The nature and impact of psychological violence on staff members’ health in FET
Colleges: Strategies for prevention and support
H W Meyer
BA Comm., BA Hons. (Psych), HED (Guidance)
Thesis submitted for the degree Doctor of Philosophy in Educational Psychology at the
Potchefstroom Campus of the North-West University
Promoter: Dr GJC Kirsten
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My sincere and profound thanks go to the Lord, my Saviour, who led and guided me throughout this study.
I also acknowledge the following people:
My supervisor, Dr GJC Kirsten, for his leadership, patience, exceptional guidance and support throughout this study.
Dr SM Ellis, for the capturing of data and assistance with the statistical analysis of data. Mr C Smuts and Mrs P Henry for the professional language editing of the thesis.
Mr R Waddington for the translation of anonymous Afrikaans quotes in English. Prof B Richter, the School Director, for graciously allowing me the time and the study
leave to complete this thesis.
Prof C Roux, the Director of Research Support and the ETDP SETA, for financial assistance.
The FET College management for their support and for allowing me to conduct this research.
All the FET College staff members who participated in this study who so graciously made time available, and from whom I have learned immensely.
A very special word of thanks goes to my husband, Carel Meyer, and my children Vincent, Ernus and Mannscher Meyer, for all their patience, love, support and understanding during the completion of this study.
My brothers, Michael and Schalk Combrink, for all their encouragement, prayers and support throughout this study.
iii
DEDICATION
This thesis is dedicated to my husband, Carel Meyer, who offered me unconditional love and support throughout the course of this study. I also dedicate this study to my late parents, Clarence and Mannscher Combrink for their love and faith in me, but who never saw me pursue
iv
OPSOMMING
Psigologiese geweld is tans besig om op die voorgrond te tree as ‟n hoof-prioriteit in alle werksplekke as gevolg van die ernstige, nadelige gevolge daarvan op die gesondheid van slagoffers. Die studie maak gebruik van ʼn dwarssnee gemengde-metodologie om die aard van psigologiese geweld en die impak daarvan op die gesondheid van personeellede in VOO-(Verdere Onderwys- en Opleidings) Kolleges en hoe hulle dit hanteer, te ondersoek. Op grond van die bevindinge word voorkomende en ondersteunende strategieë aanbeveel om personeellede se ervarings van psigologiese geweld en die impak daarvan op al die kontekste van hul gesondheid aan te spreek en te verbeter.
Twee instrumente is gebruik om kwantitatiewe data in te samel naamlik ‟n Psigologiese-Geweld-Skaal, wat ontwikkel is, en ‟n Simptome-Kontrolelys. Die instrumente is gelyktydig versprei na die studiepopulasie van 262 akademiese en administratiewe personeellede in VOO Kolleges. Doelgerigte steekproeftrekking is gebruik en die steekproefgrootte van 174 respondente het die instrumente voltooid terugbesorg. Nege-en-twintig respondente het hul bereidwilligheid aangetoon om individueel deel te neem aan die onderhoude vir die kwalitatiewe gedeelte van die studie.
Die kwantitatiewe bevindings toon aan dat psigologiese geweld voorkom in VOO-Kolleges, wat as ernstig ervaar word en meestal veroorsaak word deur meerderes. Die mees algemene en ernstigste ervarings van psigologiese geweld van personeellede sluit in: oormatige druk om meer werk te lewer; onredelike sperdatums; onbeheerbare werkslading; meer take wat toegeken word aan ‟n persoon in vergelyking met ander personeellede op dieselfde posvlak en klagtes wat op dowe ore val. Die mees algemene en ernstigste ervarings van personeellede soos bepaal deur faktor-analise sluit in: onregverdige eise en gebrek aan erkenning, werk wat uitermate gemonitor word, wanfunksionerende korporatiewe kommunikasie en outokrasie en intimidasie.
Die respondente het nuwe gesondheids-simptome ervaar sedert die aanvang van psigologiese geweld, naamlik: chroniese uitputting/moegheid, konsentrasieverlies, onderbroke slaap, prikkelbaarheid, geïrriteerdheid, skrik maklik, heeltyd op hoede, paniek, spanningshoofpyne, depressie en gewelddadige gedagtes teenoor andere.
Die kwalitatiewe bevindings toon aan dat deelnemers misbruik deur bestuur ervaar as wanfunksionerende korporatiewe kommunikasie, onregmatige verbale en nie-verbale
kommunikasie, wanfunksionerende optrede, onttrekking, strukturele geweld,
v
Onderwys is ervaar as oormatige druk, intimidasie, swak beplanning en die oneffektiewe implementering van die nuwe kurrikulum. Kollegas op dieselfde vlak misbruik deur middel van onvanpaste optrede, studente misbruik deur wanfunksionerende gedrag en ondergeskiktes misbruik deur middel van onttrekking.
Psigologiese geweld het ‟n negatiewe impak op die psigologiese, biofisiese, spirituele, ekologiese en metafisiese gesondheidskontekste van personeellede gehad. Ooggetuies van psigologiese geweld (sekondêre psigologiese geweld) is ervaar as inskikking om psigologiese geweld te voorkom wat te wyte is aan vrees om die volgende slagoffer te word.
Bevindings van beide datastelle het bevestig dat personeellede in VOO-Kolleges psigologiese geweld in verskeie vorme ervaar, dat dit ‟n impak op hul gesondheid het en dat hulle oor beperkte strategieë beskik om dit te hanteer. Op grond van die bevindinge, word „n aantal voorkomende en ondersteunende strategieë op nasionale, organisatoriese, leierskap, groep, interpersoonlike en individuele vlakke voorgestel om psigologiese geweld en die impak daarvan op personeellede se gesondheid in VOO-Kolleges doeltreffend aan te spreek en te verbeter. Die studie lewer „n aansienlike bydrae tot die psigologiese geweld-literatuur in die algemeen en in besonder VOO Kolleges. Die innoverende multi-vlak voorkomende en ondersteunende strategieë voortspruitend uit die studie is noodsaaklik om psigologiese geweld in werksplekke doeltreffend aan te spreek en die impak daarvan op die gesondheid van personeellede te verbeter.
Sleutelwoorde: Psigologiese geweld, werksplek afknouery, sameswering, teistering, gesondheid impak, multivlak strategieë, voorkomende/ondersteunende strategieë, gemengde-metodologie, opvoeders, VOO-Kolleges
vi
SUMMARY
Psychological violence is currently emerging as a priority concern in all workplaces owing to its serious negative consequences on victims‟ health. This study, using a cross-sectional mixed-methodology, investigates the nature and impact of psychological violence on staff members‟ health at FET Colleges and how they cope with it. Based on the findings, preventative and supportive strategies are proposed to address and ameliorate staff members‟ experiences of psychological violence and the impact thereof on all contexts of their health.
Two instruments were used to collect quantitative data, namely a Psychological Violence Scale that has been developed, and a Symptom Checklist. These instruments were distributed simultaneously to the study population of 262 academic and administration staff members at FET Colleges. Purposive sampling was used and the sample size of 174 respondents returned the completed instruments. Twenty-nine respondents indicated their willingness to be individually interviewed for the qualitative part of the study.
