Water scarcity in Yemen.
A study of measures towards mitigating the water crisis.
Water scarcity pertains to freshwater resources that are unable to meet demands. Yemen is considered the most water scarce, and poorest Middle Eastern country. Unemployment rates are high, agriculture is high-water consuming, the climate is mainly arid and dry, and the government lacks capital to implement major investments to mitigate water scarcity. Currently, desalination and wastewater treatment plants are operative, but are not sufficient measures. An inventory of water scarcity mitigation measures used in other water scarce countries and locations, and discussed in news publications, provides food for thought. Most of these measures are inapplicable in Yemen, due to high investment costs. Some, however, require low investment or have high investment-return rates, and may succeed in helping water scarcity mitigation.
Keywords: water scarcity, Yemen, agriculture, groundwater, irrigation, water security
Submission date: 29-06-2014
Amsterdam: University of Amsterdam Bachelor Paper
Word count: 8018
Course: Politicologische expertise in de arena van klimaatverandering Student: Merle Gerritsen (Student Number 10002574)
2 Contents
- Introduction 3
- ONE. Water Scarcity – and theory 4
- TWO. Yemen - background and water situation 6
- THREE. Methods - and anticipated findings 11
- FOUR. Inventory 12
- FIVE. Discussion 16
- SIX. Conclusions and final remarks 19
3 Introduction
After the Arab revolutions, Yemen found itself without its longstanding and firm leader. Early 2012, president Hadi was formally elected and was installed as chief of state of the Republic of Yemen. This heralded the beginning of national public dialogue on constitution, politics, and social issues, which officially ended February this year. Originally, the Arab revolutions were sparked by social dissatisfaction regarding poverty, corruption, and dignity. The first of many needed and significant steps in the process of transition have been taken, mainly on constitutional and electoral issues. But what of the pressing matter of providing basic necessities for the Yemeni population? Water and food are paramount when it comes to survival, welfare, economic growth, social stability, and many other crucial components of a successful society and state. The widespread attention for overexploitation and exhaustibility of resources is no longer reserved for fossil fuels alone. As population growth, economic expansion, climate change, and agricultural demand are increasingly affecting water supplies, the subject of water scarcity is becoming more and more pressing. Considering its current availability and supply, water is scarce and current use and exploitation is bound to cause a water crisis in Yemen. The phenomenon of water conflict, including armed conflict, is not new to the world. Central Eurasia and Africa have experienced periods of severe droughts, exacerbating the existing level of water scarcity, and resulting in domestic or international conflict (Giordano et al, 2002). Intervention is needed in the current water scarcity situation, in order to avoid potentially devastating conflict, and even to change this course of disaster to a course of social, natural, and economic welfare.
In this paper, water scarcity and its causes and effects are discussed. The importance of water is emphasized, as well as the need for mitigation of water scarcity. After presenting an introduction of the country, a discussion will follow of Yemen’s social demographic, geographic, economic, and political situation which will provide the background information needed to understand the complexity of Yemen’s water scarcity. Against this backdrop, an inventory will be composed of measures for water scarcity mitigation used in areas with low water availability, and the measures in this inventory will be discussed on their possible applicability in Yemen. For this purpose, the research question this paper will seek to answer is “Which water scarcity mitigation measures have potential for successful implementation
in Yemen?”. This paper follows a logical line of discussion, in which information is presented on water
scarcity and on Yemen, water scarcity mitigation measures are listed, and possible applicability in Yemen is discussed. The following will further specify the lay-out of this paper.
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scarcity, and why is it relevant? How does water scarcity affect vital components of society? Which types of water bodies are under pressure? This section will clarify what is meant with water scarcity.
Secondly, a short history of Yemen is presented, as are the social demographic, geographic, economic, and political situation in Yemen. Why is water scarcity so pressing in Yemen? What are the causes from Yemen’s social demographic, geographic, economics, and political spheres? Moreover, an overview will be presented of the current water scarcity in Yemen and its characteristics, and current measures implemented by the government for water management.
Thirdly, the methods used in this research paper are discussed. Which types of sources were used? How will the main research question be answered? Furthermore, the anticipated findings will be stated considering the theory presented in chapter one.
Fourthly, an inventory will be composed from news reports in the past 3 years from certain news agencies, reporting measures used all over the world in regions struggling with water scarcity. Which measures are mentioned and discussed?
Fifthly, a discussion will be presented on the applicability of these measures in Yemen, with consideration for its social demography, geography, economy, and politics. How successful could these measures be in mitigating Yemen’s water scarcity? Which impediments are presented by the specific background of Yemen? Are there any viable options that could be worth experimenting with?
Lastly, conclusions and final remarks will be presented. The research question will be answered and main findings will be summarized.
Purpose of this research paper is not to present impediments faced by Yemen in water management and merely propose the opposite reaction as solution. Instead, this paper aims to provide with new measures implemented outside the domestic system, in the hope of sparking new and fresh insight and debate on what the possibilities could be in working with Yemen’s special characteristics.
