows: 'And by as much as the _{weeping is more violent or hysterical, by so much}

will

thereliefbe greater, - on the sameprinciple thatthewrithing ofthewhole body,

the grinding ofthe_{teeth, and}theuttering

of

piercing_{shrieks, all}givereliefunder an

agony of pain' (p.175).

A

basic assumption ofthe cathartic model

of

crying is that

tears are the outcome ofa hydraulic-likeprocess inwhich negative affects must be

given some more or less direct _{expression (Cornelius, 2001).} Tears _{represent the}

overflowing of emotions that have passed a critical level. In this _way, there is a release ofthe_{energy that}was_{mobilized duringdistress, and}an excessive_{buildup of} emotionsis _{avoided (Sadoff, 1966).A} relatedbelief is thatthe _{failure to cry when it}

is calledforresults ina_{discharge of}theemotional tension_throughothermeans. This

discharge maybe_{harmful in one way}or_{another, leading to}a_variety

of

_{physical and}

' Hendriks, M. C. P. & _{Vingerhoets, A. J. J. M. (submitted). The influence} of_{crying on}

mood and pain perception.

The present study has been_{approved by}themedical ethical committee oftheTweeSteden

Crying, mood and pain perception 19

balance._Accordingly, Gross and _{colleagues(Gross, 1998;} Gross & Levenson, 1993,

1997) havedemonstrated thattheinhibition

of

emotional expressive behavior results

in an increased activation of the sympathetic nervous system. Other research has revealed that the inhibition

of

negative emotions is even possibly associated with health-related problems such as _{cancer, high blood pressure and ulcers (Berry &}

Pennebaker, 1993).Unfortunately,no_previousresearch hasfocused ontheeffects of

the inhibition

of

crying on mood. While Kraemer and Hastrup (1988) and _Labott,

Ahleman, Wolever, and Martin _{(1990) instructed participants to} express or inhibit their crying in_{response to a sad film and measured mood, they did not check whether}

the non-crying individuals in the inhibition condition had the urge to cry to begin

with. As pointed out by Berry and _{Pennebaker (1993), low expressivity may not}

necessarily be the same as high _{inhibition. It istherefore important to determine the}

effects oftheinhibition

of

_{crying on}the_{cryingperson him/herself,} since itmight be that crying does not necessarilyrestore thephysicalorpsychological balance but that

the inhibition

of

tearsinfluences this recovery negatively.

The laboratory studies onthemood-effects

of

_cryingreviewed_byCornelius (1997a, 2001) all used a sad film to induce a_{cryingepisode.}Another line ofresearch

that has also usedsadfilm-fragments asstimulus material examined theinfluence of mood on pain perception. In thisway, Zillmann, Rockwell, Schweitzer, and Sundar (1993) and Weaver and Zillmann (1994; formale participants only) found that the pain threshold and tolerance increased following exposure to a sad film. However, Weaver and_{Zillmann (1994; for}female_{participants only)}and_{Weisenberg, Raz, and}

Hener (1998) revealed that exposure to a sad film did not have any influence on the reported discomfort _threshold; and _{Zillmann, De Wied, King-Jablonski, and}

Jenzowsky (1996) demonstrated a diminished pain tolerance after watching a sad

film*. One may speculate that these inconsistent results can be explained by

differences inthe amount

of

crying bythe_{participants. It may be that}the _{changes in}

pain threshold and pain tolerance after exposure to emotional stimulationdepend on

the reactions of the individual to this stimulation. More precisely, it could be

hypothesized that the pain threshold and pain tolerance only increase ifthe person

expresses _{his/her emotion,} for instance through crying, whereas suppressing one's

emotion mayresult inadecreasedtolerance.

In the present study, we aimed to determine the effects

of

crying and the

suppression

_of

_{tears on mood and pain perception. Female participants were exposed} to an emotionally arousing film that was expected to induce a crying episode in a

subgroup ofthe _{participants. Mood and pain perception were measuredbefore and}

after the film,and participants wereasked to indicate whether they had cried and/or

whether they had suppressed their tears during the film. We expected that crying

' Note that all studies mentioned here measured _{pain perception} after and not while

watching the film fragments, and thus did not concernthe influence ofdistraction on pain

would have no effect on mood and pain perception, but that the inhibition

of

crying

would havea_{negative influence on both mood and pain perception.}

A second objective ofthe present study was to determine whether implicit

theories ontheeffects

of

crying held byparticipantscouldexplainthe previous found inconsistency concerning the mood effects

of

crying. Before watching the film

participants were asked to indicate how a crying episode generally affects their

mood. In_{addition, those participants who} hadcriedduring the film were fourweeks

later requested to report on the mood effects of this particular crying spell. This allowed for the comparison ofthe self-reported effects

of

crying on mood with the

effects

of

crying found during the film session. It was anticipated that participants

would report that their mood improved after a crying spell, whereas in the film

sessionnobeneficial mood-effectswouldbefound.