Quantitative findings indicated that psychological violence is prevalent in FET Colleges, which is experienced severely and originates mostly from superiors. The most prevalent and severe forms of psychological violence experienced by staff members include: excessive pressure to produce more work; being given unreasonable deadlines; being exposed to unmanageable workload; more tasks assigned to one as opposed to other staff members at similar post levels and complaints that fall on deaf ears. The most prevalent and severe experiences of staff members as determined by factor analysis include: unfair demands and lack of recognition, work excessively monitored, dysfunctional corporate communication and autocracy and intimidation.
The respondents experienced new health symptoms emerging since the onset of psychological violence, namely: feeling chronically fatigued/tired, loss of concentration, disrupted sleep, feeling edgy, irritable, easily startled, constantly on guard, panic, stress headaches, depression and thinking about being violent toward others.
Qualitative findings indicated that participants experienced managerial abuse as dysfunctional corporate communication, abusive verbal and non-verbal communication, dysfunctional conduct, disengagement, structural violence, dysfunctional management and unfair demands. Abuse experienced from the Department of Education includes; excessive pressure, intimidation, poor planning and the ineffective implementation of the new curriculum. Colleagues of equal status abused by means of inappropriate conduct, students abused through dysfunctional conduct and subordinates abused through disengagement.
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Psychological violence impacted negatively on the psychological, biophysical, spiritual, ecological and metaphysical health contexts of staff members. Witnesses to psychological violence (secondary psychological violence) were perceived as conforming to avoid bullying owing to fear of becoming the next target.
Findings from both datasets confirmed that staff members at FET Colleges experience psychological violence in various forms in that it has an impact on their health and that they have limited strategies with which to cope. Based on the findings, a number of preventative and supportive strategies are recommended on national, organisational, leadership, group,
interpersonal and individual levels to address psychological violence at FET Colleges and to ameliorate its impact on staff members‟ health.
This study contributes significantly towards the psychological violence literature in general and in particular, FET Colleges. The innovative multi-level preventative and supportive strategies forthcoming from this study are imperative to address psychological violence in workplaces and to ameliorate its impact on staff members‟ health.
Key words: Psychological violence, workplace bullying, mobbing, harassment, health impact, multi-level strategies, preventative/supportive strategies, mixed-methodology, educators, FET Colleges
viii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...ii DEDICATION...iii OPSOMMING...iv SUMMARY...vi TABLE OF CONTENTS...viii LIST OF TABLES...xxiv LIST OF FIGURES...xxix LIST OF ANNEXURES...xxx
CHAPTER 1: ORIENTATION, MOTIVATION AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEM...1
1.1 INTRODUCTION...1
1.2 ORIENTATION, MOTIVATION & STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM...1
1.3 REVIEW OF RELEVANT LITERATURE...4
1.4. RESEARCH AIMS OF THE STUDY... 7
1.4.1 General research aim... 7
1.4.2 Specific research aims... 8
1.5 HYPOTHESES... 8
1.5.1 Main hypothesis... 8
1.5.2 Sub-hypotheses... 8
1.6 METHOD OF STUDY... 9
ix 1.8 PARADIGMATIC PERSPECTIVE...11 1.8.1 Paradigm...11 1.8.2 Theoretical assumptions...12 1.8.3 Explanation of concepts...14 1.8.3.1 Psychological violence...14 1.8.3.2 Health...14
1.8.3.3 Further Education and Training Colleges...15
1.8.3.4 Nature and impact...16
1.8.3.5 Preventative and supportive strategies...16
1.8.3.6 Address and ameliorate...17
1.9 THE COURSE OF THE STUDY... 17
CHAPTER 2: THE NATURE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL VIOLENCE...19
2.1 INTRODUCTION...19
2.2 WORKPLACE VIOLENCE... 20
2.2.1 Physical violence... 20
2.2.2 Psychological violence... 21
2.2.3 Structural violence... 21
2.3 TERMINOLOGY RELATED TO PSYCHOLOGICAL VIOLENCE... 21
2.3.1 Workplace aggression/Corporate aggression... 22
2.3.2 Harassment... 23
x 2.3.4 Mobbing... 24 2.3.5 Victimisation... 25 2.3.6 Abuse... 25 2.3.7 Intimidation... 26 2.3.8 Threats... 26
2.4 THE CHARACTERISTICS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL VIOLENCE... 26
2.4.1 Verbal and non-verbal behaviours or negative acts (excluding physical contact)... 27
2.4.2 Repetitive, persistent behaviours... 30
2.4.3 Duration ... 30
2.4.4 Subjective perceptions... 31
2.4.5 Intent... 31
2.4.6 Public humiliation... 31
2.4.7 Power disparity... 32
2.5 THE SOURCES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL VIOLENCE... 33
2.5.1 Superior against subordinate... 33
2.5.2 Colleagues of equal status ...33
2.5.3 Customer to employee...34
2.5.4 Subordinate against superior...34
2.6 THE CAUSES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL VIOLENCE...36
2.6.1 The social system as cause of psychological violence...36
xi
2.6.2.1 Description of the term “target”...37
2.6.2.2 Personality of the target...37
2.6.2.3 Personal characteristics of targets...37
2.6.2.4 Characteristics of vulnerable people...40
2.6.2.5 General characteristics of targets...41
2.6.3 The perpetrator as cause of psychological violence...41
2.6.3.1 Description of the term “perpetrator”...41
2.6.3.2 Personality of the perpetrator...41
2.6.3.3 Personal characteristics of perpetrators...42
2.6.3.4 General characteristics of perpetrators...44
2.6.3.5 Types of perpetrators...45
2.6.4 Organisational factors as cause of psychological violence...46
2.6.4.1 Organisational factors...46
2.6.4.2 Vulnerable workplaces...52
2.7 PSYCHOLOGICAL VIOLENCE MODELS...52
2.7.1 Leymann model...52
2.7.2 Psychological violence according to levels...53
2.7.3 Predatory model...54
2.7.4 Dispute-related model...54
xii
CHAPTER 3: THE IMPACT OF PSYCHOLOGICAL VIOLENCE ON HEALTH...56
3.1 INTRODUCTION...56
3.2 THE SEVERITY OF THE IMPACT OF PSYCHOLOGICAL VIOLENCE...56
3.2.1 Factors that may contribute to the severity of impact...57
3.2.1.1 Repetition (persistence) and severity of impact...57
3.2.1.2 Duration and severity of impact...57
3.2.1.3 Perception and severity of impact...58
3.2.1.4 Power disparity and the severity of impact...58
3.3 THE HOLISTIC ECO-SYSTEMIC MODEL...59
3.4 THE IMPACT OF PSYCHOLOGICAL VIOLENCE...60
3.4.1 The psychological impact of psychological violence...60
3.4.1.1 Work trauma...61
3.4.1.2 Stress...62
3.4.1.3 Acute Stress Disorder...63
3.4.1.4 Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)...64
3.4.1.5 General Anxiety Disorder...65
3.4.1.6 Anxiety, Fear and Panic attacks...65
3.4.1.7 Depression...66
3.4.1.8 Other effects related to psychological impact...67
3.4.2 The biophysical impact of psychological violence...70
xiii
3.4.2.2 Physical symptoms and diseases related to psychological violence...71
3.4.3 The spiritual impact of psychological violence...76
3.4.4 The ecological impact of psychological violence...79
3.4.4.1 The economic impact of psychological violence...80
3.4.4.2 The social impact of psychological violence...85
3.4.4.2.1 Social group dynamics and social psychology that contribute to the impact of psychological violence...85
3.4.4.2.2 The effect of psychological violence on family and social relationships...86
3.4.5 The metaphysical impact of psychological violence...89