ONE. Water Scarcity – and theory
Water scarcity refers to one type of water: freshwater. This type of water is mainly extracted from aquifers and surface water bodies, mainly rivers. Aquifers contain groundwater in underground layers of permeable rock, which can be extracted by means of wells. Rivers typically spring from higher
mountainous grounds and meander to lower ground. Rivers and other surface water bodies are easy to extract freshwater from, for example via irrigation canals. The main human use purposes of freshwater are drinking water, sanitation water, and irrigation water. Drinking water is water used for direct
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consumption and hydration of humans. Sanitation water is used for personal hygiene, cleaning, and waste transport. Finally, irrigation water is used in agriculture and accounts for the greatest share in freshwater usage (Rijsberman, 2006). Agriculture accounts for 70 % of freshwater withdrawal, and 90 % of
freshwater consumption - that is, indirect water consumption through food consumption (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2012).
Water scarcity is assessed by hydrologists most commonly according to the population-to-water ratio (United Nations Water, 2012). Essentially, water scarcity is defined as an excess of freshwater demand over available supply in a specified domain (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2012). This definition of water scarcity is known as the Falkenmark indicator, or the water stress index. It states that when the available freshwater resources cover less than 1700 m3 per capita per year, the country is in water stress. When the threshold is below 1000 m3 per capita per year, the country experiences water scarcity. Below 500 m3 of freshwater per capita per year, there is absolute water scarcity (Bernhoiz, 2005; White, 2012). Water shortage is thus a relative concept; depending on water demand that differs between regions and countries. Water shortage however, is defined as an absolute shortage, where the available water fails to meet certain minimum requirements. As a third concept, water stress can be a consequence of water scarcity. Water stress may manifest itself as conflict, increasing as crop failure, food insecurity, and other negative phenomena linked to water scarcity occur (Appelgren, 1997). Ultimate goal of sustainable water management is general water security: reliable and secure access to water that is predictable. This predictability ensures that even when droughts occur, measures can be taken to minimalize water stress and water shortage (Appelgren, 1997).
Water scarcity is recognized by three characteristics. Firstly, there is structural physical lack of water availability to satisfy demand. Physical lack is defined as the inability to meet future demand, even with investment in water infrastructure and efficiency (United Nations Water, 2012). Secondly, there is the lack of storage, distribution, and access due to an insufficient level of infrastructure development. Thirdly, there is insufficient institutional capacity to provide the necessary and basic water services. Without additional investment in infrastructure development, a country would as such be defined as economically water scarce (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2012; White, 2012). From a more hands-on point of view, water scarcity is characterized by the structural inability to achieve high-yielding crops, limited access to water - mainly in the rural areas where pipelines are limited in both presence and transportation capacity -, frequent obstruction of water transport in order to be able to divert more water to high-priority sectors, and many other manifestations (Pereira et al, 2002).
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consequence of dramatic changes in the world system; all of which can be lead back to economic and technological progress (Appelgren & Klohn, 1999). Economic and technological progress, each increasing as a result of the other, have produced better health and medical care in addition to superior knowledge on agriculture. This has resulted in exponential population growth, and thus pressures on natural resources. The ever expanding economy, driven by technological innovation, demonstrates an increasing demand for hydrocarbon resources and other finite or cyclical resources. Consequences are pollution of atmosphere, land, and water, climate change, and dwindling natural stocks. Simultaneously, these factors represent the causes, or are inextricably interlinked with the causes, of the subject under discussion: water scarcity. According to Appelgren (1997), water scarcity is caused by population growth, food production, climatic change and variability, land use, water quality, water demand, financial and institutional inadequacy, insufficient sectoral professional capacity, aberrant political realities, and sociological issues. The first five causes Appelgren presents, can be lead back to economic and
technological progress. The last four causes, however, can be lead back to politics and policy. In order to help explain these main causes, the endogenous growth theory can be used as guideline. This theory states that technological progress is endogenous, and that government policy on capital and investment can permanently increase economic growth (Romer, 1994). In the case of water scarcity, this translates as the need for the government to utilize the inextricable relation of technology and economy and to invest in technologies for water scarcity mitigation, in order to achieve economic growth. Government policy needs to create an environment open to change and innovation, and combined with government investment, this will spill-over to spur economic growth (Romer, 1994).
Water scarcity is an important research subject, because water is such an important resource. It is essential for survival of humans, animals, and plants. We drink the water to hydrate our bodies, and we consume it indirectly through fruit, vegetables, nuts, meat, and so on. We need it to clean ourselves and our environment in order to maintain our health, and we need it to grow crops and feed livestock for food and income. Water scarcity does not only affect water security, but also agricultural production, food security, and development (United Nations Development Programme, 2011).
TWO. Yemen - background and water situation
In order to provide an introduction to Yemen and its background, a short history of the state will be presented, as well as relevant summaries of Yemen’s social demographics, geography, economics, and
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politics. Furthermore, Yemen’s current water situation and water management policy will be discussed.
Yemen became independent from the Ottoman Empire in 1918. Until 1967, the south was a protectorate of the United Kingdom. After decades of conflict between the north and south, the two were unified as the Republic of Yemen in 1990. From the beginning of the Republic of Yemen until the Arab revolutions, president Salih ruled. With the assistance of the Gulf Cooperation Council, president Salih turned over his powers to newly elected – and former vice president- president Hadi (Central Intelligence Agency, 2014).
