University of Groningen
Desert Related Traditional Knowledge, Policies and Management in Wadi Allaqi, South
Eastern Desert, Egypt
Abdou Kandal, Hanaa Ali Hassan
DOI:
10.33612/diss.149297572
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Publication date: 2020
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Abdou Kandal, H. A. H. (2020). Desert Related Traditional Knowledge, Policies and Management in Wadi Allaqi, South Eastern Desert, Egypt. University of Groningen. https://doi.org/10.33612/diss.149297572
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Chapter 2
Traditional knowledge (TK)
In recent years, there has been a growing, worldwide interest of scholars in traditional
knowledge (TK). According to the World Bank (1998) TK may have a role in local-level
decision-making in agriculture, health care, food preparation, education, natural-resource
management and in a host of other activities related to rural communities. Its significance
for sustainable development was stressed by the Brundtland Report, Our Common Future
(1987) and the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro
in 1992. The concept of TK is also
incorporated in the Agenda 21 documents of the United Nations (UNESCO 2006) and the
International Convention on Biodiversity. Several studies encourage a better
understanding of TK and its potential applicability for the goals mentioned above
(Richards, 1985; Williams and Baines, 1993; Warren et al. 1995) and they also encourage
the protection and conservation of TK (WIPO 2008; Gosart 2013). Triggered by this
recognition, increasing numbers of governments, non-governmental organizations,
international conventions and other institutions and individuals acknowledged the
potential role of TK (Harhash 2012; EEAA 2014).
2.1 Defining TK
Literature on traditional knowledge does not present a distinct definition of the concept.
This is partly due to differences in backgrounds and perspectives of the authors, to
varying degrees. Terms like traditional knowledge (TK), indigenous knowledge (IK),
traditional ecological/environmental knowledge (TEK), local knowledge (LK) and
indigenous environmental knowledge (IEK) are used interchangeably and it is difficult to
draw sharp lines between them (Sillitoe 1998; Ellen and Harris 1996). Rÿser (2011)
argues that there is sufficient overlap between the various definitions to allow for their
interchangeability, although there are distinctions to be made between them. Others find
these terms not interchangeable nor synonymous (Kudngaongarm 2009; Mugabe 1998).
Because these different terms share closely related meanings and share many attributes,
such as being unwritten, customary, pragmatic, experiential, and many times having a
holistic scope, they are regularly used in the same context. Brush (2005) attributes the
distinction among those terms to the knowledge holders rather than to the knowledge
itself, and argues that traditional knowledge can be attributed to both indigenous peoples
and local communities. Thus, according to that perspective, traditional knowledge is a
broader category including other knowledge types or subsets, held by indigenous or local
communities. As reported by the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)
traditional knowledge may have been created by any individual or group of humankind,
whether indigenous or not (WIPO 2008).
According to Acharya and Shrivastava (2008) IK, TK, TEK generally refer to “the
long-standing traditions and practices of certain regional, indigenous, or local
communities”. A similar definition is provided by Sullivan for TK, IK and LK (2016). This
author says that these terms generally refer to “knowledge systems embedded in the
cultural traditions of regional, indigenous, or local communities”. Also Makinde and
Shorunke (2013) consider IK, TK, TEK and LK as "the knowledge systems held by
traditional community that is based on their experience and adaptation to a local culture
and environment is relevant for development especially in agriculture, arts, crafts,
medicine, music, natural resources management and theatre".
However, Turnbull (2009) attributes a specific meaning to traditional knowledge,
namely a “cumulative body of knowledge and beliefs, evolving by adaptive process and
handed down through generations by cultural transmission”. On the other hand, Hansen
and Van Fleet (2013) argue that there is no clear definition of the term TK but it generally
refers to “the long-standing traditions, practices, wisdom, knowledge, and teachings of
certain indigenous communities that are usually passed on orally”. Also, the WIPO agrees
that there is no specific definition of TK, but nevertheless, this organization has defined
TK itself as "Ideas developed by traditional communities and indigenous people, in a
traditional and informal way, as a response to the needs imposed by their physical and
cultural environments” (Srinivas 2008). Likewise, in 2002, the International Council for
Science (ICSU) defined TK as “a cumulative body of knowledge, know-how, practices
and representations maintained and developed by peoples with extended histories of
interaction with the natural environment”. But additionally, the ICSU underlines a
connection with “language, naming and classification systems, resource use practices,
ritual, spirituality and worldview”.