3.5 SUMMARY...93
CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH DESIGN AND RESEARCH METHODS...96
4.1 INTRODUCTION...96
4.2 THE RESEARCH DESIGN...96
4.3 THE STUDY POPULATION...103
4.3.1 Sampling quantitative study...105
4.3.2 Sampling qualitative study...107
4.4 QUANTITATIVE STUDY...112
4.4.1 Survey research...112
4.4.2 Quantitative data collection...113
4.4.2.1 The Psychological Violence Scale...115
4.4.2.2 The Symptom Checklist...120
xiv
4.4.4 Ethical considerations...124
4.5 QUALITATIVE STUDY...126
4.5.1 Phenomenological research...127
4.5.2 Qualitative data collection...127
4.5.2.1 The researcher‟s role...127
4.5.2.2 Literature study...128
4.5.2.3 Interviews...129
4.5.2.4 Field notes...130
4.5.2.5 Observations...131
4.5.2.6 Reliability (trustworthiness), validity (credibility) and generalisation (particularity/applicability) in qualitative research...132
4.5.3 Qualitative data analysis...134
4.5.4 Ethical considerations...135
4.6 VALIDATION OF DATA IN MIXED-METHODS DESIGN...136
4.6.1 Threats to validity during data collection...137
4.6.2 Threats to validity during data analysis ...138
4.7 SUMMARY...138
CHAPTER 5: ANALYSIS, INTERPETATION AND SYNTHESIS OF DATA...139
5.1 INTRODUCTION...139
5.2 QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS...139
5.2.1 Descriptive statistical analysis of findings obtained from the Psychological Violence Scale ...140
xv
5.2.1.1 Biographical profile of respondents...140
5.2.1.2 The prevalence, severity, sources of and reactions to psychological violence ...144
5.2.1.2.1 The prevalence of psychological violence ...144
5.2.1.2.2 The severity of psychological violence ...150
5.2.1.2.3 The sources of psychological violence...154
5.2.1.2.4 The prevalence and severity of the reactions to psychological violence...157
5.2.1.3 Conclusions from descriptive data analysis...162
5.2.2 Factor analysis...166
5.2.2.1 Sampling adequacy of variables ...166
5.2.2.2 Communalities for extracted factors on prevalence ...166
5.2.2.3 Pattern matrix for extracted factors ...168
5.2.2.4 Presentation and discussion of factors and their Cronbach‟s Alpha reliability coefficients...171
5.2.2.5 Descriptive statistics from factor analysis...180
5.2.2.5.1 The prevalence of psychological violence factors...181
5.2.2.5.2 The severity of psychological violence factors...182
5.2.2.6 Conclusions from factor analysis...184
5.2.3 Practical significance differences (effect sizes) in factors for biographical information of respondents...186
5.2.3.1 Practical significance (effect sizes) for prevalence related to gender...187
xvi
5.2.3.3 Practical significance (effect sizes) for prevalence related to the employer...189
5.2.3.4 Practical significance (effect sizes) for severity related to the employer...190
5.2.3.5 Practical significance (effect sizes) for prevalence related to age...190
5.2.3.6 Practical significance (effect sizes) for severity related to age...192
5.2.3.7 Practical significance (effect sizes) for prevalence related to position...193
5.2.3.8 Practical significance (effect sizes) for severity related to position...194
5.2.3.9 Practical significance (effect sizes) for prevalence related to experience...194
5.2.3.10 Practical significance (effect sizes) for severity related to experience...200
5.2.3.11 Practical significance (effect sizes) for prevalence related to location...204
5.2.3.12 Practical significance (effect sizes) for severity related to location ...205
5.2.3.13 Practical significance (effect sizes) for prevalence related to marital status...205
5.2.3.14 Practical significance (effect sizes) for severity related to marital status...206
5.2.3.15 Conclusions from group differences ...207
5.2.4 Hierarchical Cluster Analysis ...209
5.2.4.1 The differences between groups for the prevalence of psychological violence...210
5.2.4.2 The differences between groups for the severity of psychological violence...212
5.2.4.3 Significant statistical differences between groups related to respondents‟ biographical information...214
5.2.4.3.1 The differences between groups related to the campuses where respondents are employed...214
xvii
5.2.4.3.3 The differences between groups related to the position of respondents...216
5.2.4.3.4 The differences between groups related to the experience of respondents...217
5.2.4.4 Conclusions from differences between groups (clusters)...218
5.2.5 The impact of psychological violence on health obtained from the Symptom Checklist...219
5.2.5.1 Health symptoms experienced before the onset of psychological violence which did not become worse...219
5.2.5.2 Health symptoms of respondents that became worse since the onset of
psychological violence...220
5.2.5.3 New health symptoms of respondents since the onset of psychological violence ...224
5.2.5.4 Conclusions from the Symptom Checklist...227
5.3 QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS...229
5.3.1 Qualitative findings related to the experience and impact of psychological
violence on health ...230
5.3.1.1 Abuse from management ...231
5.3.1.1.1 Main category 1: Negative experiences related to dysfunctional corporate
communication...231
5.3.1.1.2 Main category 2: Negative experiences related to abusive verbal
communication...234
5.3.1.1.3 Main Category 3: Negative experiences related to abusive non-verbal
communication...239
5.3.1.1.4 Main category 4: Negative experiences related to dysfunctional conduct...240
5.3.1.1.5 Main category 5: Negative experiences related to disengagement by
xviii
5.3.1.1.6 Main category 6: Negative experiences related to structural violence...254
5.3.1.1.7 Main category 7: Negative experiences related to dysfunctional management...260
5.3.1.1.8 Main category 8: Negative experiences related to managements‟ unfair demands...264
5.3.1.2 Abuse from the Department of Education...269
5.3.1.2.1 Main category 9: Negative experiences related to structural violence by the Department of Education...269
5.3.1.2.2 Main category 10: Negative experiences related to excessive pressure, intimidation and poor planning from the Department of Education...269
5.3.1.2.3 Main category 11: Negative experiences related to the new curriculum (NCV - National Certificate/s Vocational)...272
5.3.1.3 Abuse from colleagues of equal status...276
5.3.1.3.1 Main category 12: Negative experiences related to colleagues‟ inappropriate conduct...277
5.3.1.4 Abuse from students...280
5.3.1.4.1 Main category 13: Negative experiences related to students‟ dysfunctional conduct...280
5.3.1.5 Abuse from subordinates...282
5.3.1.5.1 Main category 14: Negative experiences related to disengagement...282
5.3.1.6 Harmful impact related to primary psychological violence...284
5.3.1.6.1 Main category 15: Experiencing negative psychological health effects...284
5.3.1.6.2 Main category 16: Experiencing negative biophysical health effects...298
xix
5.3.1.6.4 Main category 18: Experiencing negative social health effects...314
5.3.1.6.5 Main category 19: Experiencing negative economical health effects...318
5.3.1.6.6 Main category 20: Experiencing negative metaphysical health effects...323
5.3.1.7 Harmful impact related to secondary psychological violence...328
5.3.1.7.1 Main category 21: Negative experiences related to witnesses of psychological violence...329
5.3.1.8 Coping Strategies...330
5.3.1.8.1 Main category 22: Coping strategies to minimise the harmful effects of negative experiences...331
5.3.2 Summary of findings from interviews...336
5.4 QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE RESULTS: SYNTHESIS, TRIANGULATION & DISCUSSION OF THE NATURE AND EXPERIENCES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL VIOLENCE AND ITS IMPACT ON STAFF MEMBERS‟ HEALTH AT FET COLLEGES...346