As mentioned, Yemen faces extraordinary population growth. With a population of 26 million in the first half of 2014, the population growth rate is at 2.72 %, and 63 % of all citizens is under 24 years old (Central Intelligence Agency, 2014). Approximately 35 % of all citizens currently live in the urban area, whereas 65 % inhabits rural areas. However, urbanization rate is high, at 4.8 % per year.
Unemployment of ages 15-24 is relatively high, with 26 % male unemployment and 74 % female unemployment. At a population of 26 million, there are 1.1 million telephones by main lines, 14 million mobile cellular phones, and 2.4 million internet users (Central Intelligence Agency, 2014).
Yemen’s social structure is highly patriarchal and tribal, and loyalty lies foremost with family and tribe. In the rural areas, state authority is weaker than tribal authority. Literacy rates remain low,
especially with women. Educational quality is low, and higher education is limited to the few. There are many disputes between the tribes, and often come to a violent confrontation. Main cultural and
recreational activity is khat chew, a daily social gathering where khat is chewed. Chewed by millions of Yemeni, khat is young leafs from a shrub that work as a mild narcotic. Khat is grown in Yemen, employs up to 15 % of labour force, provides up to 25% of GDP, and needs large surface areas of agricultural land and large amounts of irrigation water (Caton, 2010; Burrowes, 2014; Noaman, 2007).
In Yemen, the climate can be divided in three regions. In the western coastal plain region, the climate is hot and humid. In the mountainous highlands and basins region in the west of Yemen, with elevation ranging from 300 m to 3700 m, the climate is temperate due to seasonal monsoons. This western half of Yemen receives sufficient rainfall and has relatively fertile soil to make for relatively high-yielding crops. In the plateau areas and desert region in the east, there is only desert which is
extraordinarily hot, dry, and harsh (Central Intelligence Agency, 2014). There are no significant bodies of surface water: the rivers valleys are not permanent and run dry in the summer. This leaves Yemen almost exclusively reliant on aquifers, and therefore overexploits its non-renewable groundwater resources. The aquifers in Yemen are shallow, and are exploited at a rate higher than the limited amount of rainfall can
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replenish. Groundwater withdrawal as a percentage of replenishment is as high as 93.3 % (Growing Blue, 2014).The introduction of tube-well technology and pump-sets has further accelerated the exploitation rate; a large share of the rural economy could vanish within a generation (United Nations Development Programme, 2011). The capital Sana’a is located in a basin where the water table is falling by six metres per year. This aquifer will be depleted by the end of this decade, and could become one of the first basins in Yemen to dry up.
Yemen is a low income country, with an unemployment rate of 35 %, and high dependence on oil revenues (Central Intelligence Agency, 2014). Oil and gas makes up 30-40 % of GDP, more than 70 % of government revenues, and more than 90 % of export value (National Information Center, 2012A). As part of attempts to diversify its economy, the government is now also exporting liquefied natural gas and other derivatives and has built refineries. Main export products are crude oil, liquefied natural gas, coffee, and fish. China, India, and Thailand are the main export partners. Main import partners are China, United Arab Emirates, and United States. Yearly, the budget deficit is more than 10 % of the GDP.
Main employment is agriculturalist at subsistence level. One quarter of employment lies with the service sector; mainly in public administration (Burrowes, 2014). Fisheries and manufacturing are receiving foreign stimulants to expand their activities. Main impediments to the economy are institutional shortcoming, most importantly corruption, rigid labour marker, political interference, complex regulatory framework, and high costs for conducting business (The Heritage Foundation, 2014).
In the period 1999-2005, several policies and legislations have been implemented in accordance with water management purposes: The Urban Water Supply and Sanitation Sector Reform Policy (1997), Water Resources Policy and Strategy (1999-2000), Watershed Policy (2000), Agricultural Sector Reform Policy (2000), Irrigation Water Policy (2001), and Wastewater Reuse Strategy (2005). However,
enforcement of water law and water by-law proves challenging, as well as implementation of new legislation and regulations (National Water Resources Authority, 2009). The time-consuming regulatory framework and its lack of transparency, form important impediments to change (The Heritage
Foundation, 2014).
The government is eager to cooperate internationally towards water security, and invests domestically in, for example, new wells and monitors drill rigs. Also important in current policy, is raising public awareness of the scale and importance of Yemen’s water scarcity. To this end, a national water conservation campaign has been launched in Yemen (Hill, 2008). Furthermore, competency is being decentralized to local level. Groundwater resources are being divided in 14 basins, each with their own authorities, extraction companies, and sanitation facilities. The government is also looking into other
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forms of local water management: Saba News Agency (2014) reported that the minister of Agriculture and Irrigation made a public statement on plans to distribute 50 solar-powered water pumps to farmers in coastal provinces.