The definitions above have in common the accumulation of knowledge, skills and
experiences that a given society has developed and accumulated over time, based on
empirical observation and interactions with their environment and orally passed to next
generations. TK includes types of knowledge about traditional technologies of
subsistence tools and techniques for hunting, fishing, agriculture, celestial navigation,
midwifery, household economy, ethnoastronomy, ethnobotany and ecological
knowledge, traditional medicine, climate, trade and spiritual divination. They are seen as
crucial for the subsistence and improve the livelihood of local communities (Berkes 1993;
Sillitoe 2007).
According to Briggs et al. (1999) TK should be considered in a plural form and framed
as
“knowledges”: “there is a clear recognition that there is no one all-embracing
knowledge, but a range of knowledges, some perhaps better, some worse, but all relevant
to the people who hold them". These authors plea for the protection of TK as it is a central
part of identity of local communities (Briggs et al. 2007). In our view TK also encompasses
the wisdom, knowledge, and teachings of local communities and may find expression in
stories, legends, folklore, rituals, songs, laws, crafts, drawing, carving, folk music,
dancing, and sculpting. This knowledge is used to sustain the community and its culture,
as well as the biological resources necessary for the continued survival of the community
(Turner et al. 2000; Kala 2012).
2.2 Importance of TK
In the past two decades, there has been a growing global interest in traditional knowledge
systems. The Earth Summit held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1992 for environment and
development, acknowledged the role of indigenous and local peoples and their
knowledge. TK became a topic for anthropologists, environmental researchers,
biodiversity prospectors, development experts, businessmen, decision-makers and
academics in general, and of course for local people themselves. Numerous studies on
the potentially significant role of TK have been carried out in various fields (e.g. Briggs et
al. 2007; Lwoga et al. 2010). The inclusion of voices and priorities from local communities
in scientific and management projects led to more effective development strategies
(Huntington 2000; Ahmed et al. 2003; Briggs and Sharp 2004).
The worldwide challenge of sustainability has led to the recognition that TK needs
to be understood and incorporated into the global body of knowledge for the benefit of all
humankind (Rÿser 2012). Briggs and Sharp (2004) claimed a potential role of TK.
According to Briggs et al.
(2007) “If local environmental knowledges are to contribute
successfully to sustainable development practice in a meaningful way, it is vital that their
use in policy and planning is grounded in the economic and socio-cultural environments
in which they are found”.
As demonstrated below, TK seems to be instrumental in a way out of dilemmas in
development and can contribute to a balanced development instead of being an obstacle
for development as it was often seen formerly (Agrawal 1995). For example, DeWalt
(1994) and Pretty (1995) refer to the role and involvement of local people who by their TK
can improve the management of natural resources. Others point out the role of TK for
research aimed at improving environmental impact assessments (Brooke 1993; Inglis
1993; Stevenson 1996). The use of TK in ecological management plans and practices
can, according to Drew (2005), contribute to the improvement of conservation programs.
TK may also be useful for the understanding of ecological processes (Huntington 2000)
and thus guide biologists in ecological restoration and management systems (Nabhan
2000).
TK can also be effective as a source of socio-economic strategies for communities
facing serious environmental and health risks. Corburn (2003), Lwoga et al. (2010) and
Robinson and Wallington (2012) claim TK should be used to shape environmental policy
decisions and management solutions. According to McGregor (2004), TK can effectively
contribute to the understanding of developmental issues from the indigenous
perspectives. The latter is confirmed by the World Bank (1998) and TK is judged to be
helpful to generate complementary data in cases of management decisions with
insufficient scientific information in e.g. remote local communities (Gilchrist et al. 2005;
Chemilinsky 1991; Berkes et al. 2000). There is also growing evidence that TK can and
should play an important role in wildlife conservation, particularly in remote areas where
standard scientific approaches may be impractical (Gunn et al. 1988; Johannes 1998).