METHOD

Overview

The present study consisted

of

three separate sessions. Inthe first andlast session,

participants filled in some questionnaires. During the second _{session ('film} session') participants watched two films, a neutral and an emotionally arousing

film, and mood and painperception were measured.Painperceptionwas measured

atthe following timepoints: (1)before the_{neutral film; (2) in} between the neutral

and the emotionally arousing film; and ₍₃₎ after the emotionally arousing film.

Precedingand _followingeach_{pain-perception}measurement_participants ratedtheir

current mood. The neutral film _{was always shown before theemotionally arousing}

film

in order to familiarize participants with the procedures and the experimental setting. Since the present

study was part of

a larger project, some

psychophysiological variables were measuredwhiletheparticipants watched the two

films. The results

of

these variables fall outside the scope ofthis paper and will be

presentedelsewhere.

Participants

Sixty female psychology students took part in the present study. Forty of them

were _first-year students, who received course credit for participation, and the

remaining20 studentswere second-_{or third-year}students,whoreceived afinancial reward (30 euro) for participation. Data ofthree (all first-year) students had to be excluded due to equipment failure. The age ofthe finalgroup varied from 18 until

32 years (M = 20.7, SD = 2.9). Exclusion criteria werethe presence ofany severe

chronic physical _{or psychiatric illness, the use}

of

medication otherthan hormonal

contraceptives, andbeingpregnant.

Stimulus material

Crying, mood and pain perception 21

researchers who studied animals in their natural habitat. As for the emotionally

arousing film, 'Once were _{warriors' (OWW;} Scholes & _{Tamahori, 1994) was}

selected. This film

depicts the life of

a Maori

family in

New Zealand that is tyrannized by the father. It shows dramatic scenes

of

extreme violence, rape and

suicide. Previous research _{revealed that female students experience strong}

emotional reactions while _{watching this film (Van Tilburg & Vingerhoets, 2002).} Forthe present study, aselection

of

scenes of OWWwasshownresulting in a film of about 70 minutes. Both filmswere _{displayed on a 70 cm (27.6 inch) television}

monitor placed _{approximately 3.30 m (10.8 ft) away fromthe participant. Sound} was presentedthrougha_{Dolbysurround-system.}

Measurements

Crying behavior during the film OWW

Participants wereasked topress a buttonevery time they cried while watching the

film OWW. In the instructions, crying was referred to as anything from tears in

one's _eyes until_{running eyes and sobbing.}After the

film

_{participants additionally} indicated how often they felt the urge to cryduring the film OWWbut suppressed

their tears, and how often they actually had tears in their eyes during the film

OWW.

Pain-perception assessment

For the measurement of pain perception the procedure described by Nyklicek,

Vingerhoets, and Van Heck (1999) was _{employed. Using} a _Tursky concentric

electrode_{(Tursky, 1974), constant} electriccurrent wasdelivered tothe ventral side

of the left forearm ofthe participants. The skin below the electrode was lightly

abraded inorder to keep the skinresistance below 5 kOhm. The current was a 60 Hz bipolar 50%-dutysquare pulse, which couldreachamaximum of 6 mA. In the

presentstudy, only theslow automaticintensity-regulation

of

Nyklicek et al. (1999)

was administered. This means that the current was raised automatically in a linear fashion _{starting from 0 mA to}themaximum of 6 mA in 40 s _{unless the participant} terminated the stimulus earlier. Participants were asked to indicate by pushing a

button (a) when the stimuluswasperceived for thefirst time(sensory threshold); (b)

when it was experienced as painful (pain _{threshold); and (c) when it} reached the

point to be 'unpleasant to a degree that one wanted to terminate the current' (pain

tolerance), at which point the stimulation stopped immediately. In order to get a

more reliable measurement, three trials were performed at each time point, and

meanswere calculated and takenas_{input for}the statistical _analyses. Sincethe focus

of

the present study was on the effects of the film OWW and the accompanying

crying behavior on painperception, the statistical analyses werelimited to the

Mood ratings

Participants reported their current mood preceding and following the three pain-perceptionmeasurements. Each time, the following 18 mood indicatorswere rated