5.4.1 Synthesis, triangulation and contextualisation of quantitative and qualitative results related to the nature and experience of psychological violence...346
5.4.1.1 The prevalence and severity of psychological violence...346
5.4.1.2 The sources of psychological violence...349
5.4.2 Synthesis, triangulation and contextualisation of quantitative and qualitative results related to the impact of psychological violence...350
5.4.2.1 The psychological context...350
5.4.2.2 The biophysical context...351
5.4.2.3 The spiritual context...352
xx
5.4.2.5 The metaphysical context...354
5.5 SUMMARY...355
CHAPTER 6: PREVENTATIVE AND SUPPORTIVE STRATEGIES TO ADDRESS PSYCHOLOGICAL VIOLENCE AT FET COLLEGES...356
6.1 INTRODUCTION...356
6.2 APPROACHES TO PSYCHOLOGICAL VIOLENCE IN THE WORKPLACE...356
6.2.1 The Contingency approach...357
6.2.2 The Multi-level approach...357
6.2.3 The approach used towards the proposal of strategies for FET Colleges...358
6.3 PROPOSED STRATEGIES AND LEVELS OF IMPLEMENTATION ...361
6.3.1 National level strategies ...361
6.3.1.1 Increased awareness and advocacy...361
6.3.1.2 Legislation and litigation...363
6.3.1.3 Effective management of changes...366
6.3.2 Organisational level strategies...367
6.3.2.1 Organisational culture change...367
6.3.2.2 Psychological violence policy...369
6.3.2.3 Organisational structure change and improved communication...372
6.3.2.4 A 360-degree feedback performance appraisal system...374
xxi
6.3.2.6 Training...378
6.3.2.7 Work-life balance policies ...379
6.3.2.8 Recognition incentives...380
6.3.3 Leadership level strategies...382
6.3.3.1 Leadership screening and selection...382
6.3.3.2 Leadership training...382
6.3.3.3 Leadership development...383
6.3.3.3.1 Transformational leadership ...384
6.3.3.3.2 Emotional intelligence ...384
6.3.4 Group level strategies...385
6.3.4.1 Peer group support ...385
6.3.4.2 Group representation: Workplace forum & Trade unions...387
6.3.5 Dyad level strategies...388
6.3.5.1 Address the bullying dynamic ...389
6.3.5.2 Coaching...391
6.3.5.3 Mediation and arbitration...393
6.3.6 Individual level strategies ...395
6.3.6.1 Individual strategies directed at the nature of psychological violence ...395
6.3.6.1.1 Individual strategies directed at a hostile organisation culture ...396
6.3.6.1.2 Individual strategies directed at excessive pressure and unmanageable workload...397
xxii
6.3.6.1.4 Individual strategies directed at structural violence ...400
6.3.6.1.5 Individual strategies directed at autocracy and intimidation, unfair demands, verbal abuse and criticism, public humiliation and lack of recognition ...401
6.3.6.2 General individual strategies directed at the impact of psychological violence on health ...401
6.3.6.2.1 Individual strategies directed at psychological health impact ...403
6.3.6.2.2 Individual strategies directed at bio-physical health impact ...407
6.3.6.2.3 Individual strategies directed at spiritual health impact ...410
6.3.6.2.4 Individual strategies directed at ecological health impact ...410
6.3.6.2.5 Individual strategies directed at metaphysical health impact ...412
6.4 EVALUATION AND FEEDBACK ...413
6.4.1 Evaluation...413
6.4.1.1 Assess the work environment ...413
6.4.1.2 Monitor the work environment ...414
6.4.2 Feedback for review...414
6.5 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF THE MULTI-LEVEL APPROACH ...415
6.6 THE DUTY OF THE EMPLOYER TO ADDRESS PSYCHOLOGICAL
VIOLENCE AND DERIVED BENEFITS THEREOF FOR FET COLLEGES...421
6.7 SUMMARY...422
CHAPTER 7: SUMMARY, LIMITATIONS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS....423
7.1 INTRODUCTION...423
xxiii 7.3 CONCLUSIONS...427 7.3.1 Sub-Hypothesis 1...427 7.3.2 Sub-Hypothesis 2...428 7.3.3 Sub-Hypothesis 3...430 7.3.4 Sub-Hypothesis 4...432 7.3.5 Sub-Hypothesis 5...433 7.3.6 Sub-Hypothesis 6...434 7.3.7 Sub-Hypothesis 7...435 7.3.8 Main Hypothesis...435 7.4 RECOMMENDATIONS...436 7.4.1 General recommendations...436
7.4.2 Recommendations concerning future research...437
7.5 FINAL CONCLUSION...438
xxiv
LIST OF TABLES
Table 4.1 Staff composition of study population...104
Table 4.2 Administration and academic staff...105
Table 4.3 Management and employees (non-management staff)...105
Table 4.4 Number of respondents (study population) and non-respondents...106
Table 4.5 Staff composition - qualitative investigation group...108
Table 4.6 Administration and academic staff...108
Table 4.7 Management and employees (non-management staff)...109
Table 4.8 Age...109
Table 4.9 Gender...110
Table 4.10 Appointment...110
Table 4.11 Location of Institution...111
Table 4:12 Marital status...111
Table 5.1 Age of respondents...141
Table 5.2 Gender of respondents...141
Table 5.3 Marital status of respondents...142
Table 5.4 Position of respondents...142
Table 5.5 Work experience of respondents...143
Table 5.6 Employer of respondents...143
Table 5.7 Location of institution of respondents...144
xxv
Table 5.9 The least prevalent psychological violence experiences...147
Table 5.10 The most severe psychological violence experiences...150
Table 5.11 The least severe psychological violence experiences...153
Table 5.12 The sources of psychological violence...155
Table 5.13 Prevalence of reactions to psychological violence...157
Table 5.14 Severity of reactions to psychological violence...160
Table 5.15 KMO and Bartlett‟s Test of sampling adequacy...166
Table 5.16 Communalities for extracted factors on prevalence...167
Table 5.17 Pattern matrix - prevalence of psychological violence...169
Table 5.18 Factor 1: Dysfunctional corporate communication...172
Table 5.19 Factor 2: Public humiliation...173
Table 5.20 Factor 3: Exclusion and barring...173
Table 5.21 Factor 4: Attacks on personal standing...173
Table 5.22 Factor 5: Credit being stolen and excessively monitored...174
Table 5.23 Factor 6: Verbal and non-verbal abuse and targeting...174
Table 5.24 Factor 7: Unfair demands and lack of recognition...175
Table 5.25 Factor 8: Being undermined and criticised...176
Table 5.26 Factor 9: Hostility and mobbing...176
Table 5.27 Factor 10: Autocracy and intimidation...177
Table 5.28 Factor 11: Attempts to oust one...177
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Table 5.30 Factor 13: Hostile organisation culture...178
Table 5.31 Factor 14: Discounting and separation...179
Table 5.32 Reliability of factors - prevalence and severity...179
Table 5.33 Means of factors - prevalence and severity...180
Table 5.34 Means of the most prevalent psychological violence factors...181
Table 5.35 Means of the least prevalent psychological violence factors...182
Table 5.36 Means of the most severe psychological violence factors...183
Table 5.37 Means of the least severe psychological violence factors...183
Table 5.38 Effect sizes for prevalence related to gender...188
Table 5.39 Effect sizes for severity related to gender...188
Table 5.40 Effect sizes for prevalence related to the employer...189
Table 5.41 Effect sizes for severity related to the employer ...190
Table 5.42 Effect sizes for prevalence related to age...191
Table 5.43 Effect sizes for severity related to age...192
Table 5.44 Effect sizes for prevalence related to position...193
Table 5.45 Effect sizes for severity related to position...194
Table 5.46 Effect sizes for prevalence to experience... 194
Table 5.47 Effect sizes for severity related to experience...200
Table 5.48 Effect sizes for prevalence related to location...204
Table 5.49 Effect sizes for prevalence related to marital status...206
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Table 5.51 Differences between groups for the prevalence of psychological violence...211