According to the 1998/99 World Development Report, knowledge, including TK, and not
capital, is the key to sustainable social and economic development (World Bank 1998).
Traditional knowledge is, however, an underutilized resource in development
projects with regard to local communities (World Bank 2004). It also meets skepticism in
scientific communities (Pierotti and Wildcat 2000). TK studies often do not follow the
accepted hypothetico-deductivist approach of the scientific method (Gunn et al. 1988),
nor have many studies undergone independent and blind repetition of inquiry.
Approaches by local communities of managing their natural resources have often not
been tested or approved to be useful for conservation (Gadgil and Berkes 1991; Krech
1999; Hansen 2002). Moreover, as is put forward by Berkes et al. (2001) skepticism on
the potential role of TK also refers to the many forms that TK can take across cultures
and to the possible mixture of desires, perspectives and accepted scientific attitude
towards data collection and resource management.
In spite of these skeptic voices, one may postulate that TK contributes to
conservation as it is rooted in cultural habits of the local people and their collaboration in
natural resource management cannot be missed. Local communities can have a potential
role in promoting sustainable development due a strong interwovenness with economic,
social, cultural and political conditions (UN 2008; Penha-Lopes and Henfrey 2019).
2.3 The dynamics of TK
Studies like those of Agrawal (1995), Flavier et al. (1995), Ellen and Harris (1996) and
Chambers (1997) have shed light on the dynamic and constantly evolving nature of TK.
Traditional knowledge is not a fixed body of knowledge but may rather be seen as fluid
and continually influenced by reflections and experimentation in a local community as well
as by contact with external systems. TK is the consequence of practical engagement in
everyday life and constantly reinforced by experience, trial and error (Agrawal 1995;
Bebbington 1993; Briggs et al. 1999). TK is thus dynamic, provisional, evolutionary,
ever-changing and not static, (Sillitoe 1998, 2007; Kalland 2000). According to Briggs et al.
(2007): “If a particular knowledge has a value in contributing to the household economy,
it will be used and re-worked. If it has no or only limited value, it will be replaced and
subsequently forgotten”. Rapid changes and loss of TK is a reality (Springuel 2004; Briggs
knowledge custodians, without a demonstrable plan to preserve their knowledge and
transfer it to future generations.
TK systems are influenced by modern knowledge systems that have come up with
better or more attractive alternatives, particularly the influence of modernization and the
western worldview resulting in cultural changes (Voeks and Leony 2004; Sibanda 2014).
The adaptability of TK makes it vulnerable, especially as it is transmitted orally
from generation to generation, relying on memory and therefore at risk of being lost for
future generations (Okorafor 2010). Odora Hoppers (2002) connected the erosion of TK
with an erosion of natural resources, low values being attributed to both. It is often difficult
to maintain TK as younger generations migrate to urban areas to find better life (Che Soh
and Omar 2012).
Keller et al. (2005) asserted the politics, changes in lifestyle, habitat loss and the
stigma associated with the use of traditional vegetation as food or medicine as the most
significant factors impacting TK. Briggs et al. (1993) and Springuel et al. (1997) added
the disappearance of species (as well as the appearance of some new species) as one
other factor affecting TK. Harsh environmental conditions such as drought, stress and
severe seasonal changes lead to natural habitat degradation (Chesson and Huntly 1997),
caused habitat loss and associated changes in social and economic systems (Anyinam
1995) and consequently affected TK. Introducing modern technology is a factor that can
cause serious degradation and desertification of rangelands (Upton 1995), also affecting
TK.
Of course, there have always been defenders and preservers of TK within local
communities. However, they often did not document this kind of knowledge, partly
because they were not able to do so, and notwithstanding a certain urgency to protect
own intellectual property in developing countries (Nwonwu 2008).