In the Arab region, renewable freshwater resources are among the lowest in the world (United Nations Development Programme, 2011). With its arid and semi-arid rainfall patterns, the Middle Eastern countries have attempted to create higher yields through extensive use of irrigation and intensive use of the limited rain-fed soils there were. This has resulted in modest improvement, but has further
deteriorated available land and water resources. Arable land per capita is also among the lowest in the world, averaging at 0.5 ha in 1962 and 0.2 ha today. In Yemen, arable land per capita is lower than 0.07 ha (United Nations Development Programme, 2011). According to the World Bank (2007), Yemen has an area of 482000 ha equipped for irrigation, of a total surface area of 528000 ha (Central Intelligence Agency, 2014). This represents an 85 % increase of irrigation area since 1970. However, Yemen is over equipped with irrigation infrastructure: most of the time, the amount of freshwater available cannot reach the whole area that is equipped for irrigation (World Bank, 2007). In the Arab and Middle East region, Yemen is considered the most pressing case of a water scarce country. Yemen faces extraordinary population growth rates, limited legal oversight of groundwater extraction, massive popularity of khat, and has persistently low level of human development (Haidera, 2011).
There are 42 branches of local corporations (LC’s) and autonomous public utilities, supervised by either LC’s or the National Water and Sanitation Authority (NWSA) (Performance Indicators Information System Group, 2008). Of these, the Sana’a branch is the second largest, providing 15.8 % of freshwater production in 2008. That same year, in the total urban water supply and sanitation sector, 142 million m3 freshwater was produced by the 42 branches (National Information Center, 2012B). According to Growing Blue (2014), Yemen’s water stress level is very high – namely 0.942. Total renewable
freshwater resources per capita per year are only 178.9 m3. The river valleys are dry during summer, but when monsoon season arrives, so do flash floods or spates. This seasonal water supply is used to irrigate crops. However, Yemen relies mostly on non-renewable water resources and produces freshwater through desalination of seawater or brackish water. With high water application rates and low-value crop
production, importing food is easier than importing water. All Middle East and North Africa (MENA) countries are net importers of food. Water represents 20 up to 30 % of Yemeni government expenditure in recent years.
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citizens are not using improved sanitation facilities and over 11 million citizens are not using improved drinking water sources (Growing Blue, 2014). The Central Intelligence Agency (2014) defines improved drinking water sources as “piped water into welling, yard, or plot; public tap or standpipe; tubewell or borehole; protected dug well; protected spring; or rainwater collection”. Unimproved drinking water sources are “unprotected dug well; unprotected spring; cart with small tank or drum; tanker truck; surface water, which includes rivers, dams, lakes, ponds, streams, canals or irrigation channels; or bottled water”. Improved sanitation facilities are “flush or pour-flush to a piped system, septic tank or pit latrine;
ventilated improved pit latrine; pit latrine with slab; or a composting toilet”. Unimproved sanitation facilities are defined as “flush or pour-flush not piped to a sewer system, septic tank or pit latrine; pit latrine without a slab or open pit; bucket; hanging toilet or hanging latrine; shared facilities of any type; no facilities; or bush or field”. Three quarters of urban population, and only half of the rural population, has access to improved drinking water source. Over 90% of urban population has access to improved sanitation facilities, and only 35% of the urban population (Central Intelligence Agency, 2014; World Health Organization, 2011). This shows there are significant differences in the experience of water scarcity between urban and rural population. Vairavamoorthy et al (2008), however, predict that the urban population will soon be facing increasing water scarcity as well, due to exponential urbanization and the inability of water infrastructure to keep up with the associated rise in demand – mainly due to lack of capital.
A total of approximately 125000 m3 wastewater is treated every day. There are 15 utilities that provide sanitation services - 12 of these have a wastewater treatment plant (Performance Indicators Information System, 2008). Although they are present in Yemen, quality of the product water is highly variable – depending on method of treatment, capacity of the treatment station, and the operational conditions (Al-Asbahi, 2005). Out of 23 water supply service locations examined by the Yemen government, 15 locations had a 12 to 24 hour a day water supply continuity. The other locations ranged from 6 to 12 hours a day, to less than once a week (Performance Indicators Information System, 2008). Thus, besides the quality of the water supply, the continuity of the supply can be far below standards considered for water security.
For Yemen’s society and its citizens, risks of water scarcity are increasing. Hygiene, health, job opportunities, farm incomes, working hours, and agricultural production and export are all jeopardized. Water scarcity is accompanied by hardships, endured most importantly by working class and disabling them to work the hours they need for sufficient income. Perhaps most pressing, is the rising cost of water. Currently, the proportion of monthly income in low-income households spent on water services for the first 5m3, ranges from 0.5 % to 2 % (Performance Indicators Information System, 2008). It should be
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considered, however, that these households may also use additional sources of water not provided by official and improved water services. Moreover, as water demand increases and freshwater availability decreases, the process of desalination will become more important. However, desalination investment costs remain high, as are production costs. The costs of producing freshwater by means of desalination could be lowered, but that depends on scale and quantity. Mass production would lower the costs of production, but the high costs of investment that remain impede this change (Kharraz, 2012). Moreover, water scarcity is aggravated by conflict in the north with extremist groups. Domestic migration is a major problem, and there are many displaced refugees in the south in need of water and other basics (Meleigy, 2010).