Table 5.52 Differences between groups for the severity of psychological violence...212
Table 5.53 Differences between groups related to campuses...214
Table 5.54 Differences between groups related to age...215
Table 5.55 Differences between groups related to position...216
Table 5.56 Differences between groups related to experience...217
Table 5.57 The frequency of health symptoms experienced before the onset of
psychological violence which did not become worse...219
Table 5.58 The frequency of health symptoms that became worse since the onset of
psychological violence...221
Table 5.59 Psychological symptoms that became worse since the onset of psychological violence ...222
Table 5.60 Physical symptoms that became worse since the onset of psychological violence...223
Table 5.61 The frequency of new health symptoms since the onset of psychological
violence...224
Table 5.62 New psychological health symptoms since the onset of psychological
violence...225
Table 5.63 New physical health symptoms since the onset of psychological
violence...226
Table 5.64 Negative experiences related to dysfunctional corporate communication...232
Table 5.65 Negative experiences related to abusive verbal communication...234
Table 5.66 Negative experiences related to abusive non-verbal communication...239
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Table 5.68 Negative experiences related to disengagement by management...250
Table 5.69 Negative experiences related to structural violence...254
Table 5.70 Negative experiences related to dysfunctional management...260
Table 5.71 Negative experiences related to managements‟ unfair demands...264
Table 5.72 Negative experiences related to structural violence by the Department of
Education...269
Table 5.73 Negative experiences related to excessive pressure, intimidation and poor planning from the Department of Education...270
Table 5.74 Negative experiences related to the new curriculum (NCV - National Certificate Vocational)...272
Table 5.75 Negative experiences related to colleagues‟ inappropriate conduct...277
Table 5.76 Negative experiences related to students‟ dysfunctional conduct...280
Table 5.77 Negative experiences related to disengagement...282
Table 5.78 Experiencing negative psychological health effects...285
Table 5.79 Experiencing negative biophysical health effects...299
Table 5.80 Experiencing negative spiritual health effects...308
Table 5.81 Experiencing negative social health effects...315
Table 5.82 Experiencing negative economical health effects...319
Table 5.83 Experiencing negative metaphysical health effects...323
Table 5.84 Negative experiences related to witnesses of psychological violence...329
Table 5.85 Coping strategies to minimise the harmful effects of negative
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 4.1 Concurrent Triangulation Design...102
Figure 5.1 Dendogram of the three identified clusters...210
Figure 6.1 Process towards the implementation of strategies for FET Colleges ...360
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LIST OF ANNEXURES
Annexure A: Memorandum from CEO to each Campus Manager ...463
Annexure B: Permission to conduct research letters ...464
Annexure C: Letter of consent ...466
Annexure D: Psychological Violence Scale (Survey instrument & descriptive statistics results of the Psychological Violence Scale)...469
Annexure E: Symptom Checklist (Survey instrument & Symptom Checklist results)
...487
Annexure F: Results of qualitative research - themes, main categories, subcategories & quotes ...491
Annexure G: Ethical clearance ...636
Annexure H: Statistical consultation letter ...637
1
CHAPTER 1ORIENTATION, MOTIVATION AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Much research has already been conducted in the field of Educational Psychology on stress that teachers and lecturers experience, inherent to the nature of their profession (Oberholzer, 2006:4). Although general stressors and causative factors have been identified, limited research and knowledge still exists on the nature and impact of psychological violence as a stressor on the health of educators in South Africa where the educational sector is currently characterised by drastic and continuous change. This applies more so in the Further Education and Training (FET) sector at present (cf par. 1.8.3.3). According to Ellis (2007), the incidence of psychological violence rises concurrently with change and transformation in organisations. Therefore, the possibility that staff members at FET Colleges are subjected to psychological violence cannot be ruled out.
Psychological violence causes severe stress to targets but organisations often tend to ignore its existence or do not give due attention to it (Blase & Blase, 2003; Namie in the Workplace Bullying Institute (WBI) Labor Day Surveys, 2008). However, psychological violence cannot be ignored due to its serious negative consequences to the health of the individual as well as the teaching-learning process (Anon, 2007a in the Teacher Support Network; Kirsten, 2007:6-8; Blase & Blase, 2008:263; United Kingdom (UK) National Workplace Bullying Advice Line, 2010a:5, 2010b:1, 2010c:2). This study will also confirm that psychological violence has negative consequences to the health of educators.
Research revealed that even when psychological violence is recognised as such, targets receive limited support, if any, from their colleagues and management (Namie in the WBI Labor Day Surveys, 2008). On the contrary, targets of psychological violence are often abandoned by colleagues and the system (Namie & Namie, 2009a:111; UK National Workplace Bullying Advice Line, 2010d:3, 2010e:1, 2010f:3, 2010g:10). It is therefore vital to recognise and expose psychological violence. It is also important to realise its negative effects on individual health and the organisations in which it occurs. Only then can the problem of psychological violence be appropriately addressed.
1.2 ORIENTATION, MOTIVATION & STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
The general aim of this study is to investigate psychological violence experienced by staff members at Further Education and Training Colleges (FET Colleges) and related to this, to propose preventative and supportive strategies to address the problem of psychological
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violence at FET Colleges. If staff members experience psychological violence from their interaction with superiors, colleagues and students, it may have serious negative consequences for their health and wellness, as well as the whole teaching-learning process and the organisations in which it prevails.
Physical violence in the workplace has received the necessary attention and recognition, but the existence of psychological violence has long been underestimated (Di Martino, 2003:1). As early as 1983, the International Labour Organisation (ILO) stated in their report that psychological violence should receive the same emphasis as physical violence, owing to its severe consequences on health (ILO, 1998:3). Psychological violence is not only a serious form of violence, but evidence suggests that it is more prevalent than, and has consequences as severe as physical violence (ILO, 1998; Keashly, 2007).
Psychological violence is emerging as a priority concern in workplaces, leading to a new awareness and re-evaluation of the importance of all psychological risks at work (Di Martino, 2003:1; Wiskow, 2003:6; ILO, 2006). Psychological violence does not only cause harm to the victim‟s physical and psychological health, but may also negatively affect the victim‟s income, livelihood, mental, spiritual, moral, and social life (Steinman, 2003:3; Namie & Namie, 2009a:4).