on aLikert scale_{varying from 1 (not at all) to 10 (verymuch): relaxed, powerless,}

pitiful, happy, disgust, sad, relieved,astonished, angry, guilty,undercontrol,tense,

fearful,cheerful, restless, bad tempered, touched and nervous. Average scores were

calculated for _{positive and negative} mood-indicators _{separately. The} positive

mood-scores included the mood_{indicators relaxed, happy, relieved, under} control and cheerful (a ranged between .71 and .81), and the negative mood-scores

included the items powerless, pitiful, disgust, sad, astonished, angry, guilty, tense,

fearful, restless, bad tempered, touched and nervous _(a ranged between .78 and

.89). Since we were interested in the

effects of the film OWW and the

accompanying crying behavior on mood, the statistical analyses focused on the

mood ratings taken right before and right after participants watched the film

OWW.

General effects of crying on mood

During the first session, participants were requested to indicate whether they

generallyexperiencesome specificmoods less (-1), the same (0) or more(+1) after

a_cryingspellas_comparedwithbefore. The same 18 moodindicatorsasmentioned

above were rated. Average scores were calculated for_{positivemoods and negative}

moods separately.

Mood change due to crying reported four weeks later

Four weeks after the

film

session, the participants who had cried during the film

were requested to indicate whether they had experienced the above-mentioned 18

moods less (-1), the same (0) or more (+1) after this particular crying spell as

compared with before. Average scores were calculated for _{positive moods and}

negative moods separately.

Procedure

After their entry, potential participants were screened regarding the exclusion

criteria. If they did not meet any

of

these criteria, the students received detailed

information about the procedures ofthe study and were given one week to think

overtheir participation. Those who volunteered to participate subsequently signed

informed consent and appointments were made for three separate sessions. The

first session was a group or individual session in which the participants filled in

some questionnaires and amongotherthings answered the questions concerning the general effects

of

cryingon their mood.

The second session

_('film

_{session') was}anindividual sessionduring which

the participants watched the two films and mood and pain perception were

Crying, mood and pain perception 23

the procedure for the

film

session once again. Subsequently, after lightly having

abraded the skin with alcohol, the necessary electrodes for measuring pain

perception and for recording the heart rate and impedance cardiograph were

attached. Participants were seated in a comfortable chair and ratedtheir mood for

the first time. The current-delivery apparatus was connected and the participants

were carefully instructed concerning the procedure of the pain-perception assessment. Next, thepainperceptionwasdetermined forthefirsttimeafterwhich

the mood

was rated. Subsequently, the apparatus for measuring the

psychophysiological variables were attached. The researcher started the neutral

film and left the room. _Duringthe _{films, participants could communicate with the}

researcher_throughanintercom.

At the end ofthe _{neutral film,}the researcher re-entered the room and the

participants filled in the mood questionnaire, completed the pain-perception

procedure and

filled in the

mood questionnaire again. Before the emotionally

arousing film _{was shown, the experimenter instructed the} participants to press a

button every time they cried (i.e., at least felttheireyes becoming_wet) during the

film. Then, the film OWW

was started and the researcher left the room again.

Immediately

_{after the film,}

the apparatus to measure the psychophysiological

variables were detached. The _participant rated their _mood, answered some

questions

about the film OWW

and indicated whether they had cried and/or

whether they had suppressed their tears during the film OWW. Next, the pain

perception wasmeasured andparticipants rated_{their mood for the last time. In the}

end, all electrodes and the _{current-delivery apparatus were} removed and

participantswere thankedfortheir participation.

Approximately four weeks after the

film

session, participants came back and those who had cried during the film OWW answered the questions about the mood change caused bythis particular cryingepisode.

RESULTS

Twenty-eight (49.1%) of the 57 participants indicated that they had at least cried

once during the film OWW, and 38 (66.7%)participants indicated that they had at

leastonce suppressed theirtears during the film OWW. The participants who had

cried during the film OWW indicated that they had shed tears between 1 and 4

times _{(median = 2), and} the participants who had suppressedtheir tears indicated

that they had donethis between 1 and6times _{(median =2). Moreover, 14 (24.6%)} students reportedly had never suppressed _{their tears and had never cried; 15}

(26.3%) participants hadatleastonce suppressedtheirtears but had nevercried; 5

(8.8%) students had neversuppressedtheirtears but had atleastonce cried; and 23

(40.4%) individuals had at leastonce suppressedtheirtears and had at least once

Effects_{of cryingand suppression}oftears

Separate repeated measures analyses

of

variance were performed on the positive

and negativemood-scores and on the three pain-perceptionindices with time point (before and _{after the film) as} a within-subjects factor and crying (no/yes) and suppression

of

tears (no/yes) as between-subjects factors. The results of the

repeatedmeasures analysesaresummarizedinTable 1 andTable 3, andthe means

of mood and painperception arerepresentedinTable 2 and 4.