THREE. Methods - and anticipated findings
For this research paper, research has been conducted by using specified keywords in certain internet search engines and news agency websites. These keywords are ‘water’, ‘water scarcity’, and ‘Yemen’. The keyword ‘water’ was used to find information on general issues concerning water, such as drinking water, water supply, water resources, water use and water cycle. Related issues here are environment, pollution, climate, misuse, allocation, and human rights. The keyword ‘water scarcity’ was aimed towards finding regions and locations of emergent of chronic water scarcity, and measures implemented in these regions and locations towards mitigation. Related issues are found to be climate change, population growth, urbanization, irrigation, agriculture, overexploitation, living standards, and economic growth. Use of the keyword ‘Yemen’ mainly provided information on the country and its political situation,
government, socio-economics, geography, resources, culture and domestic and international relations. The combination of keyword ‘Yemen’ with keywords ‘water’ and ‘water scarcity’ provided information on the specific situation in Yemen concerning water and water scarcity issues – how it currently affects certain parts of society and how the problem is currently being framed and handled by both media and politics.
The internet search engines used for scientific literature and institution websites are Google and Google Scholar. These search engines provide high quality listings of relevant literature and information. News agencies used for news publications are BBC World, Deutsche Welle, and al-Jazeera. BBC World and Deutsche Welle are European-centered news agencies, with international and global focus. These sources provide useful news publications on water scarcity measures used in all water scarce corners of the world. The al-Jazeera news agency provides news publications on global issues, but is specialized in
12 the Middle East.
The remedies listed and discussed in this research paper are limited to the publications of the three before mentioned news agencies, to the most recent three-year period (2011-2014), and to search hits listed and sequenced according to perceived relevance by the used sources – which is dependent on location and accessibility. The remedies included in the inventory are only those remedies that are being implemented or have recently been implemented; excluding remedies that are for example being
theoretically discussed by a journalist, or proposed by an NGO report. The three-year period limitation is observed because it ensures topicality. This paper represents an inventory of measures that may differ from the inventory found by other researchers, should they reiterate the research conducted.
The main question, “Which water scarcity mitigation measures have potential for successful
implementation in Yemen?”, will be answered by providing information on Yemen and its current water
situation, composing an inventory of measures discussed in news reports, and discussing these measures on applicability or possible success by using the knowledge on Yemen’s specific characteristics. The before presented endogenous growth theory, contributes to the research by stating that government policy and investment are crucial in order to achieve the needed change, innovation, and progress for mitigating water scarcity in Yemen. The most prominent results of this research paper will be, firstly, the inventory of measures in news publications, and secondly, an informed discussion of applicability in Yemen. Expected findings in the conclusion of this research, are that some of the remedies could help mitigate water scarcity in Yemen. Most remedies, however, would most likely not be applicable due to the specific situation of Yemen’s social demographics, geology, economy, and politics. It is also expected to find that the problem of water scarcity in general cannot be solved or diminished by any of the
mitigation remedies from the inventory, because it is a structural problem. Mitigation as water management policy does not include measures such as ‘lower the demand for water’ or ‘significantly slow down population growth’, and the causes of water scarcity will remain if merely mitigation is utilized as water management policy.
FOUR. Inventory
For the inventory in this chapter, the news publications retrieved from the three news agencies will be listed and shortly introduced in alphabetical order. In the next chapter, these news publications will be discussed in terms of their applicability in Yemen, considering Yemen’s social demographic, geographic,
13 economic, and political background.
1. Bulusu, Siri: Bangalore leads the way in water harvesting
The city Bangalore set up a cooperation project with public officials, businesses, and households, to educate and inform residents on water scarcity. This project is named Sri M. Visvesvaraya Rain Water Harvesting Theme Park, and is a green oasis in the middle of the concrete and dirt city. Schoolchildren, architects, plumbers, and contractors have set up, and manage, 26 different water harvesting models. The park itself sets a good example: all rainwater input is utilized (Bulusu, 2013).
2. Cecco, Leyland and Fox, Michael: Egypt aims for revolution in desert farming
The ancient agricultural technique of aquaponics is proving its value again in Cairo. This form of cultivation enables farmers to increase yield by growing plants and farming fish in the same closed freshwater system.Water circulates from tanks hosting schools of Nile tilapia, through hydroponic trays which grow vegetables - such as cucumber, basil, lettuce, kale, peppers, and tomatoes - on floating foam beds with run-off flushed out to irrigate the trees. This method uses 90% less water than traditional farming methods in Egypt. Costs would amount to approximately 20000 US dollar (Cecco & Fox, 2013).
3. Duerr, Rozana Isabel: Water scarcity in Singapore pushes ‘toilet to tap’ concept
The Singapore government established a project named NEWater which involves recycling wastewater into highly purified water. This provides a more cost-efficient and eco-friendly source of water than desalination, or building large reservoirs in the extremely limited space the city-state has. The project has reduced Singapore’s dependence on the weather. This greywater has one big advantage: water quality and composition can be adjusted according to the intended use, whether it be industrial, agricultural, or for household use (Duerr, 2013).
4. Forberg, Christian: Recycling waste water to prevent a water crisis in Jordan
Jordan is cooperating with NGOs and German universities for Project SMART, or Sustainable
Management of Available Water Resources with innovative Technologies. Most importantly, this project focuses on the task of reprocessing waste water. The water is cleaned, pathogens are removed, and the product is used in agriculture. Goal is to implement treatment plants in villages, and teach locals how to clean the water themselves (Forberg, 2011).