Psychological violence, such as mobbing, bullying and harassment, affect all sectors and categories of workers (Einarsen, 1999; Steinman, 2003:1; Namie in the 2008 WBI Labor Day Surveys). Ellis (2007) claims that one in two United Kingdom (UK) employees have been bullied during the course of their working lives. The Bergen Bullying Research Group (2010a:1) declares that every tenth employee in Great Britain is exposed to workplace bullying. In South Africa, a high majority of 78% of employees indicated that they had been bullied or victimised at least once in their careers (Work Trauma Foundation, 2008).
While one would like to believe that the education sector with its mission of service to others would generally be safe from psychological violence, evidence suggests that the prevalence of psychological violence amongst teachers is considerably high (Ellis, 2007; Blase & Blase, 2008:295; UK National Workplace Bullying Advice Line, 2010a:1). International research indicates that teachers form one of the largest occupational groups experiencing psychological violence (Einarsen, 1999; Holmes & Page, 2003).
Psychological violence is more likely to occur in organisations where there is a threat of redundancy, organisational change and restructuring, reform or where job insecurity and excessive workloads resulting in high levels of stress is experienced (Neuman, 2000a; Ellis, 2007; Hauge, Skogstad & Einarsen, 2009:349). Given that FET Colleges in South Africa are currently in the process of transformation, reform and change - the employer changing from the
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Department of Education to the College Council, the introduction of the Outcomes Based Education curriculum, the restructuring of posts and the implementation of Employment Equity and affirmative action - which may lead to staff being exposed to psychological violence at FET Colleges.
Psychological violence is costly to the individual and organisations (Ellis, 2007; Anon 2007b:1; Meyers, 2006a; Meyers, 2006b). In the United Kingdom, the estimated cost of lost working time and legal fees associated with the impact of workplace bullying was estimated at £4 billion per annum (Sheehan, 1999:60). According to Einarsen (1999) and Namie and Namie (2009a:123) many victims of psychological violence suffer from symptoms related to Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder. Field (2002) not only supports the view of the above-mentioned authors, but adds to it that psychological violence taking place over the course of years is a constant stressor that results in cumulative injury to a victim‟s health, reflected by Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, and includes an elevated risk of cardiovascular disease, high blood pressure, ulcers, a compromised immune system, disability, irritability, sleep problems, excessive guilt, constant anxiety, hyper-vigilance, reactive depression and suicidal thoughts (Field, 2002; Holmes & Page, 2003; Namie in the Report on Abusive Workplaces, 2003:17). One of the most serious consequences of psychological violence is the incidence of suicide among victimised individuals (ILO, 1998; Neuman, 2000b; Namie & Namie, 2009a:312). According to Monaghan (2006), psychological violence is the main cause of suicide in Ireland.
In South Africa, where a high staff turnover among teachers and lecturers is prevalent, psychological violence can have a crippling effect on the education sector. According to Meyers (2006b), bullied employees may become less willing to work as hard or as efficiently. The 2007 United States (US) Workplace Bullying Survey revealed that 77% of people lost their jobs due to workplace bullying (Namie, 2007:17). In the UK, more teachers are presently leaving the profession than entering it (UK National Workplace Bullying Advice Line, 2010a:28). Moreover, employees who witness bullying behaviour may also experience health and stress-related problems and lose faith in the organisation (Ballinger, 2007; Namie & Namie, 2009a:293; Bergen Bullying Research Group, 2010a:1). Staff members who suffer from burnout and stress are negatively affected; impacting on and affecting their students and the education system as a whole (Kickbush & Jones, 1996:4). Finally, psychological violence is appropriately recapitulated by Hauge, Skogstad and Einarsen (2010:1) as a more crippling and devastating problem for employees than all other work-related stress disorders put together and may be seen as a rather severe form of social stress at the workplace.
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Against the background of the above, the researcher wishes to find answers to the following research questions:
1) What is the nature of psychological violence?
2) What is the impact that psychological violence may have on the health of victims?
3) What are the prevalence, severity and sources of psychological violence experienced by staff members at FET Colleges?
4) How do staff members at FET Colleges experience psychological violence?
5) What is the impact of psychological violence on staff members‟ health at FET Colleges?
6) How do staff members at FET Colleges cope with psychological violence?
7) What kind of preventative and supportive strategies can be proposed to address and ameliorate psychological violence and its impact on staff members‟ health at FET Colleges?
1.3 REVIEW OF RELEVANT LITERATURE
Most of the research on harassment and bullying in the workplace has been undertaken internationally and particularly in the health sector (Cooper & Swanson, 2002:5; Leather, 2002:7). Workplace bullying was first studied in Sweden in the 1980‟s (Lutgen-Sandvik, 2006:5). Heinz Leymann is considered the pioneer in the field. Leymann‟s initial interest in school bullying expanded to include bullying at work, which he termed “mobbing” (Sheehan, Barker & Rayner, 1999; Namie & Namie, 2009b). A British journalist, Andrea Adams brought the issue to the public‟s attention in 1990 through BBC‟s broadcasts and the term “bullying” emerged for the first time (Lutgen-Sandvik, 2006:5). Research on the topic soon followed in Norway and Finland which stimulated further research on bullying in the United Kingdom, Australia, Austria, Bangladesh and other countries (Lutgen-Sandvik, 2006:5).
In 2001, Einarsen and Hoel developed an instrument to measure the prevalence of workplace bullying, namely the Negative Acts Questionnaire (NAQ) that was revised in 2006 to become the Revised Negative Acts Questionnaire (NAQ-R) (Einarsen & Hoel, 2001; Einarsen & Hoel, 2006). Currently, the NAQ is the most frequently used instrument to measure the prevalence of workplace bullying (Namie & Namie, 2009b). Since the development of the NAQ, international studies that measured the prevalence, frequency and intensity of workplace bullying followed, and comparative studies between countries could be conducted (Salin, 2005; Lutgen-Sandvik, 2006; Nielsen, Skogstad, Matthiesen, Glaso, Aasland, Notelaers & Einarsen, 2009:95; Bergen
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Bullying Research Group, 2010b:1). The nature, causes, sources and effects of workplace bullying were also studied in various international workplaces to gain a better understanding of the phenomenon (ILO, 1998; Einarsen, 1999; Rayner, Sheehan & Barker, 1999; Namie & Namie, 2003:64; Salin, 2005:2; Lutgen-Sandvik, 2006; Ellis, 2007; Einarsen, 2007; WBI, 2008, 2009 & 2010a).
With reference to the international education sector, researchers such as Lewis (1999 & 2004) studied workplace bullying at further and higher education institutions in the United Kingdom. Blase and Blase (2003 & 2008) investigated the mistreatment of teachers at the hand of principals in the United States (US) and Canada whilst Fox and Stallworth (2010) researched the factors that moderate public school teachers‟ responses to violence and bullying.
By and large, the findings of the above-mentioned studies revealed that psychological violence is rife among educators, thereby confirming the findings of the ILO that educators are indeed a high-risk group experiencing the phenomenon (ILO, 1998; Holmes & Page, 2003). Moreover, international research universally pointed towards the negative and serious consequences of psychological violence on the health, well-being and job satisfaction of victims (Einarsen, Matthiesen & Skogstad, 1998; Lewis, 1999; Blase & Blase, 2003; Namie in the 2003 Report on Abusive Workplaces; Anon, 2007a in the Teacher Support Network; Einarsen & Raknes cited in Einarsen, 2007; Blase & Blase, 2008:263; Fox & Stallworth, 2010:5).