2.4 International perspective of TK regulation and application
The value of TK in environmental management, sustainable development, education,
health, cultural heritage, and economic development has been recognized in many
countries. Often, these countries aim to ensure that the use of TK results in social and
economic benefits to the knowledge owners (Twarog and Kapoor 2004). For example,
countries like Nigeria (Osuide 1999), Burkina Faso (Dakuyo 2004), South Africa (Republic
of South Africa 2004), Ghana (Bodeker 2010), Cameroon (Agbor and Naidoo 2011),
China (Yongfeng 2002) and Vietnam (Anil 2004) take the value of traditional medicine in
consideration. They have developed national health care policies in such a way that
traditional health systems are incorporated into their national health policies, stimulating
research and regulating a rational use of traditional medicine.
TK also has played a role in addressing some major socio-ecological problems,
including those related to climate change, and thus have contributed to a stronger
resilience with respect to natural disturbances and hazard management, e.g. in India
(Sethi et al. 2011), Zimbabwe (Mavhura et al. 2013), Ghana (Tambo 2016) and
Switzerland (von Glasenapp and Thornton 2011). In these cases, people lived in close
contact with nature and were able to observe the conditions around them. Often, they
were the first to identify any change. TK provided them, according to these authors, with
insights, based on the traditional, ages-old practices of prediction and management of
natural disasters such as ground movements, earthquakes and floods.
TK also showed its potential to contribute to the biodiversity conservation in Ghana
(Hens 2006), Lesotho Highlands (Mokuku and Mokuku 2004), Peru (Yupari et al. 2004)
and Himalaya, India (Negi 2010), based on traditional rules owned by the local people,
which may be implemented more rigorously than governmental laws. Traditional
prohibitions of fishing and hunting as well as the recognition of ecological value of
sanctuaries are key to involve traditional knowledge and practices in biodiversity
conservation and management.
The traditional crafts of local communities have also played a role in the national
economy of some countries. For example, Panama has an extensive legal framework for
the protection of traditional crafts (Espino 2004) and India has recognized the great
economic potential of handicrafts industry for the country (Bano 2016). The role of
traditional farming systems and related craftsmanship activities e.g. local food production,
represents a sustainable example of human integration with nature in Italy (Gobattoni et
al. 2015). In addition, traditional soil taxonomy in Nigeria provides the base for agricultural
Some countries recognize that environmental education can provide a vehicle to
incorporate TK into the school curriculum (O’Donoghue et al. 1999). South Africa's
curriculum policy mandates that both TK and environmental concerns have to be
integrated into all school-learning areas/subjects (Gopal and Sosial 2005; Le Grange
2012). The Governments of Canada (Usher 2000), Namibia (AFROL 2003) and
Bangladesh (Ahmed 2004) acknowledged TK especially in relation to natural resource
management for a more successful economy. Canada has recognized, respected and
protected the rights of indigenous communities, and has incorporated these principles
into its constitution, laws and national policies plans to ensure social and economic
benefits to the traditional knowledge owners. They offer opportunities for indigenous input
in self-government powers, control over social services such as education and health,
protected area planning, compensation payments, environmental assessment, land use
regulations, resources management and climate change, fisheries and wildlife. (Berkes
et al. 2007) and Philippines (Blanco 2000).
But there are many more countries that are working on the incorporation of TK in
their legislation, e.g. South Africa (Republic of South Africa 2004), Canada (Posey 1999)
and Peru (Tobin 2004). Other countries, e.g. Indonesia, Ethiopia and Tanzania are still
working on the development of their national based-TK policies, in order to protect and
use their TK and to make TK an effective instrument for the sustainable development.
Such a process is also essential to ensure conformity with related agreements and
conventions, where these countries do not have yet specific laws for protecting and using
TK (Irawan 2017; Allafrica no year; Shemsanga et al. 2018).
This overview of TK demonstrates an increasing recognition of TK. At the same
time, more research is needed, not only on how we can protect TK and safeguard TK for
the future, but also on how to institutionalize TK in a legal framework and to develop an
optimal way to make use of TK, not in the last place because of the global problems we
are currently facing.
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