5. Hütter, Marion: Water crisis in Lima
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In Lima, Peru, water resources are scarce, and farmers on the outskirts rely on water trucks. Lima is situated in a hilly area, where air humidity is very high. In a new attempt to provide water to locals, fog collectors have been installed. These are large nets that capture the water from the air and collect it. They are placed on the hills at about a thousand meters above sea level, where the clouds are. Fog collectors can yield 250 liters a day. This water catchment method is effective and cheap, and has potential for wider use (Hütter, 2011; Sanchez, 2012).
6. Kannan, Shilpa: The technology of saving India’s precious water supply
In rural Rajasthan, India, farmers are using sprinkler systems and drip irrigation techniques to reduce their water consumption. Moreover, they have switched to more highly water-efficient crops, such as millet and vegetables including garlic, onions, green chilies, and okra. The local farmers and two local breweries have also constructed five water recharge dams. These dams prevent excessive run-off of water and help natural water recharge. The five water recharge dams have raised groundwater levels by 17 meters. (Kannan, 2011).
7. Kinver, Mark: Carbon Trust launches scheme to tackle water waste
UK’s Carbon Trust has issued a Water Standard, which requires firms to measure their water use and demonstrate efforts taken to reduce consumption. Firms will be awarded the Carbon Trust Water Standard, if they can show that on a year-to-year basis, they reduce their water use. All of the water coming into the company, from all different sources, is count as input. Effluent is also considered, because it is the output wastewater and it normally needs to be licensed and manage very carefully (Kinver, 2013).
8. McDermid, Charles: Ancient aqueducts give Iraq a trickle of hope
Ancient aqueducts, or karez, have worked very well for centuries, but are recently found to be drying up in Iraq, and they are in need of maintenance. Karez are subterranean canals, that follow a gradient and pull out only as much water as the aquifer can naturally supply. Karez are more resilient to climate variation and more sustainable than any modern technique. It is a simple technology that requires little start-up investment, and if used correctly, it can provide enough water for small communities without exhausting the aquifer (McDermid, 2013).
9. McGrath, Matt: Can ‘powdered rain’ make drought a thing of the past?
Solid Rain is a powder, of which its manufacturer – Solid Rain Corporation – claims it can expand up to 500 times its size when water is added. The powder is to be mixed with soil, to hold more water and thus
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it reduces outflow, and releases water more slowly to the plants. It encapsulates water, and the powder lasts up to 10 years in the soil after which it disintegrates. The product is non-toxic and made from biodegradable material. The company recommends using 50 kg per hectare, at 1500 US dollar (McGrath, 2013).
10. Moskvitch, Katia: Israeli start-up Takadu helps Londoners save water & Wall, Matthew: Smart Water: Tech guarding our most precious resource
The company Takadu, started by a young Israeli, specializes in smart water systems. It monitors the underground water supply system in London. Takadu detects and locates and problems, such as leakages, and alerts the utility. Water lost through leakages, is non-revenue water (NRW). In developed countries, around 20 to 30 % of water being supplied to customers is NRW. In developing countries, NRW is almost 50%.With a smart system using sensors, internet, models, meters for e.g. flow and pressure, and
mathematics, data can be retrieved and interpreted to carefully monitor the water infrastructure 24/7, and from a location anywhere in the world. It processes data supplied by sensors and meters dotted around a water company's supply network, and combines this with information such as domestic and industrial water usage patterns and weather, to build a sophisticated picture of how the network is behaving (Moskvitch, 2011; Wall, 2013).
11. Patel, Atish: India’s plan to becoming a leading olive oil producer
In the western desert state Rajasthan, olive oil production sector is booming. With government subsidies, farmers are switching their traditional crops with high water consumption, to low water consumption olive trees. The subsidies low the price of planting one tree from 2.19 US dollar to 0.49 US dollar, and 90% of the costs of setting up a drip irrigation system are also covered by the government. With its long, dry summers, and short, cool winters, Rajasthan has ideal conditions for growing olive trees (Patel, 2013).
12. Pressly, Linda: Why water firms can’t say no to supplying new housing developments
In the south-east of England, water supply is under pressure. However, water companies are legally bound to supply new housing developments, even when there are concerns about sustainability. The council that gave the new housing project the go-ahead, The water companies have experts saying they can’t supply this new housing project, but the project leader will say that the companies can because they have to by law. The government has made an addition in the law, stating that evaluation of plans for new housing projects will in the future need to take water resources into account. However, water companies will still be legally bound to supply these projects (Pressly, 2012).
16 13. Reeh, Martin: Lesotho project failed to cut poverty
The Lesotho Highlands Water Project is a dam with a height of 185 meters and has the ability to flood an area of 36 square kilometers. It is meant to support Lesotho’s development and economy, as well as to deliver water to South Africa. It was also meant to help reduce poverty and the extreme inequality in Lesotho. It has contributed to infrastructure, clean energy production, and jobs. Broad economic development is now needed to maintain these benefits in the long-term (Reeh, 2012).
FIVE. Discussion
A discussion will be presented on the applicability of these measures in Yemen, with consideration for its social, economic, political, natural, and demographic situation. How successful could these measures be in mitigating Yemen’s water scarcity? Which impediments are presented by the specific context of Yemen? Are there any viable options that could be worth experimenting with?