Mood

The positive-mood score ofthe participants did not change from before to after

watching the film OWW and was not influenced by crying or suppressing of one's

tears. _{Participants did report} a _{higher negative-mood} score after the film OWW

than before. In addition, the three-way interaction betweentime point, crying and

suppression

of

tearssignificantly influencedthe reported negative mood. To further

examine thisinteraction _{effect, we}performed repeated measures analyses for non-suppressing and non-suppressing individuals separately with time point as a

within-subjects factor and crying as a _{between-subjects} factor. For the participants who did notsuppresstheirtearstheconcerning interactionapproachedsignificance (F = 4.35, p = _.05,partial 42 = _.20) indicating that the negative mood increased more

for crying participants than for non-crying participants _{(see Figure 1). The}

interaction betweentime point and crying was not significant for the participants

who suppressedtheirtears (F = 0.79, p = .38,partial 42 = .02 ;seeFigure 2).

Table 1. _{Summary of}the repeatedmeasuresanalyses on mood

Positivemood _{Negative mood}

Source df

F

_{partial df}

F _partial

Crying, mood and pain perception 25

Table 2. Mean mood-scores _(with standard deviations in_parentheses) as _reported

before andafter watching the film OWW

Positivemood _{Negative mood}

Before After Before After

Non-crying Non-suppressing (n = 14) 5.9 (1.2) 5.8(1.9) 2.1 (0.8) 3.3 (1.3) Suppressing (n = 15) 4.9 (1.6) 4.8 (1.5) 2.1 (0.7) 4.1 (1.4) Cryingparticipants Non-suppressing (n =5) 5.2 (1.4) 5.1 (0.6) 2.0 (0.8) 4.0 (1.7) Suppressing (n = 23) 5.2 (1.6) 4.6 (1.6) 2.7 (1.3) 4.5 (1.3) Pain perception

None ofthe_{pain-perceptionindices changed}frombeforetoafter_{watching the film}

OWW. Concerning the pain_{threshold, the}interactionstime point x crying and time point x suppression

of

tears both reached significance. In order to get a better

insight intothese_{interactions, repeated measures analyses wereperformed for each}

level ofthe between-subjects factorseparately withtimepoint asawithin-subjects

factor. These_{follow-upanalyses demonstrated that thepain}threshold increased for

non-crying participants (F = 4.90, p < .05,partial 42 = .15), but not for crying

participants OF = 2.63, p = .12,partial 42 = .09; see Figure 3). The_{pain threshold}

did_{not change for}both_{non-suppressing and suppressingindividuals (F = 0.70, p =}

.80, partial 42 = .00 and F = 0.34, p = _.56, partial 92 = _.01, respectively; see

Figure 4).

While the main effects

of

crying and suppressing one's tears did not

iniluence the sensorythreshold, they did have an effect on thepain threshold and

pain _{tolerance. Across measurements, crying participants had a} higher pain

threshold and tolerance than non-crying participants, and participants who

suppressed their tears had a lower pain threshold and tolerance than participants

who didnotsuppress theirtears. Additionally, forpainthreshold and pain tolerance

a_{significant interaction}between_{cryingand suppression}

of

tearswasfound. In both instances, crying influenced thepainperception ofthe non-suppressing individuals (both Fs > 9.79, ps < _.01,partial,/zs > .37), but not ofthe suppressing individuals

(both Fs < 0.11, ps > _.74, partial ,/zs < _.003). Figure 5 and 6 demonstrate that

participants who never suppressed their tears but did cry reported a higher pain

Negative mood

of

non-suppressingparticipants 5 -0- Non-crying -*-- Crying

4

K 3-8

J

2-1 Before ARer Time point

Figure 1. Means of _negative mood _{reported before and} after _{watching the film}