In South Africa, awareness about workplace violence and bullying only started in the 1990‟s. Since 1997, Steinman was instrumental in increasing awareness about workplace violence and bullying in South Africa through extensive research, publications, national networking and in founding the Workplace Dignity Institute (previously Work Trauma Foundation) (Steinman, 2007:3, Work Trauma Foundation, 2008; Botha, 2008:4). As a result, more South African employers are now taking steps to prevent workplace bullying and violence (Steinman, 2007:31). For example, the Gauteng Department of Health has a policy on “the prevention of workplace violence” (physical and psychological) and this was integrated with their employee wellness policy (Workplace Dignity Institute, 2012).
In 2001 and 2002, Steinman investigated workplace violence in the South African Health Sector (Steinman, 2003). The study of Steinman was sponsored by the International Labour Organisation (ILO), the World Health Organisation (WHO), Public Services International and the International Council of Nurses and published on the WHO website (Steinman, 2003). In 2007, Steinman researched the health impact of workplace violence at a South African University and Pietersen (2007) investigated workplace bullying amongst academia. Studies were also conducted in the South African industry. For example, Denton and Van Lill, (cited in De Wet, 2010:1450) studied bullying in the South African industry and Botha (2008) conducted an
6
autoethnography to relay her experiences of being bullied as an employee at a South African organisation, to mention a few. Steinman‟s second PhD, namely “A Draytonian Changemaker – the Story of a Social Entrepreneur”, an autoethnography, about her personal experiences as change agent of workplace violence and bullying in South Africa, also contributed significantly to the psychological violence literature (Steinman, 2008a).
Although educators were identified internationally as a high-risk group experiencing psychological violence (ILO, 1998; Holmes & Page, 2003), research literature concerning psychological violence in the South African education sector is still limited. Apart from the two studies conducted at South African Universities as mentioned in the previous paragraph, Kirsten (2007), De Vos (2010) and De Wet (2010) conducted phenomenological studies in South African schools. However, the studies of these authors (Kirsten et al., 2005; Kirsten, 2007; De Vos, 2010; De Wet, 2010) were all phenomenological (qualitative) of nature and at present, no studies have been conducted on psychological violence at South African FET Colleges. These are considered as gaps in the literature. Therefore, this study will focus on psychological violence at FET Colleges by means of mixed-methods research.
With the exception of Matsela (2009) who studied the impact of psychological violence on the holistic health (cf par. 1.8.3.2; par. 3.3) of teachers in Lesotho, most research primarily focuses on the impact of psychological violence on the physical, psychological or emotional well-being, work performance and social relationships of victims (Blase & Blase, 2003; Blase & Blase, 2008) and not on the impact on holistic health, as described by Kirsten (2004; Kirsten, Van der Walt & Viljoen, 2009) which consists of five interrelated contexts of human existence, namely the psychological, biophysical, spiritual, ecological and metaphysical contexts (cf par. 1.8.3.2; par. 3.3). The former is also considered as a literature gap and therefore this study will investigate the impact of psychological violence on the holistic health of victims, including the five contexts of human existence (cf par. 1.8.3.2; par. 3.3).
Research indicates that psychological violence is characterised by power disparity or dysfunctional power differential relationships (where a person may feel that he is unable to defend himself against it), and that perpetrators are mostly appointed in authoritative positions over victims (cf par. 2.4.7; Ellis, 2007; Namie in the US Workplace Bullying Survey, 2007:10 &12; Blase & Blase, 2003 & 2008; Namie & Namie, 2009a:303; Hoel et al. cited in Hauge et al., 2009:351). As limited research currently exists with regard to the sources or perpetrators of psychological violence in the South African education sector, it needs to be investigated who these perpetrators are (for example superiors, Department of Education, colleagues of equal status - cf next paragraph) and whether psychological violence in the South African education sector, more specifically FET Colleges, is also characterised by power disparity and power abuse by superiors, where victims may feel unable to adequately defend themselves.
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Although there are various sources of psychological violence (cf par. 2.5), this study will only investigate possible sources or perpetrators, in the context of South African FET Colleges namely the Department of Education, Management Committee (Manco) consisting of a Chief Executive Officer (CEO) and two deputy CEO‟s, superiors at the Corporate Centre (include Deans, senior management - Human Resources manager, Programme managers), superiors at campuses (Campus Manager, Heads of Divisions (HOD‟s), Senior Lecturers and administration managers), students, parents and the community.
Another identified limitation in literature is the lack of an available instrument that measures the prevalence, severity and source(s) of psychological violence (cf sources in previous paragraph). Therefore, a Psychological Violence Scale was developed to measure the prevalence, severity and possible source(s) of psychological violence at South African FET Colleges (cf Annexure D). The Psychological Violence Scale includes the possible sources applicable to FET Colleges (cf previous paragraph). In addition, other possible sources of psychological violence as indicated in the literature, such as colleagues of equal status (Rayner, 1997:206; Ellis, 2007; UK National Workplace Bullying Advice Line, 2010a:28) and subordinates (Namie in the US Workplace Bullying Survey, 2007:11) are also included on the Psychological Violence Scale (cf Annexure D).
Although strategies to assist the victims of psychological violence are proposed in national (Steinman, 2007; Botha, 2008), and in international literature (Sheehan et al., 1999; Ferris, 2004; Anon, 2007a in the Teacher Support Network; Steinman, 2007; Rayner & McIvor, 2008; Salin, 2008; Namie & Namie, 2009a & 2009b; Saam, 2009), strategies to address psychological violence in the South African education sector, more specifically FET Colleges, are currently not available or non-existent. Therefore the strategies forthcoming from this study will also fill the former identified gap. However, appropriate strategies can only be proposed after the problem, in this case psychological violence at FET Colleges has been investigated which is intended with this study. All in all it is envisaged that this study will contribute to psychological violence literature in general and to literature related to psychological violence at FET Colleges in particular.
1.4. RESEARCH AIMS OF THE STUDY
1.4.1 General research aim
The general research aim of this study is to investigate psychological violence experienced by staff members at Further Education and Training Colleges (FET Colleges) and related to this, to propose preventative and supportive strategies to address the problem of psychological violence at FET Colleges.
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1.4.2 Specific research aimsRelated to the general research aim, the specific research aims are to:
1) Investigate through a literature study what the nature of psychological violence is.
2) Investigate through a literature study what impact psychological violence may have on the health of victims.
3) Investigate the prevalence, severity and sources of psychological violence among staff members at FET Colleges.
4) Investigate how these staff members experience psychological violence.
5) Investigate the impact of psychological violence on staff members‟ health at FET Colleges.
6) Investigate how these staff members at FET Colleges cope with psychological violence.
7) Propose preventative and supportive strategies to address and ameliorate psychological violence and the impact thereof on staff members‟ health at FET Colleges.
1.5 HYPOTHESES
1.5.1 Main hypothesis
Staff members at FET Colleges experience psychological violence and it has an impact on their health and they have limited strategies to cope with at their disposal.
1.5.2 Sub-hypotheses
1) Psychological violence consists of violent behaviour.
2) Psychological violence has a serious impact on the health of victims.
3) Psychological violence has a high prevalence, is severe and has various sources at FET Colleges.