Based on the inventory in chapter four, and the background information on Yemen in chapter two, this chapter will provide a discussion of the thirteen measures for water scarcity mitigation presented by the recent news publications from the inventory, considering the possibilities of implementation in Yemen.
Measure 1, the rain water harvesting theme park, is meant foremost to educate and inform. To establish such a theme park in Yemen, the government would have to provide initial investment, and a platform to attract and involve parties such as plumbers, architects, and schools, in order for it to become a cooperative project. As mentioned in chapter two, part of the Yemeni government policy is to inform citizens about water scarcity and its severity. Therefore, this measure would fit their current policy in a creative way, and would even go further in inviting active participation. The initial investment needed is low; all that is required is an outdoor location, and some materials to create the rainwater harvesting models. However, attention must be paid to the mostly dry and arid climate in Yemen. The water
harvesting models are supposed to be dependent solely on rainwater, so location for this theme park needs to be carefully selected considering rainfall.
The agricultural measure of aquaponics, is a sustainable, high-yield, and low water consumption measure. It can simultaneously grow vegetables, cultivate fish, and water surrounding trees; making it a very promising measure. Since it is an indoor, closed-circuit system, climate is not likely to be an
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important factor. However, the costs are very steep. It is very new, and costs might decrease when the equipment needed for aquaponics is produced on a larger scale. But even then, especially the initial costs are very high for a low-income country such as Yemen.
NEWater (measure 3) uses essentially the same process as existing sanitation facilities in Yemen. The main difference is that NEWater recognizes and utilizes the ability to produce different water
qualities for different purposes. This saves precious time, energy, water, and minerals, although it does seem to require separate supply chains and thus more complex infrastructure. Thus, the main purpose of the measure seems to match pre-existing measures in Yemen. The differentiation possibility is interesting, but requires large investments in expanding sanitation facilities and their in-house technologies. Since the government is very short on investment budget, this measure would be unfeasible – at least in short-term prospect.
Measure 4, project SMART, is again basically a wastewater sanitation project. However, this project focuses on water for agricultural use, and has therefore lower quality and less treatment needed. This could prove an economic measure for Yemen, although, again, it would require major investment in water infrastructure. Furthermore, project SMART presents itself as a teaching project, where they come to a village, install sanitation facilities, and then leave the management of the facilities to the locals. This could work empowering and stimulating, and perhaps even lower water costs. Wastewater sanitation is already present in Yemen, and water output diversification is most likely not yet feasible, but including locals would certainly fit the government policy goals of awareness, education, and decentralization.
Fog collectors, or cloud catchers, are measure 5 in the inventory. This measure can be
implemented in areas with high humidity, most prominently on higher grounds. Therefore, fog collectors could prove applicable in the mountainous west of Yemen. It is a cheap measure to implement, and has relatively high yield of up to 250 liters per day. It is, however, meant as an addition, or a means of diversifying water supply. Only when implementing on a very large scale, can this measure account for larger parts of water supply. Important advantage of this measure: since rainwater is considered an improved drinking water source, it water from the fog collectors can be used as drinking water, and is not limited to use for agriculture.
Measure 6 is a multi-faceted measure. It suggests combining several measures for optimal profit. Water consumption reductions are established by using sprinkler systems, drip irrigation techniques, and water-efficient crops. Simultaneously, groundwater levels are raised by building water recharge dams, to
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prevent run-off and help natural water recharge. Combining these measures, can significantly improve aquifers and help reduce local water scarcity. The measures for water consumption reduction will require significant investment, but are key in helping to maintain the groundwater level. The water-efficient crops mentioned are viable in Yemen climate, if managed properly. The measure for not only maintaining, but even raising the groundwater level, is very promising, but also requires significant initial investment. However, the return could be so high in terms of agricultural productivity and reduced water scarcity, that even Yemen may want to invest what little the government has for an experimental trial.
Measure 7, the Water Standard, is meant to stimulate firms to track their own water consumption. This helps awareness of water expenses within the firm, and could trigger firms to achieve the Water Standard to spread awareness of water consumption and expenses to customers as part of their image campaign. It is a low-cost measure, which needs only a small institution to assess whether firms have managed to lower their water consumption year-by-year. The measure could prove to have high-return rates in Yemen, as companies would want to link their public image with such a measure and would also benefit in expenditures.
The karez, or measure 8, are resilient, sustainable, and strong constructions. It is simple to build and relatively low in costs. They do need regular maintenance, but so does modern water infrastructure. This measure could work well in the remote rural areas of Yemen. It provides only as much water as the aquifer can afford to miss, making it very sustainable, but also more unreliable than consistent supply through pipelines. However, as mentioned in chapter 2, water supply through water supply service locations can vary from 12 to 24 hour a day supply, to less than once a week. For those areas, karez could prove a viable measure in securing continuity of water supply.
Measure 9, Solid Rain, is disputed in the scientific world. It is said to be damaging to the soil, crops, and groundwater quality. However, the company states that the product is biodegradable and non-toxic. If the product performs the way the company claims, it could well be implemented in selected areas of Yemen’s agricultural grounds for a testing period. If it doesn’t however, it is merely an expensive product that pollutes what little resources Yemen had. The Yemeni government will most likely want to choose their investments with more certainty on the workings of the product.