0WW as afunctionof_cryingfor_{non-suppressingparticipants (n = 19)}

Negative mood

of

suppressingparticipants

5 -0- Non-crying

4 I SE

-1,# Crying g M 3-= 2-1 Before A#er Time point

Figure 2. Means

of

_{negative mood reported before and} after watching the film

Table3._{Summary of}the_{repeated measuresanalyses onpain perception}

Sensory threshold Painthreshold Pain tolerance

Source

df

P _partial df F _partial

df

F _partial

f

Table 4.Mean scores forpain perception in mA_(withstandarddeviationsinparentheses)reported beforeand

after Z

watching the film OWW

Sensorythreshold Painthreshold Pain tolerance

Before After Before After Before After

Crying, mood and pain perception 19 Pain threshold -0- Non-crying --1,-_Crying 2.1 2.0-4 1.8 1 ;I, -15 Before After Time point

Figure3._{Means of painthreshold reported before andafter watching the film}

0WW as afunctionof_crying

Pain threshold

-0-Non-suppressing -I-_Suppressing

2.1 2.0 - -

---4

1.9 1.8 0 1.7 1.6 - -

)

1.5 Before AAer Time point

Figure4.Means of_{pain threshold reported before andafter watching the film}

Pain threshold 3.2 -0-Non-suppressing

_./*

2.7 - -WI- Suppressing 5 2.2 / 1.7-:E 12 Non-crying Crying Cryingstatus

Figure 5. Pain threshold averaged overtime points _{(i.e., before and} after the film

OWW) asafunction

of

_{cryingand suppression}

of

tears

Pain tolerance 5.0 -0- Non-suppressing SE 4.5- -IHSuppressing 8 4.0-2 3.5 -S 3.0

*

2 5 • 2.0 Non-crying Crying Cryingstatus

Figure 6. Pain tolerance averaged overtime _{points (i.e., before and} after the film

Crying, mood and pain perception 31

Influenceof

_implicit

theories on the_reportedmood-effects

of

_crying

Participants indicated that theygenerally feltmorepositive andless_{negative after a}

crying spellas _comparedwithbefore _(seeTable 5 formeans). Fourweeks after the

film session, the crying participants indicated that both their positive mood and negative mood did not change as a consequence

of

their crying during the film

OWW; the reported changes in _{both positive mood and negative mood did not} differ from zero (t = 0.35, p = 0.73 and t = -0.14, p =_{0.89, respectively).}

To compare the reported general effects and the effects _{reported four} weeks after crying during the film OWW _(i.e., specific _effects), separaterepeated

measures analyses

_of

_{variance were conducted on the} changes in positive and

negative mood with measurement (general versus _{specific effects) as} a

within-subjects factor. These analyses _{demonstrated that the reported general} effects of crying differed fromthereportedspecific effects (F = 45.72, p < _.001,partial 42 =

.64 and

F=

33.53,p<.001,partial 42 = .56, _forpositive moodand negative mood respectively).

Table 5. Meanscores _(withstandard deviationsin_parentheses)for_{reported effects}

of crying on mood

General effects Effects

of

crying

o f_crying fourweeks later

Positive _Negative Positive _Negative

mood mood mood mood

Non-crying Non-suppressing (n = 14) 0.8 (0.3) -0.5 (0.2) Suppressing (n = 15) 0.7 (0.3) -0.6 (0.3) Crying participants Non-suppressing (n = 5) 0.6 (0.3) -0.4 _(0.4) -0.1 _{(0.4) 0.1 (0.2)} Suppressing (n = 23) 0.7_(0.4) -0.5 _{(0.2) 0.1 (0.4) -0.02 (0.2)} DISCUSSION

The main objective of the present study was to explore the effects

of

crying and inhibition

of

tears on mood and pain perception. We anticipated that crying would not influence the _{reported mood and pain perception, whereas the suppression of}

tearswould havea_{negative effect on both mood andpainperception.}

As in _{previous laboratory studies (see for} a _{review Cornelius, 1997a,}

2001), participants who cried during the emotionally arousing film _{felt worse}

afterwardsas _compared with_{before, but so did participants who did not cry. The}

individuals who did not cry and did not suppress theirtears) reported a smaller increasein_{negative mood than the other participants. These}results are in line with a study

of

Gross (1998) onthe influence

of

different forms

of

emotion regulation

onemotional experience. In that study, participants who reappraised a disgusting

film in such a way that

they would feel no emotion (i.e., antecedent-focused

emotion regulation) experienced less negative feelings than a control group, whereas _{participants who suppressed} their expressive behavior (i.e.,

response-focused _{emotion regulation) experienced as much negative} emotion as a control group. It can be postulated that the participants who did not have to urge to cry in

the present study successfully reappraised the film and, therefore, did not

experience as much negative mood as the other _{participants. The fact that}

participants who did not cry felt

as worse as _{crying participants} after the

emotionally arousing

film

suggests that the non-crying participants mainly used response-focused emotion-regulation strategies. According to _{Gross (1998), the}

two forms

of

emotional regulation each have different consequences for psychological and physical well-being. Therefore, it isimportant in future research

to takeinto account thedifferentstrategies people adopt to managetheir emotional experiencewhenfacedwithemotional events.