4) Staff members at FET Colleges experience psychological violence negatively.
5) Psychological violence has an adverse impact on staff members‟ health at FET Colleges.
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6) Staff members at FET Colleges have developed limited strategies to cope with the effects of psychological violence.
7) Preventative and supportive strategies can be proposed to address and ameliorate psychological violence and the impact thereof on staff members‟ health at FET Colleges.
1.6 METHOD OF STUDY
Research questions will be answered as follows:
1) What is the nature of psychological violence?
A literature study will be undertaken in the fields of Education, Psychology, Educational Psychology, Social Psychology, Industrial Psychology, Sociology, Business Sociology, Economics, Business Economics and Communication Science to answer this question.
2) What is the impact that psychological violence may have on the health of victims?
A literature study in the fields of Education, Psychology, Economics, Industrial Psychology, Sociology, Medical Science, and Physiology will be undertaken to answer this question.
3) What are the prevalence, severity and sources of psychological violence experienced by staff members at FET Colleges?
The prevalence, severity and sources of psychological violence will be investigated through the quantitative research method. For the quantitative part of the study, a Psychological Violence Scale, designed for the purpose of this study, will be used to measure the prevalence, severity and sources of psychological violence experienced by FET College staff members. Each section will have an interval scale (Likert scale) attached to it with numbered points to measure marked responses of candidates (cf Annexure D).
4) How do staff members at FET Colleges experience psychological violence?
This question will be answered by using the qualitative research method by means of semi-structured interviews.
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The impact on staff members‟ health at FET Colleges will be investigated by using both quantitative and qualitative research methods (mixed-methods research). For the quantitative part of the study, a Symptom Checklist (Annexure E) will be used to indicate bio-psychological symptoms as a reflection of the impact that psychological violence has on staff members‟ health. For the qualitative part of the study, semi-structured interviews will be used to investigate the impact of psychological violence on staff members‟ health (cf health – par. 1.8.3.2).
6) How do staff members at FET Colleges cope with psychological violence?
This question will be investigated through the qualitative research method by means of semi-structured interviews.
7) What kind of preventative and supportive strategies can be proposed to address and ameliorate psychological violence and its impact on staff members‟ health at FET Colleges?
On the basis of the findings of the research, a literature study will be conducted to propose preventative and supportive strategies that will address and ameliorate psychological violence and its impact on staff members‟ health at FET Colleges.
1.7 LITERATURE STUDY
Various sources will be used to conduct the literature review. However, only literature and research that falls within the scope and research problem of this study will be used. The literature will include theories, models and definitions necessary as a foundation for this study. Applicable and recent research will be explored (cf par. 8 - Bibliography).
Relevant academic books and journal articles will be used to compile the literature study and to develop a conceptual framework (Chapters 2, 3 & 6). Current research books, including mixed-methods research, will be used to compile the literature study related to the research design and research methodology (Chapter 4) and for the empirical research as described in Chapter 5 (Neuman, 2006; Creswell & Plano Clark, 2007; Maree, 2007; Bergman, 2008; Mouton, 2008; Anderson, 2009; Creswell, 2009).
When relevant academic books cannot be obtained, the researcher will have to rely on journal articles available from the University‟s search engines (EBSCO Host - Academic search primer, ERIC; Emerald). Journal articles will also be used to obtain the most recent research findings related to this study and to ensure the literature review is regularly updated and stays current.
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Journal articles also contain the research of the most prominent researchers in the field of study.
Although the researcher will include the most recent research and information, previous medical research (Hafen, Karren, Frandsen & Smith, 1996) and the surveys of Namie (in the Workplace Bullying Institute, 2000, 2003, 2007, 2008 & 2009) will be used since some of the information needed for this study is not available in later and recent surveys or information sources. The 2003 and 2009 editions of The Bully at Work (Namie & Namie, 2003 & 2009a) and both studies of Blase and Blase (2003 & 2008) will be used because some of the information needed for this study is not discussed in recent sources. The original book of Frankl (1998) will be used to gain a better understanding of spiritual health (cf par. 3.4.3).
The researcher will also use newspaper reports related to the research topic. Dictionaries will be used to clarify concepts and terms. Theses and dissertations that relate to this study will be used as well as papers presented at conferences since presented papers are not always available in article format.
Websites namely the Workplace Bullying Institute, the Work Trauma Foundation, the Workplace Dignity Institute, the Teacher Support Network, the UK National Workplace Bullying Advice Line and the International Association on Workplace Bullying and Harassment (IAWHB) amongst others, will be used to gain a better understanding of the research topic.
Keywords relevant to this study are: psychological violence, workplace bullying, mobbing,
harassment, health impact, multi-level strategies, preventative/supportive strategies, mixed-methodology, educators, FET Colleges.
1.8 PARADIGMATIC PERSPECTIVE
1.8.1 Paradigm
The word “paradigm” is derived from Greek and refers to a pattern, stereotypical example, model, theory, perception, assumption or frame of reference within which theories are constructed in a particular research area (Kirsten, 2001:10; Colman, 2009:546). This study is an educational psychological investigation into the nature and impact of psychological violence on staff members‟ health at FET Colleges. According to Kirsten (2001:10) and Oberholzer (2006:8), paradigms have a direct bearing on research and consist of the following four components: theories and laws to which researchers commit themselves;
methodologies and research techniques;
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assumptions made by the researcher as scientist.Data will be collected, analysed and constructed within the researcher‟s conceptual framework. It is therefore necessary to provide a profile of the researcher‟s personal frame of reference, experience and orientation as it relates to this study:
The researcher was previously employed at a FET College for twelve years as a Lecturer. During this time, the researcher was promoted to the position of Senior Lecturer (Head of Department) and later as HOD (Head of Division). After the empirical research of this study was completed, the researcher was employed as a Lecturer at North West University. The researcher is a registered as Psychometrist at the Health Professions Council of South Africa (HPCSA) and as a Chartered Human Resource Practitioner at the SABPP (South African Board for People Practitioners). The researcher is also the National Moderator of a module offered at FET Colleges, namely Public Relations N5.
Due to the nature of her work and in a professional capacity, the researcher had regular contact with staff members on all levels and at other FET Colleges in South Africa. Contact took place through discussions, workshops, meetings, examinations, local and national training. Other FET College staff members have shared their experiences of psychological violence with the researcher. The researcher also witnessed and personally experienced psychological violence as a FET College employee.
The above-mentioned enable the researcher to understand the nature and impact of psychological violence on staff members‟ health at FET Colleges.
1.8.2 Theoretical assumptions
The theoretical assumptions of this study can be summarised as follows:
Psychological violence consists of violent behaviour (Kirsten, 2007; cf par. 2.2.2; par. 2.2.3; par. 2.3.1 - par. 2.3.8). The prevalence of psychological violence in the workplace is high (Einarsen, 1999; ILO, 1998; Work Trauma Foundation, 2008; Keashly, 2007; Ellis, 2007) and the education sector is identified as a vulnerable workplace to experience psychological violence (ILO, 1998; Einarsen, 1999; Holmes & Page, 2003; Ellis, 2007).
Psychological violence seems to be more prevalent in organisations during organisational changes and reform and when a high level of stress is experienced (Ellis, 2007; Hauge et al., 2009:349). Although psychological violence may emanate from various perpetrators such as colleagues of equal status, students or clients, research indicates that psychological violence is