For measure 10, the smart water system, an extensive evaluation and modification of Yemen’s water infrastructure would be required, and thus investment. Many sensors, meters, and other equipment is needed for the implementation of a smart water system. The money saved on non-revenue water,
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however, could prove greater than the investment. Large amount of water are lost due to leakages in Yemen. If the yearly amount of lost revenue exceeds the investment in a smart water system, the Yemen government may consider this measure. It would certainly help reduce the loss of precious freshwater.
Switching to olive trees (measure 11) is possible in the central climate of Yemen, where the summers are dry and the winters short and cool. Growing olive trees is more sustainable, as they live for a hundred or more years, and less-water consuming, as olive trees need less water and can be watered using drip irrigation systems. This measure does, however, call for significant government investment in the form of subsidies on the purchase of olive trees, and subsidies on purchase and installation of drip irrigation systems. The Yemen government is not likely to invest the large amounts of funds needed, just in a crop change with relatively low impact on water scarcity level.
Measure 12, introducing regulation on considering water resources when evaluation new housing projects, could prove an interesting possibility for Yemen. It is a low-cost measure, only requiring the political and legal process of adopting and implementing the regulation. It could help awareness on water resource availability near expanding urban areas. However, at the rate the population is growing, picking where the urban areas will expand to, considering local resources, is a luxury that Yemen may not have. For now, it is more likely that water resources will have to be exploited and transported, rather than having a growing population move away from the water resource.
Measure 13, a massive dam, is theoretically interesting and would have great benefits, but it cannot be executed in Yemen. There are no rivers to build a dam in, at least not permanent rivers. The investment costs would be exorbitant and are unattainable for the Yemeni government alone. The expected benefits of local poverty reduction, and contribution to infrastructure, clean energy, and jobs could not weigh out the costs.
SEVEN. Conclusions and final remarks
In this research paper, the concept of water scarcity has been discussed: its definition, prevalence, relevance, and more. This provided clarity on what the subject matter was. Then, an introduction in the history, social demographics, geography, economy, politics, and current water situation of Yemen was presented. This provided insight in Yemen’s background and specific characteristics. Next, an inventory
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of water scarcity mitigation measures was produced in accordance with news publication research in specified sources. This inventory was subsequently discussed, according the provided information and data on Yemen, on applicability of the listed measures in Yemen. This discussion illustrated the Yemen’s characteristics, and debated whether the measure would and could be successfully implemented in Yemen. The main findings were that measures 1 (rain water harvesting theme park), 4 (project SMART), 5 (fog collectors), and 7 (Water Standard) may be chosen for implementation by the Yemeni government, and if so, would have a high success rate in contributing to the mitigation of water scarcity. It is not clear if measures 2 (aquaponics), 10 (smart water system), and 11 (olive trees) would be chosen by the Yemeni government, because of high possible success rate, but also high investment costs. Measures 3
(NEWater), 6 (water consumption reduction and water recharge dams), 8 (karez), 9 (Solid Rain), 12 (regulation for new housing projects), and 13 (river dam) are very unlikely to be chosen by the Yemeni government, because of their high investment costs, relative low success in water scarcity mitigation, or because of impracticality or impossibility of implementation considering the characteristics of Yemen. Thus, the research question “Which water scarcity mitigation measures have potential for
successful implementation in Yemen?” can be answered. The water scarcity mitigation measures that have
potential for successful implementation in Yemen, are a rain water harvesting theme park, project SMART, fog collectors, and the Water Standard. The main common denominator here is low investment costs, or at least an attractive cost-benefit ratio. This partly corresponds with the endogenous growth
theory: the theory states that government policy on capital and investment can permanently increase
economic growth, and that technological progress is endogenous. Considering the results from this research, government policy on which investments to choose, is making the difference between spiraling further down into water scarcity on the one hand, and recovering on the other. The notion of government policy being the attraction of foreign investment, is unspecified in the theory. It does concern government policy, but it is not endogenous as the investment and capital is foreign. The theory partly does not hold up in the light of the findings of this research. Technological progress is endogenous, but when the government fails to provide sufficient incentive and support, this progress is either extremely slowed down, or is in need of exogenous input.
Finally, there are some remarks that need to be stated. Firstly, the conducted research was very limited. It was limited by number of sources, accessibility of sources, time, and paper size. Furthermore, choices were made that introduced bias into the research, and impaired reliability and validity. The news agencies were chosen by reputation, as opposed to randomly picked. As were the news publications, even though there were keywords as guidance. Therefore, for future research, I will recommend more
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Only then will it be possible to provide a complete overview of measures recently implemented to mitigate water scarcity, and if and how they might fit in the Yemeni system.
The purpose of this research paper was not to present a list of challenges Yemen faces in water scarcity and suggest that the opposite of the perceived causes of the problem were implemented as solutions. Instead, the purpose was to provide a new, creative, and refreshing view on finding solutions, and simultaneously to investigate the diversity and variety of solutions implemented all over the world, and their possible applicability and success in Yemen.
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