An alternative explanation of the found mood-effects is that the mood

manipulation was not assuccessful for all participants. Possibly, theinduction of a

negative mood was less successful in individuals who did not have the urge to cry

than inthe individuals who did (Martin

&

Labott, 1991;Nyklicek, Vingerhoets, &

Denollet, 2002). Extending this argument, it is plausible that the individuals who cried were more moved by the film than the individuals who hadthe tendency to

cry but were able to suppress their tears. The finding that the reported negative

mood after the film was

not higher for the crying participants than for the

participants who inhibited their tears might indicate that crying did partially

neutralize the experienced distress, namely to the

level of

the participants who

successfully suppressed their tears. Future research should therefore take into

account howparticipants feel right before the moment they start to cry or have the tendency to crybutsuppress theirtears and then determine the effects

of

crying on mood.

Concerning pain perception,

it

appeared that watching the emotionally

arousing film did not influence the sensory threshold or pain tolerance. The pain

threshold only increased for the participants who did not cry during the film. In

otherwords, in line with our expectations, crying duringthe emotionally arousing

film

_{hardly influenced the pain perception}

of

_{participants, but, unexpectedly,}

suppressing one's tears also did not change the pain perception. In contrast, the results revealed that, across measurements, crying participants had a higher pain

threshold and tolerance than non-crying participants, and participants who

suppressed their tears had a lower pain threshold and tolerance than participants

Crying, mood and pain perception 33

never suppressed _{their tears and had cried during the emotionally arousing film}

reported a much higher pain threshold and tolerance than the other participants. However, since this group only consisted of five individuals, no definitive

conclusion canbedrawnfromtheseresults.

In short, the present study revealedanassociation betweencrying behavior

and pain perception. Vingerhoets et al. (2000) have suggested five models to explain a _relationship between _crying and _{well-being (read: pain perception). The}

firsttwomodels assumethatcrying,directlyor indirectly,changespainperception.

According tothethirdmodel, the relationship betweencrying and pain perception might be a spurious one meaning that a third variable (e.g., _{personality factors or}

coping styles) influences both crying and pain perception. Furthermore, crying

might onlyhave effects on painperception when a person is exposed to stressful

conditions and experiences distress. Finally, their lastmodel refers to the situation

in_{which crying} is_{determined bypain perception instead of}the other_wayaround.

The findings ofthe_{presentstudy revealed that, based on thecrying behavior during}

theemotionally arousing _film, groups

of

participants couldbe formedthat already

differed inpain perceptionatbaseline. Inother words, therewaslittleevidence that

crying is

a determinant of _{pain perception. Because there were hardly any}

significant interactions between time point and painperception, themodel stating thatcrying bufferstheeffects

of

experiencing_{distress also does not} seemplausible.

Hence, most likely is that pain perception (as a more stable person _{characteristic)}

influences crying during watching a film or that a third variable is in play. Since

Labott and Martin _{(1987) reported that crying during a sad film} was associated

with the general tendency to cry,

it

might be that the general tendency to cry and

the general tendency toinhibitcryingarerelated topainperception. In otherwords,

it can be speculated that the general tendency to express experienced distress via crying (as a feature

of

personality) results in botha higher chance tocry during a sad film anda_{better pain tolerance.}

A second aim of the present study was to examine whether beliefs on

crying influenced the self-reported mood-effects

of

crying. As anticipated and foundin_{previous studies (see Cornelius, 1997a, 2001), participants indicated that}

they generally _{feel better after a} crying episode while crying during watching the emotionally arousing film did not improve theirmood. However, contrary to our

expectations, four weeks after the film session _{crying participants} indicated accurately that their mood did not change as a consequence

of

these particular

tears. This suggest that implicit theories held by the participants did not bias the

self-report of this particular crying episode in favor of the idea that crying is

relieving. As pointed out by Cornelius (1997a), in previous retrospective studies

participants could choose themselves on which crying episode they reported. Possibly,when askedabout the general effects

of

crying orthe effects of the most

recent _{crying episode, people ignored} these instructions and instead _{reported on}